Assignment-01:

 Detailed Construction of a Practical D.C. Generator

A D.C. generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy, operating based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. This assignment focuses on the constructional details
of a practical D.C. generator, breaking down its key components and their functions. These
components are fundamental to understanding how electrical machines work.
Magnetic Frame or Yoke:
 Function:
o Provides mechanical support to the poles and serves as a protective cover.

o Carries the magnetic flux generated by the poles.

 Material:
o Small machines often use cast iron, while larger machines use cast or rolled
steel.
 Design:
o Modern yokes are made by rolling steel slabs, welding them, and fitting them
with feet and terminal boxes.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes:
 Function:
o Spread the flux in the air gap to reduce reluctance by increasing the cross-
sectional area.
o Support the field coils.

 Material:
o Made from laminated annealed steel to minimize eddy current losses.

 Attachment Methods:
o Bolted through the yoke and pole body using screws.

o Steel bars bolted across the laminations.

Field or Pole Coils:

 Structure:
o Copper wires or strips are wound precisely and mounted over the pole cores.

 Function:
 o Generate the magnetic flux necessary for the operation when current flows
through them.
Armature Core:
 Function:
o Houses the armature conductors and provides a low-reluctance path for the
magnetic flux.
o Rotates and cuts the magnetic flux to induce electromotive force (EMF).

 Material and Design:

o Made from laminated steel discs (0.25–0.5 mm thick) with air ducts for
cooling. Larger armature cores are composed of segmented laminations to
avoid distortion.
Armature Windings:
 Structure:
o Flat, rectangular coils are insulated and placed in armature slots that are lined
with strong insulating materials.
 Function:
o Carry the current induced by the rotation of the armature.

Commutator:
 Function:
o Converts the alternating current (AC) induced in the armature windings to
direct current (DC).
 Material and Design:
o A cylindrical structure made of wedge-shaped copper segments, insulated with
mica layers. Each segment is connected to the armature windings using copper
lugs.
Brushes:
 Function:
o Transfer the current from the commutator to the external circuit.

 Material and Design:

o Made from carbon or graphite, and mounted in brush holders with springs to
maintain consistent contact.
Bearings:
  Function:
o Support the rotating shaft, reduce friction, and ensure smooth operation.

 Design:
o Ball bearings or roller bearings are typically used. Roller bearings are
preferred for heavy-duty applications.
Cooling System:
 Function:
o Prevents overheating by dissipating heat through air ducts and ventilation
systems.
The D.C. generator operates as a combination of mechanical and electrical components that
work together to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Each component, from the
magnetic yoke to the commutator, plays a critical role in maintaining the generator's
efficiency. A clear understanding of these components is crucial for students in the field of
electrical engineering.

 Characteristics of D.C. Generators

The characteristics of D.C. generators help explain their behavior and performance under
different operating conditions. The following three characteristics are critical in
understanding the generator’s output:
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E₀/If):

o Also known as the magnetic

or no-load saturation
characteristic, this curve
depicts the relationship
between the no-load
generated EMF (E₀) and the
field current (If) at a constant
speed.
o This characteristic is
consistent for all types of
D.C. generators. Data for this curve is gathered by operating the generator
without load, maintaining a constant speed, and gradually increasing the field
current while recording the terminal voltage.
o For shunt or series generators, the field winding is disconnected and connected
to an external supply during this process.
 o Behavior:

 The generated EMF (Eg) is proportional to the field flux (Φ), which is
directly related to If, thus Eg=kΦ. Even without field current, a small
EMF is induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles.
 As If increases, Eg increases linearly until the poles saturate. After
saturation, the flux becomes constant, causing Eg to level off. This
behavior mirrors a B-H magnetization curve.
2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Iₐ):
o This characteristic shows the relationship between the on-load generated EMF
(Eg) and the armature current (Ia).
o Due to the demagnetizing effects of armature reaction, the on-load EMF is
always lower than the no-load EMF. The internal characteristic curve is
obtained by subtracting the voltage drop caused by armature reaction from the
no-load voltage. Hence, the internal characteristic lies below the O.C.C. curve.
3. External or Load Characteristic (V/Iₗ):
o This characteristic represents the relationship between the terminal voltage (V)
and the load current (Iₗ).
o Terminal voltage is less than the on-load EMF due to voltage drops across the
armature and brush circuits. As a result, the external characteristic curve lies
beneath the internal characteristic curve.
o This curve is essential for understanding how the generator behaves under
load.
 Conditions for the Build-up of a Shunt Generator
To ensure proper voltage build-up in a shunt generator, the following conditions must be met:
1. Residual Magnetism: The field poles should retain enough residual magnetism to
induce an initial EMF.
2. Correct Field Connection: The field winding must work in harmony with the
residual flux to enhance the buildup of voltage.
3. Field Resistance: The field resistance should be less than a critical value to allow
sufficient current.
4. Prime Mover Speed: The generator must run at or above its rated speed.
5. No Load Condition: The voltage should build up without an external load initially.
6. Continuous Field Circuit: The field circuit must remain continuous without any
breaks.
These conditions are essential for the successful buildup of voltage in a shunt generator.

 EMF Equation of a DC Generator

The EMF equation of a DC generator can be derived using the basic principles of
electromagnetic induction. Let us define the following terms:

 ϕ = Magnetic flux per pole (in Weber)

 Z = Total number of armature conductors

 P= Number of poles in the machine

 A= Number of parallel paths in the armature winding

(For lap winding, A=P; for wave winding, A=2)

 N = Speed of the armature (in RPM)

 Eg = Generated EMF per parallel path (in Volts)

The total magnetic flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature is P×ϕ, where
ϕ is the magnetic flux per pole. This flux is the cause of the induced EMF in the armature
conductors. The time required for one revolution of the armature is given by:

dt=60 /N (seconds)

According to Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction, the induced EMF per conductor is:

d∅ Pϕ
=
dt 60/ N

This expression gives the EMF induced in a single conductor due to the changing magnetic
Z
flux. The total number of conductors in series per parallel path is: A

The total generated EMF in the generator is given by:

Pϕ Z
Eg= ×
60 /N A

Simplifying this expression, we get the general form of the EMF equation for a DC generator:

ZNPϕ
Eg=
60 A
Case 1: Lap Winding

For lap winding, the number of parallel paths A=P.

Therefore, the EMF equation becomes:

ZNϕ
Eg=
60

Case 2: Wave Winding

For wave winding, the number of parallel paths

A=2. Therefore, the EMF equation becomes:

ZNPϕ
Eg=
120

 Commutation in DC Generators
In a DC generator, the current induced in the armature conductors alternates. To make the
current flow in a unidirectional manner in the external circuit, the commutator is used. The
commutator reverses the direction of current flow as armature conductors pass from the
North pole (N-pole) to the South pole (S-pole), especially when they cross the magnetic
neutral axis (MNA).
The commutation process involves a moment where the armature coil is short-circuited as it
crosses the MNA. Ideal commutation requires the current reversal to be completed within this
short period to prevent sparking. When the reversal is incomplete, sparking occurs at the
brush-commutator interface, which gradually damages both the brushes and the commutator.
 Series and Compound-wound Generators
 Series Generator:

o The field windings in a

series generator are connected
in series with the armature,
carrying the full armature
 current. As the load current increases, the flux and generated EMF also
increase. However, at high loads, armature reaction causes the voltage to drop,
potentially even to zero at certain load currents.

o The field windings in a series generator are connected in series with the
armature, carrying the full armature current. As the load current increases, the
flux and generated EMF also increase. However, at high loads, armature
reaction causes the voltage to drop, potentially even to zero at certain load
currents.

 Compound-wound Generator:


o Compound-wound
generators address the
voltage drop issue of
shunt generators under
varying loads. By
adding additional turns
in series with the
armature, they maintain a more consistent voltage. Flat-compounded
generators maintain the voltage between no-load and full-load, while over-
compounded generators increase the voltage at full load for long-distance
transmission. Under-compounded generators are rarely used.
Each type of generator has its advantages and applications based on load demands and
distance requirements.