Renewable Energy

Integration to the Grid

 Renewable Energy
Integration to the Grid
A Probabilistic Perspective

Edited by
Neeraj Gupta
Anuradha Tomar
B Rajanarayan Prusty
Pankaj Gupta
MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission.
The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s
use or discussion of MATLAB® and Simulink® software or related products does not constitute
endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® and Simulink® software.

First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Neeraj Gupta, Anuradha Tomar, B Rajanarayan Prusty and
Pankaj Gupta; individual chapters, the contributors

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-0-367-74794-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-22264-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-27185-7 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003271857

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Editors .......................................................................................................................ix
Contributors ..............................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1 Renewable Energy Scenario of the World and Future Pattern ............. 1
Karan Singh Joshal, Ashiq Hussain Lone, Neeraj Gupta,
Anuradha Tomar, and Rakesh Sehgal

Chapter 2 Technical Challenges in Renewable Generations

and Their Integration to Grid ............................................................. 29
D. Blandina Miracle, Rajkumar Viral,
Pyare Mohan Tiwari, and Mohit Bansal

Chapter 3 Renewable Energy Integration Issues from Consumer

and Utility Perspective ....................................................................... 49
K. Pritam Satsangi, G. S. Sailesh Babu,
Bhagwan Das Devulapalli, and Ajay Kumar Saxena

Chapter 4 Voltage Issues in Power Networks with Renewable

Power Generation ............................................................................... 79
Sushil Kumar Gupta and Kapil Gandhi

Chapter 5 Reactive Power Management in Power Systems

Integrated with Renewable Generations........................................... 107
Satish Kumar and Ashwani Kumar

Chapter 6 Optimum Scheduling and Dispatch of Power Systems

with Renewable Integration .............................................................. 131
Abhishek Rajan and Bimal Kumar Dora

Chapter 7 Role of Stochastic Optimization for Power System

Operation and Decision-Making ...................................................... 165
Wen-Shan Tan and Mohamed Abdel Moneim Shaaban

Chapter 8 Dependence Modeling of Multisite Renewable Generations ........... 189

B Rajanarayan Prusty and Satyabrata Das
v
vi Contents

Chapter 9 Probabilistic Steady-State Analysis of Power Systems

Integrated with Renewable Generations........................................... 199
Vikas Singh, Tukaram Moger, and Debashisha Jena

Chapter 10 Risk Evaluation of Electricity Systems with Large

Penetration of Renewable Generations............................................. 239
Sheng Wang, Lalit Goel, and Yi Ding

Index ...................................................................................................................... 261

Preface
In recent days, there is a globally increasing interest in integrating renewable genera-
tions into the power systems. These generations are intermittent and highly volatile;
their integration into power systems dramatically affects the power system variables,
a significant concern in power system studies. The application of data analytics is
crucial in these studies. Hence, a book focusing on the various aspects of power
systems with integration of such renewable sources is the need of the hour. This
book is expected to instill in final-year graduate and postgraduate novice research-
ers the research interest on “application of probabilistic methods to power systems
integrated with renewable generations.” In addition to the academicians, this book
adds a new dimension for the engineers in the power industry to ascertain the level
of renewable penetration at a given location from system reliability in terms of prob-
ability values. A total of ten chapters are planned to cover in detail the various issues
emanated from renewable generation-rich power systems. Special attention is given
to adopting probabilistic approaches for uncertainty quantification, dependence
modeling, steady-state analysis, and risk assessment. Each chapter’s content is briefly
elucidated underneath.
Chapter 1 elaborates on renewable technologies, considering their present and
future scenarios, working operation, environmental impacts, and cost analysis. The
fact that renewable energy sources have full potential to change their status from
being a supplementary source to the primary source of energy-producing technology
is indicated.
Chapter 2 examines alternative renewable energy sources and thus evaluates the
different controllers, fault types, and different solutions. Moreover, the technical
challenges with the installations of renewable generations, case studies of mitiga-
tion of technical challenges, problems associated with integration at transmission
and distribution voltage level, and possible solutions to address renewable integration
challenges are discussed.
Chapter 3 emphasizes the importance of performance analysis and its param-
eters, as per standards, for a solar photovoltaic microgrid. Further, it applies the new
standard, IEC 61724: 2017, on the 40 kWp microgrid in Agra, India.
Chapter 4 briefs on various voltage issues occurring in the power system opera-
tion. Further, the impact of renewable energy integration on different prospects is
discussed in detail.
Chapter 5 presents the importance and management of reactive power with
renewable energy resources in the present market model condition. Some con-
ventional methods for reactive power management and assessment are also
explained. Critical issues with reactive power management like voltage stability
are addressed.
Chapter 6 is designed to shed light on various methods, practical constraints, and
challenges for the optimum dispatch of active and reactive powers both in the absence
and in the presence of renewable generations. Also, it emphasizes the modeling of the
intermittent nature of renewable generations and uncertainty in load demand.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 7 covers the state-of-the-art stochastic optimization techniques and

their applications in power system operation, emphasizing generation rescheduling.
Stochastic optimization principles are introduced, and the generation scheduling
problem amenable to stochastic optimization is presented. Further, stochastic opti-
mization categories, including robust optimization and chance-constrained program-
ming, are deliberated.
Chapter 8 provides a theoretical detail of various copula-based dependence
modeling steps for probabilistic power system analysis. The advantage of the copula
function compared to conventional Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient
in modeling the dependence in the part of the distribution where the association is
potent is deliberated comprehensively.
Chapter 9 presents the probabilistic assessment of renewable energy–integrated
power systems to analyze various uncertainty issues in transmission systems.
Probabilistic load flow methods, such as Monte-Carlo simulation, cumulant method,
and point estimation method, are explored by applying them to a sample 10-bus test
system.
Chapter 10 introduces the importance of spatial-temporal risk evaluation in
power systems. The time-space Markov modeling technique is proposed to charac-
terize the stochastic process of wind power and the dependencies over various loca-
tions. The operational reliabilities of gas-fired generators and power-to-gas facilities
are modeled in a multistage manner. The concept of traditional over-limit risk indices
is extended to quantify the spatial-temporal risk of the electricity system.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Editors
Neeraj Gupta, Ph.D., was born in Jammu, India in 1982. He received the B.E.
degree in Electrical Engineering from Jammu University, Jammu, India in 2005, the
M.E. degree in power system and electric drives from Thapar University, Patiala,
India in 2008, and the Ph.D. degree in power systems from the Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India in 2015. He was a faculty with the Electrical
and Instrumentation Engineering Department, Thapar University, from 2008 to 2009
and Adani Institute of Infrastructure Engineering, Ahmedabad, India in 2015. Since
2015, he has been working as a faculty with the Electrical Engineering Department,
National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India up to 2018. Presently he is work-
ing as an Assistant Professor in National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, India. He
is a senior member of IEEE and reviewer of all the reputed journals of power systems
in publishers like IEEE, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Wiley, IET, etc. His research
interests include uncertainty quantification of power system, probabilistic power sys-
tem, solar, wind, and electric vehicle technologies.

Anuradha Tomar has 12 years of experience in research and academics. She is cur-
rently working as an Assistant Professor in Instrumentation & Control Engineering
Division of Netaji Subhas University, Delhi, India. Dr. Tomar has completed her
postdoctoral research in Electrical Energy Systems Group in Eindhoven University
of Technology (TU/e), the Netherlands and has successfully completed European
Commission’s Horizon 2020, UNITED GRID and UNICORN TKI Urban Research
projects. She has received her B.E. degree in Electronics Instrumentation & Control
with Honours in the year 2007 from the University of Rajasthan, India. In the year
2009, she has completed her M.Tech. degree with Honours in Power System from the
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur. She has received her Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD). Dr. Anuradha
Tomar has committed her research work efforts toward the development of sustain-
able, energy efficient solutions for the empowerment of society and humankind.
Her areas of research interest are Operation & Control of Microgrids, Photovoltaic
Systems, Renewable Energy–Based Rural Electrification, Congestion Management in
LV Distribution Systems, Artificial Intelligent & Machine Learning Applications in
Power System, Energy Conservation and Automation. She has authored or coauthored
69 research/review papers in various reputed international and national journals and
conferences. She is an editor for books with international publications like Springer
and Elsevier. Her research interests include photovoltaic systems, microgrids, energy
conservation, and automation. She has also filled seven Indian patents on her name. Dr.
Tomar is a senior member of IEEE and a life member of ISTE, IETE, IEI, and IAENG.

B Rajanarayan Prusty (Senior Member, IEEE) is presently working as an Assistant

Professor (Sr. Grade) in the School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology (VIT), Vellore. He has obtained his Ph.D. from the National Institute of

ix
x Editors

Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal. He successfully delivers quality educa-

tion to the student community by developing a student-friendly environment. His
exceptional research work during Ph.D. work has led him to crown the prestigious
POSOCO Power System Awards (PPSA) for 2019 under the doctoral category by
Power System Operation Corporation Limited in partnership with FITT, IIT Delhi.
He has 15 SCI journal publications and 30 IEEE conference publications to his
credit. In recognition of his research publications from 2017 to 2019, he is awarded
the University Foundation day Research Award-2019 from BPUT, Odisha, INDIA.
He has authored seven book chapters published in Elsevier and Springer. He has
coauthored a textbook entitled Power System Analysis: Operation and Control in I.
K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, ISBN 9789382332954. He
has been an active reviewer since 2015 and has reviewed 200 manuscripts submitted
to reputed SCI-indexed journals/conferences. Presently he is the Associate Editor
(Electric Power Engineering) of Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology,
Springer. His research interest includes time series preprocessing and forecasting,
high-dimensional dependence modeling, and probabilistic power system analyses.

Pankaj Gupta received a B.E. degree in Electrical Engineering from Bhilai Institute
of Technology, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, India in 2000 and M.E.
degree in Electrical Engineering from Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi University,
Delhi, India in 2003. He obtained a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering from NIT,
Kurukshetra, India in 2017. He is conferred with prestigious POSOCO Power System
Award-2017 for outstanding PhD research work entitled “Protection Issues of Grid
Connected Distributed Generation” by the Power System Operation Corporation
Limited, a subsidiary of Power Grid Corporation, India in partnership with Foundation
for Innovation and Technology Transfer, IIT, Delhi. He is working with Indira Gandhi
Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India as an Assistant Professor since
2005. His research interests include power system protection, microgrid control and
protection, smart grid technologies, and islanding detection techniques.
Contributors
Mohit Bansal Sushil Kumar Gupta
Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical Engineering
Electronics Engineering Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
G L Bajaj Institute of Technology & Science and Technology
Management, India Murthal, India

Bhagwan Das Devulapalli Debashisha Jena

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical and
Dayalbagh Educational Institute Electronics Engineering
Agra, India National Institute of Technology
Karnataka
Satyabrata Das Surathkal, India
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering
NIST Rourkela Karan Singh Joshal
India Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Yi Ding Srinagar, India
College of electrical engineering
Zhejiang University Ashwani Kumar
Hangzhou, China Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering
Bimal Kumar Dora National Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical and Kurukshetra, India
Electronics Engineering
National Institute of Technology Sikkim Satish Kumar
Ravangla, India Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering
Kapil Gandhi KIET Group of Institutions
Department of Electrical and Ghaziabad, India
Electronics Engineering
KIET Group of Institutions Ashiq Hussain Lone
Delhi NCR, India Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Lalit Goel Srinagar, India
Department of Electrical Engineering
School D. Blandina Miracle
Nanyang Technological University Department of Electrical and
Singapore, Singapore Electronics Engineering
Amity University
India

xi
xii Contributors

Tukaram Moger Vikas Singh

Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering Electronics Engineering
National Institute of Technology National Institute of Technology
Karnataka Karnataka
Surathkal, India Surathkal, India

K. Pritam Satsangi Rakesh Sehgal

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dayalbagh Educational Institute National Institute of Technology
Agra, India Srinagar, India

Abhishek Rajan Wen-Shan Tan

Department of Electrical and School of Engineering
Electronics Engineering Monash University Malaysia
National Institute of Technology Sikkim Subang Jaya, Malaysia
Ravangla, India
Pyare Mohan Tiwari
G. S. Sailesh Babu Department of Electrical and
Department of Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering
Dayalbagh Educational Institute Amity University
Agra, India India

Ajay Kumar Saxena Rajkumar Viral

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical and
Dayalbagh Educational Institute Electronics Engineering
Agra, India Amity University
India
Mohamed Abdel Moneim Shaaban
Department of Electrical Engineering Sheng Wang
Universiti Malaya State Grid (Suzhou) City & Energy
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Research Institute Co., Ltd.
China
 1 Renewable Energy
Scenario of the World
and Future Pattern
Karan Singh Joshala, Ashiq Hussain Lonea,
Neeraj Guptaa, Anuradha Tomarb,
and Rakesh Sehgala
a National Institute of Technology Srinagar,
Jammu and Kashmir
b Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................2
1.1.1 Stated Policies........................................................................................3
1.1.2 Sustainable Development.......................................................................3
1.2 Future Patterns of Renewable Sources..............................................................4
1.2.1 The Future of Wind...............................................................................4
1.2.2 Wind Power Is Expected to Reach 43 GW by 2030..............................5
1.2.3 Future Prospects for Solar.....................................................................6
1.3 Renewable Energy Technologies and Ongoing Developments..........................7
1.4 Wind Energy......................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Basic Principle.......................................................................................7
1.4.2 Technical Aspects of Wind Turbines.....................................................8
1.4.2.1 Rotor.......................................................................................8
1.4.2.2 Nacelle....................................................................................9
1.4.2.3 Gearbox...................................................................................9
1.4.2.4 Generator................................................................................9
1.4.2.5 Tower and Foundation of Wind Turbine............................... 10
1.4.3 Control Technique Requirements........................................................ 10
1.4.3.1 Pitch Adjustment Control Method........................................ 10
1.4.3.2 Yaw Mechanism.................................................................... 10
1.4.4 Economical Analysis and Environmental Impacts............................. 11
1.4.4.1 Economic Analysis............................................................... 11
1.4.4.2 Environmental Impacts......................................................... 11
1.5 Solar Energy.................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Solar Power Technology...................................................................... 12
1.5.2 CSP Systems........................................................................................ 12
1.5.3 PV Systems.......................................................................................... 12

DOI: 10.1201/9781003271857-1 1
2 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

1.5.4 Environmental Impacts....................................................................... 14

1.5.5 Economic Analysis of Solar Energy ................................................... 14
1.6 Biomass Energy .............................................................................................. 15
1.6.1 Biomass: Types and Harvesting.......................................................... 15
1.6.2 Bioenergy Conversion Technologies................................................... 16
1.6.3 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy ....................................... 17
1.6.4 Economic Analysis of Biomass .......................................................... 18
1.7 Ocean Energy ................................................................................................. 18
1.7.1 Different Types of Ocean Thermal Technologies .............................. 18
1.7.2 Environmental Impacts.......................................................................20
1.7.3 Economic Analysis of Ocean Energy Technology .............................20
1.8 Geothermal Energy ........................................................................................ 21
1.8.1 Resources of Geothermal Energy ....................................................... 21
1.8.2 Geothermal Energy Technologies ...................................................... 22
1.8.2.1 Dry Steam Power Plants ...................................................... 22
1.8.2.2 Flash Point Power Plants...................................................... 22
1.8.2.3 Binary Cycle Power Plant ....................................................24
1.8.3 Cost Analysis ......................................................................................24
1.8.4 Environmental Impacts.......................................................................24
1.9 Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................24
References ................................................................................................................26

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy is the energy that can be produced again and again within a period
of time. The main resources of renewable energy are photovoltaic (PV), wind, bio-
gas, hydro, biomass, tidal, geothermal, etc. The use of these resources causes the least
amount of pollution, and hence the dependency on them is increasing day by day. The
region-wise analysis and future pattern of these energy resources is explained in detail.
The growth of renewable energy technologies has escalated in recent years, with
the power sector playing a significant role, which is related to the low costs of solar
PV and wind power. Renewable energy usage, on the other hand, is also slow in end-
use sectors like manufacturing and construction.
Since 2018, the generation of electricity from renewable resources has shown
significant growth (Abbaszadeh et al. 2013). The power output in 2018 was about
450 Terawatt-hours (TWh), or it was up by 7% with regard to the previous years,
which is about quarter times higher than total power generation. The production
of power from renewable sources such as PV, wind, and hydro has shown a 90%
increase. In 2018, about 180 GigaWatts (GW) of renewable energy was produced.
Now International Energy Agency has estimated that from 2021 onwards, there will
be an annual increase in the capacity.
Here reduction in the cost by renewables and advancement in the technology are
providing large opportunities for the transitions in energy. The renewable energy
sources will provide almost half of the energy by 2040 as stated in Stated Policies
Scenario and Sustainable Development Scenario.
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 3

1.1.1 Stated PolicieS

As per Stated Policies Scenario, the use of renewable sources (except biomass) will
increase from 990 Mtoe to approximately 2,260 Mtoe in 2040. According to the
Sustainable Development Scenario, by 2040, wind energy (8,300 TWh) and solar PV
energy (7,200 TWh) are forecast to overtake hydropower (6,950 TWh). The energy
consumption in transport sector is expected to boost to 600 Mtoe by using biofuels,
which may lead to about 60% increase in using biofuels without considering the
electricity consumed by electric vehicles.
According to the Stated Policies Scenario, about 8,500 GW of new energy will
be included worldwide within 2040, and two-thirds of this will be from renew-
ables. In general, maximum of a region’s renewable have accounted for most of the
capacity additions. Renewables have increased by 80% in the European Union and
China, and they supply more than half of the electricity, but in Southeast Asia and
the Middle East, they provide less than half of the electricity. Solar energy accounts
for the majority of the energy in the majority of the regions, including India and
China. This is shown in Figure 1.1a and b where series 1 represents the year 2018,
series 2 represents the year 2030 and series 3 represents the year 2040. Figure 1.1a
shows the generation of electricity from renewable resources by province and sce-
nario, 2018–2040 in TWh Stated Policy Scenario, and Figure 1.1b shows electricity
from capability of renewable resources by province and scenario, 2018–2040 in GW
Stated Policies Scenario.

1.1.2 SuStainable develoPment

As per the Sustainable Development Scenario, 80% of the energy is from renewables.
The investment in renewable energy slightly declined in 2018 to about $390 billion,
but the investment in this field continued to show growth. The investment in renew-
able will accelerate whatsoever the scenario world will follow.
According to the Stated Policies Scenario, the venture in renewables reached a
growing sum involving at the moment and after 2040 about $10 trillion. The invest-
ment in Sustainable Development Scenario increases at a quicker pace which reflects
the stronger plan support and the job of center.
According to the Specified Policies Scenario, renewable energy assets are expected
to rise to $10 trillion between now and 2040. In the Sustainable Development
Scenario, speculation rises more quickly, indicating a more effective approach, as
well as the position of the internal mission and the critical task, with the aim of
these new power technologies contributing to the achievement of sustainable energy
priorities. Figure 1.2a shows the amount of renewable electricity produced by prov-
ince and scenario from 2018 to 2040 in GW Sustainable Development Scenario,
and Figure 1.2b represents generation from renewable electricity by province and
scenario sustainable development, 2018–2040 in TWh Sustainable Development
Scenario.
The annual investment on the renewable and future investment in billion USD is
shown in Table 1.1.
4 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

(a)
10000
9000
8000
2018
7000
2030
6000 2040
TWh

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Asia Pacific Eurasia Middle East Africa Europe Central and North
South America
America
(b)
4500
4000 2018
3500 2030
3000 2040
2500
2000
1500
TWh

1000
500
0
Asia Pacific Eurasia Middle East Africa Europe Central and North
South America
America

FIGURE 1.1 (a) Renewable electricity generation by region and scenario, stated policies 2018–
2040 in TWh Stated Policy Scenario (Gielen et al. 2019). (b) Capabilities of renewable resources
by province and scenario, 2018–2040 in GW Stated Policies Scenario (Gielen et al. 2019).

1.2 FUTURE PATTERNS OF RENEWABLE SOURCES

All renewable energy technologies, including wind and solar, have the highest poten-
tial for development, making them the scalability champions. In future, these innova-
tions will lead the way in India’s renewable energy market.
The solar and wind energy industries will account for the majority of this develop-
ment. As previously mentioned, a variety of technological and market advancements
are projected to boost the growth of renewable energy in the future. The influence
of these advances on the potential of the wind and solar energy sectors is briefly
described in this section.

1.2.1 the Future oF Wind

The wind turbines are available in the range of 2–3 MW. Increased turbine size has
also made wind turbine construction in ‘tier 3’ areas more cost-effective. Previously,
only class 2 and class 1 sites were considered for wind farm growth. The term “class”
refers to how sites are categorized based on the wind speeds available. Wind speeds
that are higher result in more energy being produced. Wind speeds are superior at
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 5

(a) 10000
2018
9000
2030
8000
2040
7000
6000
TWh

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Asia Pacific Eurasia Middle East Africa Europe Central and North
South America
America

(b) 14000
2018
12000 2018
2030
10000 2030
2040
TWh

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Asia Pacific Eurasia Middle East Africa Europe Central and North
South America
America

FIGURE 1.2 (a) Renewable electricity power by province and scenario, sustainable devel-
opment, 2018–2040 in TWh (Gielen et al. 2019). (b) Renewable electricity generation by
region and scenario sustainable development, 2018–2040 in TWh Sustainable Development
Scenario (Gielen et al. 2019).

class 1 and class 2 locations. As a result, these sites have greater power-generating
capacity and are thus more cost-effective. The installed power offshore wind by
province and scenario (2018–2040) is shown in Figure 1.3.
INDIA’s wind power capacity has significantly improved, and it is economi-
cally feasible to build class 3 sites. The current capacity of 65,000 MW was cal-
culated using historical data. The future demand would be several times more
than it was previously if class 3 sites were included. While exact estimates are yet
to be published, experts believe the capacity is in excess of 150,000 MW. This
increase in opportunity would ensure the industry’s explosive growth for many
years to come.

1.2.2 Wind PoWer iS exPected to reach 43 GW by 2030

In view of the aforesaid facts – higher future potential and lower costs – the wind
sector will continue to grow at a rapid pace. India added 1.2 GW of wind power in
2009, and more than 2 GW in 2010. If the current pattern continues, India’s annual
capacity additions could reach 4 GW by 2030, bringing total capacity to over 43 GW
by 2030. The estimate is on the low end of the scale.
6 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

TABLE 1.1
Annual Average Renewable Asset by Scenario (billion USD 2018)
(Dorraj et al. 2021)
Stated Policies Sustainable Development 2018 is the
Year of
2019– 2031– 2019– 2031– Change vs
2018 2030 2040 2030 2040 2031–2040
Power generation from renewable resources 304 329 378 528 636 24% 109%
Wind 89 111 122 180 223 37% 151%
PV (solar power) 135 116 125 179 191 −7% 41%
End-use industries 25 117 139 124 145 456% 480%
Total 329 456 517 652 781 57% 137%
Cumulative 5477 5166 7829 7802

200
2018
180
2040
160

140

120

100
GW

80

60

40

20

0
Rest of Japan Korea United States China European India
World Union

FIGURE 1.3 Installed power offshore wind by province and scenario, 2018–2040 in GW
Stated Policies Scenario (Gielen et al. 2019).

1.2.3 Future ProSPectS For Solar

India’s National Solar Mission aims to achieve a potential of 20,000 MW by 2022.
The Indian government’s strong market-based mechanisms in solar field offer cap-
tivating opportunities to developers and investors into the country, which directly
results in ongoing cost reductions. The government’s strategy in the solar field may
promisingly propel solar energy to new heights in the future.
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 7

1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

AND ONGOING DEVELOPMENTS
The pollution level throughout the world is now facing an alarming situation as
the WHO indicated that about seven million people (per year) are dying from
air pollution itself. Consumption of fossil fuels for electric power generation
and transportation requirements is the main reason for such alarming pollution
level situation. Now it doesn’t matter that fossil fuels are in abundance or not as
it is becoming somewhat impossible to lift the burden of using fossil fuels for
our needs. The whole world is now looking for alternative sources of energy for
electricity and transportation requirements which should be both sustainable and
environmentally clean. Because of this, the focus of scientists is constantly shift-
ing toward power generation technologies based on renewable energy. Renewable
energy resources serve as an environmentally clean option for generating elec-
tricity, transportation requirements (electric vehicles), and renewable heating and
cooling applications. In the succeeding sections, the renewable energy technol-
ogies like wind, solar, biomass, ocean energy systems and geothermal energy
systems are discussed.

1.4 WIND ENERGY
Before the 20th century, wind energy was used mainly for water pumping (for salt
making), sailing ships, grinding grains, etc. The first wind turbine for producing
electricity (Nikitas et al. 2019) was built in 1887 at Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F.
Brush (shown in Figure 1.4). Since then, by the mid-20th century, wind energy tech-
nology for electricity generation started getting used worldwide (Belyakov 2019) as
a viable and capable technology. Starting from sailing of ships to generation of elec-
tricity, wind energy still remains one of the cleanest energy sources to lessen carbon
foot prints or to reduce fossil fuel dependency. The basic fuel for this generation of
electricity is flow of wind which has its advantage of being free and nonpolluting, but
with the same, it has a limitation of its intermittency.
Various advantages and limitations of wind energy utilization are shown in Table 1.2.
The succeeding subsections will discuss the basic principle, technical features, and eco-
nomic and environmental analyses of wind power generation.

1.4.1 baSic PrinciPle

The basic principle includes the conversion of wind’s kinetic energy into electrical
energy. The energy of flowing wind turns the blades of the wind turbine (producing
rotational kinetic energy) which is connected to the gearbox through a horizontal
shaft. The gearbox increases the speed of rotation and converts this rotational kinetic
energy to electrical energy using generators. Such wind turbines are called horizon-
tal-axis wind turbines (HAWT). There are also vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT),
but these are not used as much as HAWT (Belyakov 2019). There are factors like
speed of wind and rotor blade’s size, which decide the energy generated by wind
(Yao). Figure 1.5 shows the energy conversion in wind power system.
8 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

FIGURE 1.4 The first automatically operated wind turbine with 18 m of height was built
by Charles F. Brush in 1887 at Cleveland. It powered a 12 kW generator (Nikitas et al. 2019).

TABLE 1.2
The Benefits and Limitations of Wind Energy
Benefits Limitations
Lowest greenhouse gas emission as compared to other Discontinuous flow of wind leads to
technologies (Jacobson 2009). intermittent electricity supply.
It is a fully sustainable energy source. Quality sites are remotely located and
requires transmission lines.
It occupies less space and there can be situated together Scarcity of neodymium (Nd), used in
with farming. magnets of wind turbines (Pavel et al.
2017).
Wind farms consumes less water as compared to other Wildlife impacts: birds and bats fatality
plants like thermal and biomass (Letcher 2017). (Willis et al. 2009 and Johnson 2005).
Create jobs and necessary in economic growth. Environmental impacts: Noise Pollution and
aesthetic pollution (Kaldellis et al. 2012).
Zero fuel cost with very less operation and maintenance Difficult and pricey to repair the rotating
cost. Also, construction time is less. parts which are placed high off the ground.

1.4.2 technical aSPectS oF Wind turbineS

The main components of wind turbines include rotor, gearbox, generator, tower and
its foundation, etc. The working principle to produce electricity from wind energy
requires all these components of wind turbines. Each of these main components is
explained briefly in the next subsections.

1.4.2.1 Rotor
Rotor receives the kinetic energy of wind using its rotor blades and converts it into
rotational kinetic energy which is provided to the rotor shaft with the help of rotor
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 9

Moving air mass

Rotor Gearbox Generator Transformer

Kinetic Energy from the Wind Kinetic Energy (rotational) within Wind convertor Electrical energy within the convertor & grid

FIGURE 1.5 Energy conversion in wind power system.

hub, and this rotor shaft is connected to the gearbox. The size and shape of rotor
blades mainly depend upon the plant-installed capacity (Kaltschmitt et al. 2007).
The material used to make the blades usually are glass fiber-reinforced plastics. The
main criteria for selecting the material is the manufacturing cost depending upon the
requirements of rotor’s strength of breaking, specific weight, elasticity, strength, etc.
The connection between rotor shaft and rotor blades is done using a rotor hub (high
quality cast iron) which are of three types: rigid or hinge less hub, teetered hub, and
flap hub (Kaltschmitt et al. 2007).

1.4.2.2 Nacelle
It basically houses the tower-top components including gearbox with main shaft,
generator, brakes, cooling system, etc. (Rao 2019). It protects the components from
weather and also allows the rotor to face the wind if the direction of wind changes.
The nacelle changes its orientation about vertical axis with the change in direction
of wind by using a yaw motor equipped with it (Rao 2019). Yaw mechanism rotates
the nacelle to bring the rotor blades to face the wind especially when the wind
changes its direction.

1.4.2.3 Gearbox
The rotational speed of rotor is very small, and gearbox helps to increase this rota-
tional speed to match it with the generator used. The gearbox is required to increase
this rotor speed of wind turbine to about 75–150 times to match the generator speed
(3,000 rpm and 1,500 rpm for 2 poles and 4 poles conventional generator at 50 Hz).
The difficulties related to the gearbox arise with the surviving from loads, vibrations,
heating (through friction), and shocks applied on it. Therefore, it is termed as a high-
maintenance unit and requires high repair service in about every 5 years.

1.4.2.4 Generator
The wind turbine generator takes the mechanical energy from the rotor of wind sys-
tem through gearbox and then coverts it to electrical power. The generator can be
synchronous and nonsynchronous (induction generator) types. The most commonly
used generators for wind turbines are double-fed induction generator (DFIG), squir-
rel cage induction generator (SCIG), and permanent magnet synchronous generator
(PMSG) (Beainy et al. 2016). The advantages and disadvantages of each type of
generator used are given in Table 1.3 (Beainy et al. 2016).
10 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

TABLE 1.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Generators Used in Wind
Turbines
DFIG SCIG PMSG
Advantages Rugged, brushless, lightest, low Simple and robust, No gearbox is required
cost, wide range of speed, high operation requires no and therefore low
efficiency and integration with brushes, escapes the maintenance cost, more
grid is smooth grid’s short circuit power reliable and longevity
Disadvantages Difficulty in dealing with For its operation, it needs Expensive, twice the
ride-through of grid fault, convertors (two full outer diameter of
bearing and grid faults leads to scale), no gearless gearless PMSG as
less reliability operation capability compared to
conventional SCIG

1.4.2.5 Tower and Foundation of Wind Turbine

The height of the tower is not fixed by any law but the fact that it should be twice
or thrice the length of the rotor blades. Also, the kinetic energy of wind increases
with height and so as electric power. Therefore, the height of the tower is also based
upon the factors that include power generation vs. cost considerations. Also, on
the other hand, the whole structure of wind turbine system with its tower requires
a foundation. Turbine foundation is a very important component for making the
huge structure of the wind turbine operate without falling. The different types of
foundations include gravity foundation, monopile foundation, and tripod foundation
(Kaltschmitt et al. 2007).

1.4.3 control technique requirementS

To control the output power from the wind turbines, one can either adjust the blade
angle (facing wind) of the rotor or completely rotate the wind turbine. These methods
are discussed below.

1.4.3.1 Pitch Adjustment Control Method

It is a very effective method to limit the output power by varying the pitch angles of
the rotor blades so as to vary the aerodynamic force of high wind speed. Stalling and
furling methods are used to change blade pitch angle (National Instruments 2020).

1.4.3.2 Yaw Mechanism
In this method, the entire wind turbine rotates (horizontally) so as to make the wind
flow fall perpendicular on the surface area of the rotating blades. This maximizes
the output power and prevents the losses which can occur because of misalignment
of turbine with the oncoming wind (National Instruments 2020).
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 11

1.4.4 economical analySiS and environmental imPactS

1.4.4.1 Economic Analysis
The various economic aspects of wind energy system are given in Figure 1.6. The
economic components of wind energy system include availability of turbine (during
maintenance and repairs), economic lifetime, energy efficiency (low efficiency leads
to lesser investment returns), wind regime (wind speed distribution throughout the
year required for wind turbine), investment costs (capital cost and financial cost),
and recurring cost (operation and maintenance costs). To harness useful energy from
wind energy system, it is necessary to consider all these economic aspects to under-
stand the cost-effectiveness of the system (Yao et al. 2011).

1.4.4.2 Environmental Impacts
Although the wind energy system is considered to be an environmentally clean
source of energy, it still has many negative impacts on the environment. These nega-
tive impacts include fatality of birds and bats, noise pollution, emissions of green-
house gases (mainly due to production of concrete and steel required for foundation
of turbine), and land surface temperature change (Gupta et al. 2021)

1.5 SOLAR ENERGY
The solar energy has always been an important part of human life. In its early ages,
the solar energy was used for producing fire (using magnifying glasses), lightening
a room using mirrors, and cooking purposes. But now, the solar energy is used to
produce electricity directly using solar PVs as concentrated solar power systems
(CSP) (Kabir et al. 2017). Other than that, one also cannot neglect the fact that solar
energy is the basic source of energy for other green technologies like wind, wave,
tidal, and bioenergy.

Wind Energy System Economics

Generating cost Market value of wind energy

Avoided cost based Monetarized

Availability value environmental benefits
Wind Regime
Capital Cost
Energy Efficiency
Financial cost
Lifetime Savings on fuel costs Emission reductions
O&M Cost Saving on Capitals Fuel Reduction

FIGURE 1.6 Wind energy system economical components (Yao et al. 2011).
12 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

1.5.1 Solar PoWer technoloGy

In this section, the two viable technologies used for extracting solar energy from sun
and converting it into electricity or other heating applications are discussed. These
two solar technologies are PV and solar thermal CSP technologies. These technolo-
gies give existence to the fact that solar energy can be used to generate electric-
ity and make it even more popular. Solar thermal (CSP) technology collects solar
energy and converts it into heat, which is further converted to electricity, while PV
technology directly converts solar energy to electrical energy using semiconductor
devices. There are other solar thermal technologies (nongrid) which include water-
heating systems, solar dryers, solar distillations, and solar cookers. Figure 1.7 shows
the SolDry (solar drying) systems designed and developed by the National Institute
of Solar Energy (NISE) which benefits the farmers of Ladakh (NISE 2020).

1.5.2 cSP SyStemS

As discussed earlier, both CSP and PV technologies use solar energy for their opera-
tion. A CSP plant (Awan et al. 2019) (shown in Figure 1.8) consists of three main parts
which include solar receiver system, thermal energy storage (TES) system, and power
block. The solar receiver system concentrates light energy coming from the sun onto the
receiver and converts it into heat. This heat is absorbed by heat transfer fluid (molten salt
or synthetic oil) which transfers the collected heat of the sun to the power block. This
thermal energy at power block gets converted into electricity using steam turbine gen-
erators. The excess thermal energy from the sun gets stored in TES system. It uses mol-
ten salt to absorb the solar heat (from the solar receiver), which is stored in a hot tank.
TES system is used during the absence of the sun and avoids the shutdown of CSP plant
(Awan et al. 2019). There are three types of solar concentrating systems (Figure 1.8)
which are solar tower, parabolic trough, and parabolic dish (Yao et al. 2011).

1.5.3 Pv SyStemS
Compared to CSP systems, PV systems are more extensively used commercial solar
technology for producing electricity directly. It is based on the principle of PV effect.
A solar cell or PV cell made up of semi-conducting materials is the basic component
of the PV system. P-N junction is formed by doping the solar cell, and this structure
acts as an internal electric field. The electron-hole pairs are formed due to the pho-
tons hitting (when sunlight falls on the cell) on the surface of the cell. Due to the

FIGURE 1.7 SolDry systems distributed among Ladakh farmers (NISE 2020).
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 13

Solar Receiver System TES System Power Block

Heat
Exchanger Boiler

Solar Tower

Parabolic Trough Parabolic Dish

FIGURE 1.8 Layout of CSP plant.

internal electric field, the electrons and holes move toward the respective positive and
negative electrodes. Hence, the current flows through the load connected between
the electrodes. The output voltage of PV cell is very low (0.5–0.6 V), and therefore,
they are connected in series to increase to form a solar module. The desired voltage-
current output is obtained from the series and parallel connections of these solar
modules. The semiconductor material is used for manufacturing PV cells based on
silk-screen process building (Kaltschmitt et al. 2007). Based on the type of semi-
conductor material, the PV cell is named accordingly. As shown in Figure 1.9, there
are three generations of PV cell technology (Belyakov 2019). There are two types of
PV systems which include grid-connected PV systems and stand-alone PV systems
(Prasad and Bansal 2011). Grid-connected PV systems use the net-metering method
where the net meter runs in both directions which also calculates the energy pro-
duced by customers. While in the stand-alone system, it is necessary to match the PV
system with the system load (Prasad and Bansal 2011).
Both the technologies (CSP and PV) have their respective advantages and dis-
advantages. Table 1.4 compares these two technologies of solar energy market with
respect to the technology used, storage capability, efficiency, and market capture.

st nd rd
1 Generation 2 Generation 3 Generation
Wafer-based Thin-film
Cell Efficiency
Cell Efficiency Cell Efficiency
Multi-Junction
46.0 %
Mono-crystalline Conventional Solar cell
26.1 %
Silicon
Amorphous Silicon 13.6 %
CIGS 22.2 % Emerging
Poly-crystalline CdTe 22.1 %
22.3 % Perskovite 23.3 %
Silicon
Organic PV 12.6 %

FIGURE 1.9 PV cell technologies.

14 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

TABLE 1.4
Comparison Between CSP and PV Systems
Technology Energy Storage Efficient Market
CSP It converts the Capable of storing It collects the solar Energy price is
System concentrated sun thermal energy energy more higher (compared to
light energy to heat through TES systems. efficiently as PV systems)
energy and then to Therefore, it can be compared to PV therefore with
electrical energy used even when there system. respect of PV
using steam is no sun light. systems, growth of
generators. CSP systems is not
that high.
PV System It directly converts Not capable to store It is less efficient to Economically more
the solar energy to energy in the thermal collect the solar feasible and
electricity using PV form and storing energy (compared to therefore its growth
cells. electricity energy (in CSP systems) rate is higher than
batteries) is not easy. required for the that of CSP systems.
operation of PV cell.

1.5.4 environmental imPactS

Solar energy is one of the cleanest energy sources, but still, the electricity generation
from solar energy has some negative impacts on the environment. These negative
impacts include strain on clean water availability especially in the arid areas over
the world where high intensity of sunlight is available. This clean water is used as
condenser cooling water. In some cases, the high bird mortality at the solar power
plant has also been found (Holbert 2011). The PV system uses heavy metals like
cadmium telluride for manufacturing of PV cells which are toxic for the environ-
ment. Following that, the other harmful impacts on the environment (because of
solar energy) are land usage, ecological impacts, chemical spills, and recycling prob-
lem of solar panels (Holbert 2011).

1.5.5 economic analySiS oF Solar enerGy

The decreasing total installed cost and increasing capacity factor of the solar PV and
CSP systems lead to the reduction in levelized cost of electricity from the solar PV
technology. In 2019, the total average installed cost of solar PV projects 79% lower
than that in 2009, and that of CSP system is 36% lower than that in 2009 (IRENA
2020). Also, the average capacity factor of the solar PV is increased from 13.8% in
2010 to 18.0% in 2019, and that of CSP systems is increased from 30% in 2010 to
45% in 2019 (IRENA 2020). The reduction of the total installed cost is due to the
reducing cost of PV module over the period of time. The increased mass production,
reduced labor costs, increased efficiency, and optimized manufacturing process of
PV modules are the main reasons behind the drop in the average installed cost of
solar PV systems. The main factor behind the reduced installed cost of CSP systems
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 15

is the reduced cost of electricity storage with the CSP systems. The increased capac-
ity factor of the solar PV and CSP systems is mainly achieved by selecting the better
locations with high irradiation, more usage of improved tracking devices, improved
electricity storage capacity, and reduction in losses. The continuous decline in the
cost of solar PV and CSP systems makes the solar energy usage more viable com-
pared to other renewable technology

1.6 BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass energy (or bioenergy) is a unique type of renewable energy source which
is basically a stored form of sun’s energy present in organic materials (biomass)
like plant, trees, crops, animal wastes, etc. Biomass is an organic material which is
renewable and derived from living (or recently dead) biological organisms like plants
and animals. It is renewable in nature because it basically comes from sun and can
be regrown in a short period of time. Bioenergy uses biomass materials to undergo
various conversion procedures (thermal and biochemical) to get other forms of useful
energy like heat and electrical. It also produces some solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels
from biomass using the same conversion procedures.
Similar to biomass, fossil fuels also come from organic matter, and they both
produce carbon dioxide when converted into electricity and heat. But the main differ-
ences between biomass and fossil fuels are hidden behind the following facts:

• Biomass is renewable in nature, while fossil fuels are nonrenewable.

• Biomass is carbon-neutral, i.e., it takes the carbon dioxide from the envi-
ronment (photosynthesis) and gives it back during the conversion proce-
dures for producing electricity and heat. Therefore, it maintains the balance
in carbon cycle.
• Most biomass feedstocks have lower bulk densities than fossil fuels except
liquid biofuels which somewhat have comparable bulk densities.
• The fossil fuels and biomass both originate from organic materials, but fossil
fuels are formed by decomposition of organic matter for millions of years.
Compared to that, biomass is derived from recently living organic materials.
• Biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel (liquid fuel from biomass) have nontoxic
effects (low sulfur and ash content) compared to the use of fossil fuels.

1.6.1 biomaSS: tyPeS and harveStinG

Biomass refers to the organic matters coming from plants and animals which are
recently living and have stored sun’s energy. The classification into different types of
biomass (Seveda et al. 2011) is based on their sources. The following are the different
types of biomass:

• Biomass from Waste: Animal and Municipal Waste

It includes farm slurries and poultry litters from animal farming
(cattle and pig farming). Other animal waste from slaughterhouses and
fish processing is also a good source of biomass. While municipal waste
16 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

includes commercial and residential wastes like human excreta, food, paper,
etc., it also includes sewage wastes in liquid form.
• Agricultural Biomass
This includes agricultural residues (like stalks, leaves, branches, prun-
ing’s waste, etc.) and by-products of agricultural processes.
• Forest Biomass
Forest trees are the main contributor with its parts like trunks, leaves,
barks, and roots. The by-products (wood chips and saw dust) from the wood
industry processes are also used as biomass.
• Energy Farming
The term energy farming is used on a broader way for production of
biomass feedstocks in a short period of time. It includes some certain types
of crops, trees, and shrubs, which require relatively less harvesting time and
are used as a biomass feedstock.
• Marine Biomass
It includes algae and other marine biomass (like kelps, water hyacinths,
etc.) which are also the source for producing biomass feedstock.
There are several harvesting methods which make the plants renewed by sprout-
ing. These methods are coppicing, pollarding, lopping, pruning, and thinning method
(Seveda et al. 2011).

1.6.2 bioenerGy converSion technoloGieS

The various biomass conversion technologies are used to produce secondary energy
sources (heat, electricity, biofuels) by converting biomass feedstocks (lignocellulose,
microalgae, animal and food waste, etc.). These conversion technologies are divided
into four categories namely thermal, chemical, thermochemical, and biochemical
conversions (as shown in Figure 1.10).
In the direct combustion method, burning of solid biomass takes place just like it
is done for other conventional fossil fuels (Belyakov 2019). This technology is used
for producing heat and electricity. The thermochemical biomass conversion technol-
ogy uses the following three methods (Jahirul et al. 2012):

• Pyrolysis: This process includes heating of solid biomass for producing

biofuels (bio-char and bio-oil). The heating is done in the absence of oxygen
at a temperature of 350°C–800°C and beyond.
• Torrefaction: It is similar to pyrolysis but performed at lower temperature
to obtain fuels (bio-coal and charcoal) with improved properties.
• Gasification: This process gives synthesis gas (gaseous biofuels) by mak-
ing the solid biomass subjected to face hot steam and air.

Another conversion technique, biochemical biomass conversion, includes the process

of fermentation and anaerobic reaction. Fermentation is a process of converting sugar
(coming from energy crop) to ethanol. In this process, yeast is mixed with biomass,
and under specific conditions, this mixture is then allowed to ferment, while anaero-
bic digestion requires degradation of biomass (food waste, slurries and crop residues)
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 17

Thermal Thermochemical Biochemical Chemical

Conversion Conversion Conversion Conversion

Oil (vegetable &

Lignocellulose & Sugars and starches Food waste, slurry, algal) and animal
Lignocellulose Lignocellulose
microalgae (Agricultural crops) crops and residues fats

Cellulose to
sugar

Trans-
Combustion Torrefaction Gasification Pyrolysis Fermentation Anaerobic DIgestion esterification

Bio-char Biogas (Mixture

Bio-coal Synthesis Gas Bio-oil Ethanol Biodiesal
of CH 4 & CO2)
Bio-gas

Electricity, Heat and Bio-fuel

FIGURE 1.10 Biomass conversion processes.

in the absence of oxygen with low heating. The primary fuel from anaerobic digestion
is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide (Belyakov 2019) which is further used for
producing electricity and heat applications, whereas biodiesel is produced by trans-
esterification (chemical conversion) of vegetable and algal oils (Seveda et al. 2011).

1.6.3 environmental imPactS oF biomaSS enerGy

There is no doubt that using biomass as an alternative for fossil fuels is environmen-
tally more beneficial. But the uncertainty remains in the fact that how much benefi-
cial it is to the environment. Practically it is not that simple to consider biomass as
carbon-neutral. There are several negative environmental impacts of using biomass
as an energy source which are related to water quantity and quality, greenhouse gas
emissions, deforestation, biodiversity, and soil erosion (Wu et al. 2018). The scarcity
of water quantity comes with the cultivation of bioenergy crops like corn used for
corn ethanol production (biofuel). The quality of water is also a concern with the
cultivation of bioenergy crops as it increases the risk of high concentration of nitrate
in the water sources. Although biomass is considered as carbon-neutral, still, biomass
use for energy production leads to emission of NO2 which is further responsible for
global warming. Therefore, it is essential to control the emission of NO2 from biomass
usage. Conversion of land required for cultivating the bioenergy crops is one of the
main factors for impacting the biodiversity. Soil erosion is also very common which
is due to land use change and expansion of corn acreage. Other than carbon dioxide,
burning of wood biomass emits additional harmful gases like nitrogen oxides, sulfur
dioxide, and carbon monoxide. So, while concluding the fact that biomass is envi-
ronmentally clean, one should rather consider it as a better alternative to fossil fuels.
18 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

1.6.4 economic analySiS oF biomaSS

Unlike solar and wind energy technology, the biomass energy for electricity produc-
tion requires feedstocks to be produced, transported, and stored (IRENA 2012).
About 40% of the cost required for the production of electricity from biomass is
dependent on its feedstock production and management. The cost of power genera-
tion from biomass is wide-ranging depending upon the different energy technolo-
gies. The capital expenditure cost is dependent on the factors like components of
power plants, feedstock management and production, technology included, plant
size, construction, and other engineering aspects (IRENA 2012; Carneiro and
Ferreira 2012). The operation and maintenance costs are both fixed and variable.
The fixed operation and maintenance costs include labor cost, scheduled replace-
ment and services of equipment, and aspects like insurance, etc., while the variable
operation and maintenance costs are dependent on unscheduled maintenance, dis-
posal of ash, and transformational costs (IRENA 2012; Carneiro and Ferreira 2012).
The biomass energy technologies still have a huge scope of its expansion to contrib-
ute more as a cleaner and more efficient renewable source of energy. It requires bet-
ter policies, laws, permits, and political support to draw the attention of the private
sector to invest more on biomass energy technology.

1.7 OCEAN ENERGY
Covering about 70% of the Earth’s surface and holding 97% of water of our planet,
oceans can’t get neglected for considering them as an enormous source of energy. The
energy technologies used to harness electric energy from oceans include tidal energy,
wave energy, ocean current energy, and ocean thermal energy. All these energy tech-
nologies are renewable in nature. These energy technologies are not commercially
available yet and still under research and development stage. The reason for not being
commercially available for producing electricity is related with its high capital cost
(MNRE 2021). Even after having a huge potential, the ocean energy technologies still
lack in their global energy contribution. It requires more research and development
to make them available commercially widely. In the following subsection, the differ-
ent ocean energy technologies with their impacts on the environment are discussed.

1.7.1 diFFerent tyPeS oF ocean thermal technoloGieS

There are mainly four types of ocean energy technologies which include wave
energy, tidal energy, ocean current energy, and ocean thermal energy. The block
diagram of these ocean energy technologies is shown in Figure 1.11. The mechani-
cal forces and thermal gradient related to the ocean results in the types of ocean
energy technologies one should use. The mechanical forces are due to the wind
flowing over the ocean and also due to the gravitational pull of moon. The latter
creates tides and currents, while the flow of wind over the ocean surface creates
waves. Thermal radiations of sun make the surface of the ocean hotter, while depths
remain colder. This thermal difference within the layers of oceans can be utilized
to create electrical power.
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 19

Horizontal motion of water Wave Energy Converters

Drives the Turbines of the Generator produces
due to wind flowing on the (WEC) captures the wave
Generator electricity for loads/grid
surface of ocean. energy

(a)

Vertical motion of the tides Drives the Turbines of the Generator produces
due to the gravitional forces Controlled by Embankment
Generator electricity for loads/grid
of moon

(b)

Kinetic energy from

Continuous flow of huge marine current converts to Drives the Turbines of the Generator produces
amount of water in a mechanical energy for Generator electricity for loads/grid
definite direction marine turbine rotor

(c)
Generator produces
Temperature difference of Warmer water from the electricity for loads/grid
surface passes through Vaporized fluid
sea water which is higher
evaporator containing drives the Turbines
at surface them lower at
working fluid of the Generator Vaporized fluid converted to
deeper levels
liquid by colder ocean water of
ocean from deeper level
(d)

FIGURE 1.11 Block diagram of various ocean energy technologies. (a) Wave energy.
(b) Tidal energy. (c) Marine current energy. (d) Ocean thermal energy.

Wave energy converters (WEC) are used to convert the energy of ocean waves
into electricity. The waves in the oceans are produced by the wind flowing on their
surface, thereby making it as a concentrated form of solar energy. The different
types of WEC are attenuators, point absorbers, overtopping terminators, oscillating
wave surge converter, submerged pressure differential, and oscillating water column
(Dolores et al. 2017). These WEC devices capture the mechanical energy from the
up-down movements of waves and convert it into electrical energy. Another way to
harness electrical energy from ocean is to make use of tides (low and high) in the
ocean similar to that of a dam. There are around 20–40 locations throughout the
world which can be used to as a potential harness electrical energy from these low
and high tides of the oceans (U.S. Department of Energy Office 2009). While consid-
ering the ocean currents, the factors responsible for the formation of ocean currents
are winds, tides, changes in water densities, and rotation of the Earth. Harnessing
electrical energy from ocean current energy is similar to that used by wind turbines
for wind energy systems. The turbines used are axial-flow or cross-flow situated
turbines. The axial-flow turbines are further categorized with shrouded rotor or open
rotors (U.S. Department of Energy Office 2009). Another method for converting
the energy from ocean comes from the fact that there is a temperature difference
between the surface and lower layers of the oceans. The technologies used for gen-
erating electrical energy related to this fact are open loop and closed loop ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) technologies (U.S. Department of Energy Office
2009). All these ocean energy technologies are still not in its mature stage as com-
pared to other renewable technologies. But one cannot ignore the fact that oceans are
enormous source of energy, and it leaves with a huge scope for its future research and
developments of its technologies.
20 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

1.7.2 environmental imPactS

There is a huge significance of oceans for producing oxygen (around 50%) and
absorbing carbon from the atmosphere. However, at the same time, there is a risk of
polluting ocean from the new technologies of developing the electrical energy from
the ocean energy. So, it becomes really important for estimating the environmental
impacts of these new ocean technologies required for generating electrical energy
from oceans. The following are the related environmental impacts of harnessing
electricity from ocean energy technologies:

• Variations in hydrodynamics due to the dykes used in tidal energy con-

version influences the local population of fishes, seabirds, and mammals
(Haverson et al. 2018).
• The species near the vicinity of the OTEC plants experience variations in
size and quantity. This is mainly because of the deep-water discharges by
the OTEC technologies.
• The constructions or installation leads to high level of noise which influ-
ences the presence of key species, their colonization, and population.
Invasion of new species occurs which further disturbs the original marine
fauna. The establishments under the oceans are changing the marine life
around it (Rivera et al. 2020).
• The species experience variations in their migration routes as the installa-
tions of the ocean technologies limit the movements of the species (Rivera
et al. 2020).
• It creates collision risks for sea mammals with the installed devices of the
ocean technologies (Rivera et al. 2020).
• The support required for the installation of ocean technologies can lead to
changes in seabed structure (Rivera et al. 2020).

1.7.3 economic analySiS oF ocean enerGy technoloGy

The ocean energy conversion to electricity is still at its precommercial state. In India,
the ocean renewable energy technology is still considered as a new technology with
high capital cost, and it is still in research and development stage, which is not yet
used at commercial level (MNRE 2021). The capital cost of ocean renewable energy
is dependent on the types of factors like marine devices, location, cables/pipelines,
and installations. Since ocean energy is a relatively new technology, therefore, the
capital cost is always subject to variations depending upon the technology, locations
(depth of water and distance from shores), installation charges, and other factors
(Dalton et al. 2015). The operating cost is mainly dependent on the maintenance
which is both scheduled maintenance and unscheduled maintenance. The scheduled
maintenance deals with all the service tasks required from time to time, while the
unscheduled maintenance is dependent on the monitoring system of the ocean energy
technology (Dalton et al. 2015). The ocean energy industry is a new and emerging
sector, and therefore, its accurate economic analysis still requires some time for its
complete commercial acceptance and development.
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 21

1.8 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal refers to producing energy from the internal heat of the Earth. The inter-
nal heat of the Earth is generated from radioactive decay of minerals and continual
heat loss from the Earth’s original formation. The Earth’s crust is made from rocks
and water. Deep below the Earth’s surface, there is a layer of hot-molten rock called
magma. The heat present at 10 kms below the Earth’s surface contains 50,000 times
more energy than all the oil and natural gas resources in the world. The use of this
heat energy in a right way can be used for heating and cooling purposes or to create
clean electricity. The geothermal energy is a renewable source of energy which is
nonpolluting and consistently reliable. Figure 1.12 shows the year-wise (2010–2019)
installed capacity of the geothermal energy (IRENA 2021). The worldwide installed
capacity of geothermal energy (IRENA 2021) is about 14 GW (2019) which is not
well explored as compared to its capability. Therefore, geothermal energy technol-
ogy remains an important scope for its exploration and development.

1.8.1 reSourceS oF Geothermal enerGy

The resources of geothermal energy can be categorized in the following three
categories (Haverson et al. 2018):

• Geothermal reservoir
In this category, the water on the Earth’s surface leaks down to the hot crust
of the Earth and gets heated. Due to process of convection, this heated water
rises up to the surface forming hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, or hot mud

FIGURE 1.12 Installed capacity of geothermal energy (IRENA 2021).

22 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

holes. If the heated water gets blocked while coming upwards, then by drill-
ing bores, a path can be made for it to come up at the surface (Breeze 2019).
• Hot dry rocks
Due to some irregularities in the crust, the rock near the Earth’s surface
is much hotter than normally. This can be used as a source of geothermal
energy under such conditions by drilling the surface and pumping the water
(or any heat transfer fluid) out through it (Breeze 2019).
• Magma
Magma is extremely hot-molten liquid or semi-liquid present under the
Earth’s surface. When it reaches the surface, it is called lava. It is also con-
sidered as a very rich source of geothermal energy but simultaneously it has
a limitation of extracting this energy formed within the earth’s outer crust
(Breeze 2019).

1.8.2 Geothermal enerGy technoloGieS

The different technologies for geothermal energy depend upon its direct and indirect
usage. The direct use of geothermal energy includes heating and cooling of buildings
(Breeze 2019). This heating and cooling application of geothermal energy makes tech-
nology like ground source heat pumps and deep enhanced geothermal systems (Breeze
2019). On the other hand, indirectly the geothermal energy is used to produce electric-
ity. The production of electricity from geothermal energy uses technologies like dry
steam power plants, flash point power plants, and binary cycle power plants (Breeze
2019). All these technologies are based on the type of geothermal resource location.
The direct dry steam power plants require geothermal reservoirs which give high-tem-
perature dry steam alone. The geothermal reservoirs with steam and liquid brine mix-
ture require a flash point power plant for electricity production. The binary cycle power
plants are used where the temperature of the geothermal location is relatively low.

1.8.2.1 Dry Steam Power Plants

The geothermal reservoirs with high-temperature dry steam are required for this type of
geothermal power plant. This high-temperature steam is extracted by making boreholes
under the ground of the geothermal locations, and filters are used with the boreholes to
filter the rock pieces coming out with the steam. The steam turbines use this dry high-
temperature (180°C–350°C) steam to get rotated and to produce electricity (Figure
1.13a). The steam used here also contains about 2%–10% of other gases like CO2 and
H2S. So, the exhaust of steam after passing through the steam turbine is required to be
condensed and treated for pollutants as well (Breeze 2019). Sometimes for economic
reasons, the geothermal fluid is released in the atmosphere instead of injecting it back.

1.8.2.2 Flash Point Power Plants

The geothermal reservoir fluid is seldomly in the dry steam form, and usually it
is a mixture of steam and liquid brine. This fluid having a high pressure is passed
through a vessel with low pressure inside. A major part of the liquid flashes into
steam because of this sudden change in the pressure which increases the percentage
of the steam in the fluid. This steam is separated and fed to the steam turbine to pro-
duce electricity (Figure 1.13b) just like in dry steam power plants.
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World 23

Generator Air and Water

(a) Vapour
Turbine

Condenser

Cooling Tower
Steam

Air Air

Water

Hot
Well
Condensate
Surface

Geothermal Zone

Generator Air and Water

Vapour
(b) Turbine

Condenser

Cooling Tower
Steam

Air Air
Steam

Water

Hot
Brine
Well
Condensate

Waste Brine
Surface

Geothermal Zone

Generator Air and Water

(c)
Vapour
Turbine

Condenser

Cooling Tower
Steam

Air Air

Heat Exchanger

Hot Brine

Surface

Geothermal Zone

FIGURE 1.13 (a) Dry steam power plant. (b) Flash point power plant. (c) Binary cycle
power plant.
24 Renewable Energy Integration to the Grid

1.8.2.3 Binary Cycle Power Plant

The dry steam and flash point plants are not very efficient when the temperature
of the geothermal fluid is low, i.e., between 100°C and 170°C. For such a case, the
binary cycle power plant is used to extract the energy out of it to produce electric-
ity. As shown in Figure 1.13c, the binary cycle plant uses the resource geothermal
fluid to heat the process fluid (ammonia and water mixtures) through heat exchanger
(IRENA 2017). The boiling and condensate points of the process fluid are according
to the geothermal temperature available.

1.8.3 coSt analySiS

Extracting useful energy from geothermal resources requires high capital cost for big
constructions but lower operating and fuel cost. The cost analysis depends mainly on
three factors that include exploration of geothermal locations, construction of steam
field, and cost of power plant (Breeze 2019). The expenditure includes several mil-
lion dollars for finding appropriate geothermal reservoirs, and sometimes it may not
be successful. The cost of construction of steam field depends on the size of plant
and the number of boreholes required to be drilled. The plant construction cost is
dependent on the factors like geothermal location and temperature (Breeze 2019;
IRENA 2012).

1.8.4 environmental imPactS

The environmental impacts of the geothermal energy utilization are much lower as
compared to the use of fossil fuels. It is mainly due to the use of high-temperature
geothermal systems for energy conversion. Table 1.5 shows the possible environmen-
tal impacts of the development of the low and high geothermal systems. These envi-
ronmental impacts are due to the various reasons related to the drilling operations,
mass withdrawn of geothermal fluids, and liquid and gaseous waste disposals (Hunt
2000). All these factors related to the geothermal systems lead to the following effects
like destruction of forests, noise pollution, ground water contamination, degradation
of geothermal features, ground water depletion, and induced seismicity (Hunt 2000).

1.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The renewable energy technologies are the need of the future energy requirements
and have been discussed accordingly. This need is not only because of the depletion
of fossil fuels but also due to the alarming level of pollution in the environment. The
time has already ringed the bell to switch the use of fossil fuels requirements for
electricity, transportation, and other uses. That is why renewable energy technolo-
gies are needed because they are not only sustainable but also environmentally much
friendlier as compared to the technologies based on fossil fuels. It has also been
shown that the future pattern of energy harnessing from the renewable sources is
growing at very high rate. This chapter has presented these renewable energy tech-
nologies considering its present and future scenarios, working operations, environ-
mental impacts, and cost analysis.
TABLE 1.5
The Possible Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Power Plants (Rivera et al. 2020)
Drilling Operations Liquid Waste Disposal Gas Waste Disposal Mass Withdrawal
Impacts on Living
Organism
Contamination of Impacts on Degradation Depletion Ground
Ground Water with Surface Living Microclimate of Thermal of Ground Temperature
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World

Noise Drilling Fluid Discharge Reinjection Organisms Influences Features Water Change
Low Temperature System Slight Medium Effect Slight EffectSlight Effect No Effect No Effect No Effect Slight Effect No Effect No
Effect Effect
High- Vapor Medium Medium Effect Medium Slight Effect No Effect Slight Effect Slight Effect Medium Slight Effect Slight
Temperature Dominated Effect Effect Effect Effect
System Water Slight Medium Effect Medium High Effect No Effect Medium Effect Slight Effect High Effect Medium Effect Medium
Dominated Effect Effect Effect
25
Renewable Energy Scenario of the World and Future Pattern
Abbaszadeh, P. , Maleki, A. , Alipour, M. , and Maman, Y.K. 2013. Iran’s oil development
scenarios by 2025. Energy Policy, Volume 56, 2013, Pages 612–622. ISSN 0301-4215.
Awan, A.B. , Zubair, M. , Praveen, R.P. , and Bhatti, A.R. 2019. Design and comparative
analysis of photovoltaic and parabolic trough based CSP plants. Solar Energy, Volume 183,
2019, Pages 551–565. ISSN 0038-092X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.03.037.
Beainy, A. , Maatouk, C. , Moubayed, N. , and Kaddah, F. 2016. Comparison of different types
of generator for wind energy conversion system topologies. 2016 3rd International Conference
on Renewable Energies for Developing Countries (REDEC), Zouk Mosbeh, 2016, pp. 1–6, doi:
10.1109/REDEC.2016.7577535.
Belyakov, N. 2019. Chapter 16 - Wind energy. Editor(s): Nikolay Belyakov, Sustainable Power
Generation, Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, 2019, Pages 397–415, ISBN 9780128170120.
Breeze, P. 2019. Chapter 12- Geothermal power, Editor(s): Paul Breeze, Power Generation
Technologies (Third Edition) Newnes, London, 2019, Pages 275–291. ISBN 9780081026311.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-102631-1.00012-2.
Carneiro, P. , and Ferreira, P. 2012. The economic, environmental and strategic value of
biomass. Renewable Energy, Volume 44, 2012, Pages 17–22, ISSN 0960-1481, doi:
10.1016/j.renene.2011.12.020.
Dalton, G. , Allan, G. , Beaumont, N. , et al . 2015. Economic and socio-economic assessment
methods for ocean renewable energy: Public and private perspectives. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 45, 2015, Pages 850–878, ISSN 1364-0321, doi:
10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.068.
Dorraj, M. , Morgan, K. , Alhajji, A. , et al . 2021 Global Impact of Unconventional Energy
Resources. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD. ISBN: 978-1498566094.
Dolores, E.M. , José, S.L.G. , and Vicente, N. 2017. Classification of wave energy converters.
Recent Advances in Petrochemical Science, Volume 2(4), Page 555593. doi:
10.19080/RAPSCI.2017.02.555593.
Gielen, D. , Boshell, F. , Saygin, D. , Bazilian, M.D. , Wagner, N. , and Gorini, R. 2019. The role
of renewable energy in the global energy transformation. Energy Strategy Reviews, Volume 24,
2019, Pages 38–50. ISSN 2211-467X. doi: 10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.006.
Gupta, N. , Joshal, K.S. , and Tomar, A. 2021. Chapter 9- Environmental and technoeconomic
aspects of distributed generation. Editor(s): Anuradha Tomar, Ritu Kandari, Advances in Smart
Grid Power System, Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, Pages 237–263. ISBN 9780128243374.
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-824337-4.00009-6.
Haverson, D. , Bacon, J. , Smith, H.C.M. , and Venugopal, V.X.Q. 2018 Modelling the
hydrodynamic and morphological impacts of tidal stream development in Ramsey sound.
Renewable Energy, Volume 126, Pages 876–887.
Holbert, K. E. 2011. Chapter 10 - solar thermal electric power plants. Handbook of Renewable
Energy Technology. Copyright © 2011 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. Pages
225–243, ISBN-13 978-981-4289-06-1.
Hunt, T. M. 2000. Five lectures on environmental effects of geothermal utilization. Geothermal
training programme. The United Nations University, Reports 2000. Number 1, 9–22.
IRENA. 2012. Biomass for Power Generation, Renewable Energy Technologies: Cost Analysis
Series. Volume 1: Power Sector, Issue 1/5.
IRENA. 2017. Geothermal Power: Technology Brief, International Renewable Energy Agency,
Abu Dhabi.
IRENA. 2020. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2019. ISBN 978-92-9260-244-4,
International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.
IRENA. 2021. https://www.irena.org/geothermal.
Jacobson, M.Z. 2009. Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security.
Energy & Environmental Science, Volume 2, Pages 148–173. doi: 10.1039/B809990C.
Jahirul, M.I. , Rasul, M.G. , Chowdhury, A.A. , and Ashwath, N. 2012. Biofuels production
through biomass pyrolysis — A technological review. Energies, Volume 5, Pages 4952–5001.
doi: 10.3390/en5124952, energies, ISSN 1996-1073, www.mdpi.com/journal/energies.
Johnson, G. 2005. A review of bat mortality at wind-energy developments in the United States.
Bat Research News, Volume 46(2), Pages 45–49.
Kabir, E. , Kumar, P. , Kumar, S. , Adelodun, A. , and Kim, K. 2017. Solar energy: Potential and
future prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 82, Pages 894–900.
doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.094.
Kaldellis, J. , Garakis, K. , and Kapsali, M. 2012. Noise impact assessment on the basis of
onsite acoustic noise immission measurements for a representative wind farm. Renewable
Energy Volume 41 (2012), Pages 306e314.
Kaltschmitt, M. , Streicher, W. , and Wiese, A. 2007. Wind power generation. In: Kaltschmitt M.,
Streicher W., Wiese A. (eds.) Renewable Energy. Springer, Berlin. doi: 10.1007/3-540-70949-
5_7.
Letcher, T. 2017. Wind Energy Engineering: A Handbook for Onshore and Offshore Wind
Turbines. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. ISBN 9780128094297.
MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India) . 2021.
https://mnre.gov.in/new-technologies/ocean-energy.
National Instruments. 2020. Wind Turbine Control methods. https://www.ni.com/en-
in/innovations/white-papers/08/wind-turbine-control-methods.html.
NISE (National Institute of Solar Energy). 2020. ‘Surya Rasmi’, a monthly newsletter of NISE,
Issue 2, Volume 1, December Edition.
Nikitas, G. , Bhattacharya, S. , Vimalan, N. , Demirci, H.E. , Nikitas, N. , and Kumar, P. 2019.
10- Wind power: A sustainable way to limit climate change, Editor(s): Trevor M. Letcher,
Managing Global Warming, Academic Press, Cambridge, MA. Pages 333–364. ISBN
9780128141045. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814104-5.00010-7.
Pavel, C.C. , Lacal-Arántegui, R. , Marmier, A. , Schüler, D. , Tzimas, E. , and Buchert, M. , et al
. 2017. Substitution strategies for reducing the use of rare earths in wind turbines. Resource
Policy Volume 52, Pages 349–357.
Prasad, R.D. , and Bansal, R.C. 2011. Chapter 9 - Photovoltaic systems. Handbook of
Renewable Energy Technology. Copyright © 2011 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
Pages 205–223. ISBN-13 978-981-4289-06-1.
Rao, K.R. 2019. Wind energy: Technical considerations – contents. In: Wind Energy for Power
Generation. Springer, Cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-75134-4_1.
Rivera G. , Felix, A. , and Mendoza, E. 2020. A review on environmental and social impacts of
thermal gradient and tidal currents energy. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, Volume 17, Pages 7791. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17217791.
www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph.
Seveda, M.S. , Rathore, N.S. , and Kumar, V. 2011. Chapter 14 - Biomass as a Source of
Energy. In: Handbook of Renewable Energy Technology. Copyright © 2011 by World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. Pages 323–343, ISBN-13 978-981-4289-06-1.
U.S. Department of Energy Office. 2009. Ocean Energy Technology Overview. U.S.
Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Federal Energy
Management Program, DOE/GO-102009-2823, July 2009.
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2013/ph240/lim2/docs/44200.pdf.
Willis, C.K. , Barclay, R.M. , Boyles, J.G. , Brigham, R.M. , Brack Jr., V. , Waldien, D.L. , and
Reichard, J. 2009. Bats Are Not Birds and Other Problems with Sovacools, Analysis of Animal
Fatalities Due to Electricity Generation.
Wu, Y. , Zhao, F. , Liu, S. , et al. 2018. Bioenergy production and environmental impacts.
Geoscience Letters Volume 5, 14. doi: 10.1186/s40562-018-0114-y.
Yao, F. , Bansal, R.C. , Dong, Z.Y. , Saket, R. K. , and Shakya, J.S. 2011. Chapter - Wind
energy resources: Theory, design and applications. In Handbook of Renewable Energy
Technology. Copyright © 2011 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. Pages 3–19. ISBN-
13 978-981-4289-06-1.

Technical Challenges in Renewable Generations and Their Integration

to Grid
Akhtar, Z. , Saqib, M. A. 2016. Microgrids formed by renewable energy integration into power
grids pose electrical protection challenges. Renew Energ 99: 148–157.
Allard, S. , Mima, S. , Debusschere, V. , Quoc, T. T. , Hadjsaid, N. 2020. European transmission
grid expansion as a flexibility option in a scenario of large scale variable renewable energies
integration. Energ Econ 87: 104733.
Chen, H. , Xuan, P. , Wang, Y. , Tan, K. and Jin, X. 2016. Key technologies for integration of
multitype renewable energy sources: Research on multi-timeframe robust scheduling/dispatch.
IEEE T Smart Grid 7(1): 471–480. doi: 10.1109/TSG.2015.2388756.
Chen, T. , Pipattanasomporn, M. , Rahman, I. , Jing, Z. , Rahman, S. 2020. MATPLAN: A
probability-based planning tool for cost-effective grid integration of renewable energy. Renew
Energ 156: 1089–1099.
Cifor, A. , Denholm, P. , Ela, E. , Hodge, B.-M. , Reed, A. 2015. The policy and institutional
challenges of grid integration of renewable energy in the western United States. Util Policy 33:
34–41.
Eissa, M. M. 2018. New protection principle for smart grid with renewable energy sources
integration using WiMAX centralized scheduling technology. Int J Elec Power 97: 372–384.
Gur, K. , Chatzikyriakou, D. , Baschet, C. , Salomon, M. 2018. The reuse of electrified vehicle
batteries as a means of integrating renewable energy into the European electricity grid: A policy
and market analysis. Energ Policy 113: 535–545.
Hassan, H. A. H. , Pelov, A. and Nuaymi, L. 2015. Integrating cellular networks, smart grid, and
renewable energy: Analysis, architecture, and challenges. IEEE Access 3: 2755–2770. doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2015.2507781.
Howell, S. , Rezgui, Y. , Hippolyte, J. L. , Jayan, B. and Li, H. 2017. Towards the next
generation of smart grids: Semantic and holonic multi-agent management of distributed energy
resources. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77: 193–214.
Jafari, M. , Malekjamshidi, Z. , Zhu, J. 2019. Design and development of a multi-winding high-
frequency magnetic link for grid integration of residential renewable energy systems. Appl Energ
242: 1209–1225.
Ju, L. , Tan, Q. , Lin, H. , Mei, S. , Wang, Y. 2020. A two-stage optimal coordinated scheduling
strategy for micro energy grid integrating intermittent renewable energy sources considering
multi-energy flexible conversion. Energ 196: 117078.
Komiyama, R. , Otsuki, T. , Fujii, Y. 2015. Energy modeling and analysis for optimal grid
integration of large-scale variable renewables using hydrogen storage in Japan. Energ 81:
537–555.
Li, Y. W. , Vilathgamuwa, D. M. and Loh, P. C. 2006. A grid-interfacing power quality
compensator for three-phase three-wire microgrid applications. IEEE transactions on Power
Electronics 21(4): 1021–1031.
Luhmann, T. , Wieben, E. , Treydel, R. Stadler , M., Kumm, T. 2015. An approach for cost-
efficient grid integration of distributed renewable energy sources. Eng 1(4): 447–452.
Luo, C. , Huang, Y. and Gupta, V. 2018. Stochastic dynamic pricing for EV charging stations
with renewable integration and energy storage. IEEE T Smart Grid 9(2): 1494–1505. doi:
10.1109/TSG.2017.2696493.
Matschoss, P. , Bayer, B. , Thomas, H. , Marian, A. 2019. The German incentive regulation and
its practical impact on the grid integration of renewable energy systems. Renew Energ 134:
727–738.
Mendoza-Vizcaino, J. , Raza, M. , Sumper, A. , Díaz-González, F. , Galceran-Arellano, S. 2019.
Integral approach to energy planning and electric grid assessment in a renewable energy
technology integration for a 50/50 target applied to a small island. Appl Energ 233–234:
524–543.
Merai, M. , Naouar, M. W. , Slama-Belkhodja, I. , Monmasson, E. 2020. A systematic design
methodology for DC-link voltage control of single phase grid-tied PV systems. Math Comput
Simulat 183:158–170.
Mohamed, I. , Mosaad, M. , Abed El-Raouf, O. , Al-Ahmar, M. A. Bendary , F. M. 2019. Optimal
PI controller of DVR to enhance the performance of hybrid power system feeding a remote area
in Egypt. Sustain Cities Soc 47: 101469.
Nan, J. , Yao, W. and Wen, J. 2019. Energy storage-based control of multi-terminal DC grid to
eliminate the fluctuations of renewable energy. J Eng 2019(16): 991–995. doi:
10.1049/joe.2018.8440.
Parizy, E. S. , Choi, S. and Bahrami, H. R. 2020. Grid-specific co-optimization of incentive for
generation planning in power systems with renewable energy sources. IEEE T Sustain Energy
11(2):947–957. doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2019.2914875.
Rahbar, K. , Xu, J. and Zhang, R. 2015. Real-time energy storage management for renewable
integration in microgrid: An off-line optimization approach. IEEE T Smart Grid 6(1): 124–134.
doi: 10.1109/TSG.2014.2359004.
Seck, G. S. , Krakowski, V. , Assoumou, E. , Maïzi, N. , Mazauric, V. 2020. Embedding power
system’s reliability within a long-term energy system optimization model: Linking high renewable
energy integration and future grid stability for France by 2050. Appl Energ 257: 114037.
Shahnazian, F. , Adabi, J. , Pouresmaeil, E. , Catalão, J.P.S. 2018. Interfacing modular
multilevel converters for grid integration of renewable energy sources. Electr Pow Syst Res 160:
439–449.
Yi, W. , Zhang, Y. , Zhao, Z. , Huang, Y. 2018. Multiobjective robust scheduling for smart
distribution grids: Considering renewable energy and demand response uncertainty. IEEE
Access 6: 45715–45724. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS..2865598.
Zhang, D. , You, P. , Liu, F. , Zhang, Y. , Feng, C. 2018. Regulating cost for renewable energy
integration in power grids. Global Energ Interconnect 1(5): 544–551.
Zhang, Y. , Dai, X. and Han, X. 2017. Renewable energy integration capacity assessment in
regional power grid based on an enhanced sequential production simulation. J Eng 2017(13):
1065–1070. doi: 10.1049/joe.2017.0493.

Renewable Energy Integration Issues from Consumer and Utility

Perspective
Adarmola, M. , & Vagnes, E. (2015). Preliminary assessment of a small scale rooftop PV-gird
tied in Norwegian climatic conditions. Energy conversion and Management, 90, 458–465.
Agai, F. , Caka, N. , & Komoni, V. (2011). Design optimization and simulation of the photovoltaic
systems on buildings in south east Europe. International Journal of Advances in Engineering
and Technology, 1, 58–68.
Ahmed, S.D. , et al. (2020, January). Grid energy challenges of wind energy: A review. IEEE
Access, 8, 10857–10878.
Alenius, H. , Luhtala, R. , Messo, T. , & Roinila, T. (2020). Autonomous reactive power support
for smart photovoltaic inverter based on real-time grid-impedance measurements of a weak
grid. Electrical Power Systems Research, 182, 1–14.
Alshaharani, A. , Omer, S.A. , Su, Y. , & Mohamed, E. (2019). The technical challenges facing
the integration of small scale and large scale PV Systems into the grid: A critical review.
Electronics, 8(12):1443.
Ayompe, L.M. , Duffy, A. , McCormack, S.J. , & Conlon, M. (2011). Measured Perforamance of
1.72kWp Rooftop Grid connected photovltaic system in Ireland. Energy Conversion and
Management, 52, 816–825.
Badal, F. R. (2019). A survey on control issues in renewable energy integration and microgrid.
Protection and Control Modern Power Systems, 4, 8.
Bhawan, S. , & Puram, R. (2014). CO 2 Baseline Database for the Indian Power Sector. New
Delhi: Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, GoI.
Bosman, L. B.-S. (2020). PV system predictive maintenance: Challenges, current approaches,
and opportunities. Energies, 13, 1398.
de Lima, C.L. , de Araújo Ferreira, L. , & de Lima Morais, F. H. B. (2017). Performance analysis
of a grid connected photovoltaic system in North eastern Brazil. Energy for Sustainable
Development, 37, 79–85.
Decker, B. , & Jahn, U. (1997). Performance of 170 grid connected PV plants in North Germany
- analysis of yields and optimization potentials. Solar Energy, 59, 127–133.
Dierauf, T. , Growitz, A. , Kurtz, S. , Cruz, J.L.B. , Riley, E. , & Hansen, C. (2013). Weather
corrected Performance Ratio. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
Eke, R. , & Demircan, H. (2013). Performance analysis of a multi crystalline Si photovoltaic
module under Mugla Climatic conditions in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management, 65,
580–586.
Farhoodnea, M. , Mohammed, A. , Masou, T. K. , & Elmenreich, W. (2015). Performance
evaluation and characterization of a 3-kWp grid connected photovoltaic system based on
tropical field experimental results: New results and comparative study. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 1047–1054.
Gray, J. , Luque, A. , & Hegedus, S. (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and
Engineering. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Hamrouni, N. , Younsi, S. , & Jraidi, M. (2019). A flexible active and reactive power control
strategy of a LV grid connected PV system. Energy Procedia, 162, 325–338.
Houssain, Z. , Merrouni, A. A. , Regragui, M. , Bouachi, A. , Hajjaj, C. , Gennioui, A. , & Ikken, B.
(2019). Experimental investigation of the soiling effect on the performance of monocrystalline
photovoltaic systems. Energy Procedia, 157, 1011–1021.
IEC. (1998). 61724: Phototvoltaic System Performance Monitoring - Guidelines for
Measurement, Data Exchange and Analysis. Geneva: International Electrotechnical
Commission.
IEC 61724-1. (2017). Photovoltaic System Performance Part 1: Monitoring. Geneva,
Switzerland: International Electrotechnical commission.
Indian Meteorological Department. (2016). Rainfall Statistics of India. New Delhi: Indian
Meteorological Department.
Kumar, B. S. , & Sudhakar, K. (2015). Performance evaluation of 10 MWp grid connected solar
photovotlaic power plant in India. Energy Reports, 1, 184–192.
Kymakis, E. , Kalykakis, S. , & Papazoglou, T. (2009). Performance analysis of a grid connected
photovoltaic park on the island of Crete. Energy Conversion and Management, 50(3), 433–438.
Lopez, M. , & Sidrach-de-Cardona, M. (1998). Evaluation of a grid connected photovoltaic
system in southern spain. Renewable Energy, 15, 527–530.
Kymakis, E. , Kalykakis, S. , & Papazoglou, T. (2009). Performance analysis of a grid connected
photovoltaic park on the island of Crete. Energy Conversion and Management, 50, 433–438.
Matschoss, P. , Bayer, B. , Thomas, H. , & Marian, A. (2018). The German incentive regulation
and its practical impact on the grid integration of renewable energy systems. Renewable
Energy, 134, 727–738.
Micheli, L. , Muller, M. , Deceglie, M. & Ruth, D. (2017). Time Series Analysis of Photovoltaic
Soiling Station Data. Colorado, US: National Renewable Enery Lab.
Mondol, J. , Yohanis, Y. , Smyth, M. , & Norton, B. (2006). Long term performance analysis of a
grid connected Photovoltaic system in Northern Ireland. Energy Conversion and Management,
47, 2925–2947.
Moore, L. , & Post, H. (2008). Five Years of operating experience at a large utility scale
photovoltaic generating plant. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 249–259.
Moore, L. , Post, H. , Hayden, H. , Canada, S. , & Narang, D. (2005). Photovoltaic power plant
experience at Arizona Public Service - A 5 Year Assessment. Progress in Photovoltaics:
Research and Applications, 13, 353–363.
Napat, W. (2006). Two years performance of a 5kWp amorphous silicon GPV system. 21st
European Solar Energy Conference. Dresden, Germany.
NREL. (2013). Integrating Variable Renewable Energy: Challenges and Solutions. U.S.
Department of Energy. NREL.
Nwaigwe, K. N. (2019). An overview of solar power (PV systems) integration into electricity
grids. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 2 (3), 629–633.
Padmavathi, K. , & Daniel, A. S. (2013). Performance Analysis of 3MWp grid connected solar
photovltaic plant in India. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17, 615–625.
Pritam Satsangi, K. B. (2019). Real time performance of solar photovoltaic microgrid in India
focusing on Self-consumption in institutional buildings. Energy for Sustainable Development, 52,
40–51.
Prusty, B.R. , & Jena, D. (2018). An over-limit risk assessment of PV integrated power system
using probabilistic load flow based on multi-time instant uncertainty modeling. Renewable
energy, 116, Part A, 367–383.
Prusty, B. R. , & Jena, D. (2019). A spatiotemporal probabilistic modelbased temperature
augmented probabilistic load flow considering PV generations. International transactions on
Electrical Energy Systems, 29 (5), 1–13.
Pundir, K. , Nandini, V. , & Singh, G. (2016). Comparative study of perforamance of grid
connected solar photvoltaic system in IIT Roorkee campus. International Conference on
Innovative Trends in Science, Engineering and Management. New Delhi, INdia.
Raghuvanshi, S.P. , Chandra, A. , & Raghav, A. (2006). Carbon dioxideemissions from coal
based power generation in India. Energy Conversion and Management, 47, 427–441.
Sarkar, N. I. , Meegahapola, L.G. , & Datta, M. (2018). Reactive power management in
renewable rich power grids: A review of grid-codes, renewable generators, support devices,
control strategies and optimization algorithms. IEEE Access, 6, 41458–41489.
Sharma, R. , & Goel, S. (2017). Performance analysis of 11.2 kWp roof top grid connected PV
system in Eastern India. Energy Reports, 3, 76–84.
Sharma, V. , & Chandel, S. (2013). Performance analysis of a 190 kWp grid interactive solar
photovoltaic power plant in India. Energy, 55, 476–485.
So, J. H. , Young, Y. , Yu, G. , Choi, J. , & Choi, J. (2007). Performance results and analysis of
3kW grid connected PV systems. Renewable Energy, 32, 1858–1872.
Solanki, C. (2015). Solar Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications. New
Delhi: Prentice-Hall India Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Sufyan, M. , Rahim, N. , Eid, B. , & Raihan, S.R.S. (2019). A comprehensive review of reactive
power control strategies for three phase grid coonnected photovoltaic systems with low voltage
ride through capability. Journal of Renewable Sustainable Energy, 11, 042701.
Sundaram, S. , & Babu, J. S. (2015). Performance evaluation and validation of 5MWp grid
connected photovltaic plant in South India. Energy Conversion and Management, 100,
429–439.
Tongia, R. , Harish, S. , & Walawalkar, R. (2018). Integrating Renewable Energy into India’s
Grid: Harder Than It Looks. New Delhi: Brookings India Impact Series.
Trueblood, C. , Coley, S. , Key, T. , Rogers, L. , Ellis, A. , Hansen, C. , & Philpot, E. (2013). PV
Measures up for fleet duty. IEEE Power & Energy, 11, 33–44.
Varun Kumar , Pandey, A. S. , & Sinha, S. K. (2016). Grid integration and power quality issues
of wind and solar energy system: A review. International Conference on Emerging Trends in
Electrical Electronics and Sustainable Energy Systems (pp. 71–80). IEEE.
Wittkopf, S. , et al. (2012). Analytical performance monitoring of a 142.5kWp grid connected
rooftop BIPV system in Singapore. Renewable Energy, 47, 130–138.
Yadav, S. K. , & Bajpai, U. (2018). Performance Analysis of rooftop solar photovoltaic power
plant in Northern India. Energy for Sustainable Development, 43, 130–138.

Voltage Issues in Power Networks with Renewable Power Generation

A.R. Bergen and V. Vittal , Power System Analysis, Prentice Hall, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
A.Q. Al-Shetwi , M.A. Hannan , K.P. Jern , M. Mansur , and T.M.I. Mahlia , Grid-connected
renewable energy sources: Review of the recent integration requirements and control methods.
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 253, p. 119831, 2020. ISSN 0959-6526.
W.G. Chaminda Bandara , G.M.R.I. Godaliyadda , M.P.B. Ekanayake , and J.B. Ekanayake ,
Coordinated photovoltaic re-phasing: A novel method to maximize renewable energy integration
in low voltage networks by mitigating network unbalances. Applied Energy, vol. 280, p. 116022,
2020. ISSN 0306-2619.
CIRED preliminary report of CIRED Working Group 04, Dispersed Generation Issued at the
CIRED Conference in Nice , June 1999.
A. Schweer , Special report session 3. In Proceedings of CIGRE Symposium on Impact of
Demand Side Management, Integrated Resource Planning and Distributed Generation, Neptun,
Romania, 1997.
A.J. Petrella, Issues , impacts and strategies for distributed generation challenged power
systems. In Proceedings of CIGRE Symposium on Impact of Demand Side Management,
Integrated Resource Planning and Distributed Generation, Neptun, Romania, 1997.
A. Borbely and J.F. Kreider , Distributed A New Paradigm for the New Millenium, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2001.
IEA , Renewable Energy, Market and Policy Trends in IEA Countries, International Energy
Agency, France, 2004.
S. Rahman , Green power: What is and where we can find it? IEEE Power and Energy
Magazine, vol. 1, pp. 30–37, JanuaryFebruary 2003.
M. Thomson , Automatic voltage control relays and embedded generation. Part I. Power
Engineering Journal, vol. 14, pp. 71–76, April 2000.
C.W. Taylor , Power System Voltage Stability, Mc Graw Hill, New York, 1994.
B. Milosevic and M. Begovic , Capacitor placement for conservative voltage reduction on
distribution feeders. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 19, no. 3, July 2004.
V. Borozan , M.E. Baran , and D. Novosel , Integrated Volt/Var control in distribution systems. In
Proceedings of IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, 2001.
A. Augugliaro , L. Dusonchet , S. Favuzza , and E.R. Sanseverino , Voltage regulation and
power losses minimization in automated distribution networks by an evolutionary multiobjective
approach. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 19, no.3, August 2004.
R.H. Liang and C.K. Cheng , Dispatch of main transformer ULTC and capacitors in a distribution
system. IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, vol. 16, No. 4, October 2001.
S. Corsi , P. Marannino , N. Losignore , G. Moreschini , and G. Piccini , Coordination between
the reactive power scheduling function and the hierarchical voltage control of the EHV Enel
system. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 10, no. 2, May 1995.
H. Vu , P. Pruvot , C. Launay , and Y. Harmand , An improved voltage control on largescale
power system. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 11, no. 3, August 1996.
B. Cova , N. Losignore , P. Marannino , and M. Montagna , Contingency constrained optimal
reactive power flow procedures for voltage control in planning and operation. IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 602–608, May 1995.
C.M. Affonso , L.C.P. da Silva , F.G.M. Lima , and S. Soares , MW and MVar management on
supply and demand side for meeting voltage stability margin criteria. IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1538–1545, August 2004.
P. Kundur , IEEE CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and definitions, definition and
classification of power system stability. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 19, no. 2,
pp. 1387–1401, May 2004.
A.E. Hammad and M.Z. El Sadek , Prevention of transient voltage instabilities due to induction
motor loads by static VAR compensators. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 4, no. 3,
pp. 1182–1190, August 1989.
M.H. AbdelRahman , F.M.H. Youssef , and A.A. Saber , New static var compensator control
strategy and coordination with underload tap changer. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 1630–1635, July 2006.
A.C. De Souza , C.A. Canizares , and V.H. Quintana , New techniques to speedup voltage
collapse computations using tangent vectors. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 12,
no. 3, pp. 1380–1387, 1997.
M. Moghavvemi and O. Faruque , Realtime contingency evaluation and ranking technique. in
IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution,1998. IET.
G. Verbič and F. Gubina , A novel concept for voltage collapse protection based on local
phasors. In Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition2002: Asia Pacific. IEEE.
2002. IEEE.
N.V. Acharya and P. Rao . A new voltage stability index based on the tangent vector of the
power flow jacobian. In 2013 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid TechnologiesAsia (ISGTAsia). 2013.
IEEE.
M. Farrokhabadi , Automated topology processing for conventional, phasorassisted and phasor
only state estimators. 2012, Master’s thesis, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).
C. Qian , Z. Wang , and J. Zhang . A new algorithm of topology analysis based on PMU
Information. In 2010 5th International Conference on Critical Infrastructure (CRIS), 2010. IEEE.
A. Wood , B.F. Wollenberg , and G.B. Sheblé , Power Generation, Operation and Control.
Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2013.
https://www.larsentoubro.com/ (L&T Construction for Case study)
https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/67185.pdf.
M.M.M. Kamel , Development and Application of a New Voltage Stability Index for On-Line
Monitoring and Shedding, M.Sc Thesis, The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Tennessee, 2016.
F.A. Viawan , Voltage Control and Voltage Stability of Power Distribution Systems in the
Presence of Distributed Generation, Ph.d Thesis, Chalmers University Of Technology Göteborg,
Sweden, 2008.
E.G. Brown Jr ., Governor, Microgrid Analysis and Case Studies Report, Energy Research and
Development Division, California, August 2018.
C.H. Wei , A.I. Xin , W.U. Tao , and L. Hui , nfluence of grid-connected photovoltaic system on
power network. Electric Power Automation Equipment, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 26–32, 2013.
R. Yan and T.K. Saha , Investigation of voltage stability for residential customers due to high
photovoltaic penetrations. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 651–662,
2012.
R.A. Shayani and M.A.G. de Oliveira , Photovoltaic generation penetration limits in radial
distribution systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1625–1631,
2011.
Y. Wang , F. Wen , B. Zhao , and X. Zhang , Analysis and countermeasures of voltage violation
problems caused by high-density distributed photovoltaics. Proceedings of the CSEE, vol. 36,
pp. 1200–1206, 2016.
Y. Che , W. Li , X. Li , J. Zhou , S. Li , and X. Xi , An improved coordinated control strategy for
PV system integration with VSC-MVDC technology. Energies, vol. 10, no. 10, p. 1670, 2017.
N. Jayasekara , P. Wolfs , and M.A.S. Masoum , An optimal management strategy for
distributed storages in distribution networks with high penetrations of PV. Electric Power
Systems Research, vol. 116, pp. 147–157, 2014.
W. Zhang , Z. Liu , and L. Shen , Flexible grid-connection of photovoltaic power generation
system with energy storage system for fluctuation smoothing. Electric Power Automation
Equipment, vol. 33, no. 5, article 106G111, 2013.
Q. Li and J. Zhang , Solutions of voltage beyond limits in distribution network with distributed
photovoltaic generators. Automation of Electric Power Systems, vol. 39, no. 22, pp. 117–123,
2015.
K. Ma , C. Yuan , J. Yang , Z. Liu , and X. Guan , Switched control strategies of aggregated
commercial HVAC systems for demand response in smart grids. Energies, vol. 10, no. 7, p.
953, 2017.
X. Xu , Y. Huang , C. Liu , W. Wang , and Y.L. Wang , Influence of distributed photovoltaic
generation on voltage in distribution network and solution of voltage beyond limits. Power
System Technology, vol. 10, no. 34, pp. 140–146, 2010.
http://www.ddugjy.gov.in/page/definition_electrified_village .
S.W. Mohod and M.V. Aware , Power quality and grid code issues in wind energy conversion
system, in An Update on Power Quality, D.D.-C. Lu (ed.), IntechOpen, 2013. doi:
10.5772/54704.
K.N. Nwaigwe , P. Mutabilwa , and E. Dintwa , An overview of solar power (PV Systems)
integration into electricity grids. Materials Science for Energy Technologies, 2019. doi:
10.1016/j.mset.2019.07.002.

Reactive Power Management in Power Systems Integrated with

Renewable Generations
Riesz J. , Gilmore J. and MacGill I. 2015. Frequency control ancillary service market design:
insights from the Australian national electricity market. The Electricity Journal (Elsevier) 28:
86–99.
Hirst E. and Kirby B. 1996. Costs for electric-power ancillary services. The Electricity Journal, 9:
26–30.
Singh S.N. , Parida S.K. , and Shrivastava S.C. 2009. Ancillary sevices management policies in
India, An overview and key issues. The Electricity Journal, 22: 88–97.
Rebours Y.G. , Kirschen D.S. , and Trotignon M. 2007. A survey of frequency and voltage
control ancillary services—Part I: Technical features. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 22:
350–357.
Singh S.N. , Parida S.K. , and Shrivastava S.C. 2009. Reactive power cost allocation by using a
value-based approach. IET Generation Transmission Distribution, 3: 872–884.
Bhattacharya K. and Zhong J. 2001. Reactive power as an ancillary service. IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, 16: 294–300.
The National Grid Company. 1999. NGC Reactive Market Report.
Ahmed S. and Strbac G. 1999. A method for simulation and analysis of reactive power market.
Proceedings of Power Industry Computer Applications Conference, 13:337–341.
New York Independent System Operator . 1999. NYISO Ancillary Services Manual, 1999.
Shangyou H. , and Papalexopoulos A. 1997. Reactive power pricing and management. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, 12: 95–102.
Maxwell M. , and Hawary E.I. 1999. A summary of algorithms in reactive power pricing.
International Journal Electric Power Energy Systems, 21:119–124.
Horacio J. , Jimenez-Guzman M. , and Gutierrez-Alcaraz G. 2005. Ancillary reactive power
service allocation cost in deregulated markets: A methodology. International Journal Electric
Power Energy Systems, 27: 371–378.
Dai Y. , Ni Y.X. , and Shen C.M. 2001. A study of reactive power marginal price in electricity
market. International Journal Electric Power Energy System, 57: 41–48.
Zhang T. , Elkasrawy A. , and Venkatesh B. 2009. A new computational method for reactive
power market clearing. International Journal Electric Power Energy Systems, 31: 285–293.
Alturky Y.A. , Lo K.L. 2010 Real and reactive power loss allocation in pool-based electricity
markets. International Journal Electric Power Energy Systems, 32: 262–270.
Lamont J.W. and Jian F. 1999. Cost analysis of reactive power support. IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, 14: 890–895.
Miller T.J. 1982. Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Ranatunga R.A.S. K., Annakkage U.D. , and Kumble C.S. 2003. Algorithms for incorporating
reactive power into market dispatch. International Journal Electric Power Energy Systems, 65:
179–186.
Chung C.Y. , Chung T.S. , Yu C.W. , and Lin X.J. 2004. Cost-based reactive power pricing with
voltage security consideration in restructured power systems. International Journal Electric
Power Systems 70: 85–91.
Tiwari A. , and Ajjarapu V. 2007. Reactive power cost allocation based on modified power flow
tracing methodology. In IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, pp. 1–7.
Vaidya G.A. , Gopalakrishnan N. , and Nerkar Y.P. 2011. Reactive power pricing structure for
hydroelectric power station in condenser mode operation. International Journal Electric Power
Energy Systems, 33: 1420–1428.
Chattopadhyay D. , Bhattacharya K. , and Parikh J. 1995. Optimal reactive power planning and
its spot pricing: An integrated approach. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 10: 2014–2019.
Kumar J. , and Kumar A. 2011. ACPTDF for multi-transactions and ATC determination in
deregulated markets. International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 1:
71–84.
Sawhney H. , and Jeyasurya B. 2004. Application of unified power flow controller for available
transfer capability enhancement. Electric Power Systems Research, 69:155–160.
Farahmand H. , Rashidi-Nejad M. , and Fotuhi-Firoozabad M. 2004. Implementation of FACTS
devices for ATC enhancement using RPF technique. In Proceedings of the IEEE, Power
Engineering, pp. 30–35.
Menniti D. , Scordino N. , and Sorrentino N. 2006. A new method for SSSC optimal location to
improve power system available transfer capability. In Proceedings of the IEEE, Power Systems
Conference and Exposition, pp. 938–945.
Reactive power support services in electricity markets. 2001. Power System Engineering
Research Center (PSERC) publication.
Kumar S. , Kumar A. , and Sharma N.K. 2013. Role of PMU & FACTS Controllers in Voltage
Stability Analysis of Integrated Wind Farms. RTESC, NIT Kurukshetra, pp. 34–38.
Paucar V.L. and Rider M.J. 2001. Reactive power pricing in deregulated electrical markets
using methodology based on theory of marginal costs. In IEEE PES General Meeting.
Cooper Crouse Hinde. 1999. Hydrogen cooled alternator purging. Hitech Instruments Report.
Baudry R.A. , and King E.I. 1965. Improved cooling for generators of large rating. Power
apparatus and systems. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 84: 106–114.
Ross M.D. 1931. The application of hydrogen cooling to turbine generators. American Institute
of Electrical Engineer Transactions 50: 381–386.
Nilsson N.E. , and Mercurio J. 1994. Sysnchronous generator capability curve testing and
evaluation. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 9: 414–424.
Greene S. , Dobson I. , and Alvarado F.L. 2002. Sensitivity of transfer capability margin with a
fast formula. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 17: 34–40.
Kumar S. , Kumar A. , and Sharma N.K. 2017. Sensitivity analysis based performance and
economic operation of wind integrated system with FACTS devices for optimum load dispatch.
Renewables-Wind, Water and Solar, 4: 1–13. Springer.
Ghawghawe N.D. and Thakre K.L. 2009. Computation of TCSC reactance and suggesting
criterion of its location for ATC enhancement. International Journal on Electric Power and
Energy Systems, 31: 86–93.
Kumar S. , and Kumar A. 2020. Design and optimization of multiple FACTS devices for
congestion mitigation using sensitivity factor with wind integrated system. IETE Journal of
Research. doi: 10.1080/03772063.2020.1787872.
Xiao Y. , Song Y.H. , and Sun Y.Z. 2003. Available transfer capability enhancement using
FACTS devices. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 18: 305–312.
Hasanpour S. , Ghazi R. , and Javid M.H. 2001. A new approach for accurate pricing of reactive
power and its application to cost allocation in deregulated electricity markets. Journal of Iranian
Association of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 7: 31–39. Fall & Winter.
Schweppe F.C. , Caramanis M.C. , and Bohn R.E. 1999. Locational based Pricing of Electricity.
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Baughman M.L. , and Siddiqi S.N. 1993.Real time pricing of reactive power: Theory and case
study results. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 6: 23–29.
Dandachi N. , Rawlins M. , O., and Stott B. , 1996. OPF for reactive power transmission pricing
on the NGC system. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 11: 226–232.

Optimum Scheduling and Dispatch of Power Systems with Renewable

Integration
The IEEE 30-Bus Test System.
http://www.ee.washington.edu/research/pstca/pf30/pg_ca30bus.htm. (Accessed 23rd March,
2021 ).
The IEEE 118-Bus Test System.
http://www.ee.washington.edu/research/pstca/pf118/pg_tca118bus.htm. (Accessed 23rd March,
2021 ).
Abido, M.A. 2002. Optimal power flow using tabu search algorithm. Electric Power Components
and Systems. 30(5):469–483.
Abido, M. A. 2014. Optimal power flow using particle swarm optimization. International Journal
of Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 24(7):563–571.
Alsac, O. , J. Bright , M. Prais , and B. Stott . 1990. Further development in LP- based optimal
power flow. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 5(3):697–711.
Arora, S. , and S. Singh . 2019. Butterfly optimization algorithm: A novel approach for global
optimization. Soft Computing. 23:715–734.
Attia, A-F , Y. A. Al-Turki , and A. M. Abusorrah . 2012. Optimal power flow using adapted
genetic algorithm with adjusting population size. Electric Power Components and Systems.
40(11):1285–1299.
Bakirtzis, A. G. , P.N. Biskas , C.E. Zoumas , and V. Petridis . 2002. Optimal power flow by
enhanced genetic algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 17(2):229–236.
Basu, M. 2011. Economic environmental dispatch using multi-objective differential evolution.
Applied Soft Computing. 11(2): 2845–2853.
Bhattacharya, A. , and P. K. Chattopadhyay . 2011. Application of biogeography-based
optimisation to solve different optimal power flow problems. IET Generation, Transmission &
Distribution. 5(1):70–80.
Bhattacharya, A. , and P. K. Chattopadhyay . 2010. Solution of optimal reactive power flow
using biogeography-based optimization. International Journal of Electrical and Computer
Engineering. 4(3):621–629.
Biswas, S. , T. Som , K. K. Mandal and N. Chakraborty . 2014. Cuckoo search algorithm based
optimal reactive power dispatch. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Control,
Instrumentation, Energy & Communication, Calcutta, India; 2014, 412–416.
Bjelogrlic, M. , M. S. Calovic , P. Ristanovic and B.S. Babic . 1990. Application of Newton’s
optimal power flow in voltage/reactive power control. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.
5(4):1447–1454.
Bouchekara, H. R. E. H. 2014. Optimal power flow using black-hole-based optimization
approach. Applied Soft Computing. 24:879–888.
Carpentier, J. 1979. Optimal power flows. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
Systems. 1 (1):3–15.
Dai, C. , W. Chen , Y. Zhu and X. Zhang . 2009. Seeker optimization algorithm for optimal
reactive power dispatch. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 24(3):1218–1231.
Devaraj, D. , and B. Yegnanarayana . 2005. Genetic algorithm based optimal power flow for
security enhancement. IEE Proceedings - Generation, Transmission and Distribution. 152(6):
899–905.
Dommel, H. W. , and W. F. Tinney . 1968. Optimal power flow solutions. IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems. PAS-87(10):1866–1876.
Dorigo, M. 1992. Optimization, learning and natural algorithms. Ph.D. thesis: Politecnico di
Milano, Italy.
Duman, S. , U. Güvenç , Y. Sönmez , and N. Yörükeren . 2012a. Optimal power flow using
gravitational search algorithm. Energy Conversion and Management. 59:86–95.
Duman, S. , Y. Sonmez , U. Guvenc and N. Yorukeren . 2011. Application of gravitational
search algorithm for optimal reactive power dispatch problem. International Symposium on
Innovations in Intelligent Systems and Applications, Istanbul, Turkey, 519–523.
Duman, S. , Y. Sonmez , U. Guvenc and N. Yorukeren . 2012b. Optimal reactive power
dispatch using a gravitational search algorithm. IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution.
6(6):563–576.
Ela, A. A. A. E. , M. A. Abido , and S. R. Spea . 2010. Optimal power flow using differential
evolution algorithm. Electric Power Systems Research. 80(7):878–885.
Ela, A. A. A. E. , M. A. Abido , S. R. Spea . 2011. Differential evolution algorithm for optimal
reactive power dispatch. Electric Power Systems Research. 81(2):458–464.
Eskandar, H. , A. Sadollah , A. Bahreininejad , and M. Hamdi . 2012. Water cycle algorithm– A
novel metaheuristic optimization method for solving constrained engineering optimization
problems. Computers & Structures. 110–111:151–166.
Fatah, S. A. , M. Ebeed and S. Kamel . 2019. Optimal reactive power dispatch using modified
sine cosine algorithm. 2019 International Conference on Innovative Trends in Computer
Engineering, Aswan, Egypt, 2019.
Ghasemi, A. , K. Valipour and A. Tohidi . 2014a. Multi objective optimal reactive power dispatch
using a new multi objective strategy. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
Systems. 57:318–334.
Ghasemi, M. , M. M. Ghanbarian , S. Ghavidel , E. M. Moghaddam . 2014b. Modified teaching
learning algorithm and double differential evolution algorithm for optimal reactive power dispatch
problem: A comparative study. Information Sciences. 278:231–249.
Ghasemi, M. , S. Ghavidel , S. Rahmani , A. Roosta , and H. Falah , 2014c. A novel hybrid
algorithm of imperialist competitive algorithm and teaching learning algorithm for optimal power
flow problem with non smooth cost functions. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence.
29:54–69.
Goldberg, D.E. 1989. Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning.
Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co, Boston, MA.
Goldberg, D.E. 2002. The Design of Innovation: Lessons from and for Competent Genetic
Algorithms. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Granville, S. 1994. Optimal reactive dispatch through interior point methods. IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems. 9(1):136–146.
Han, Y. , H. Li , P. Shen , E. A. A. Coelho , and J. M. Guerrero . 2017. Review of active and
reactive power sharing strategies in hierarchical controlled microgrids. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics. 32(3):2427–2451.
Hu, Z. , X. Wang , and G. Taylor . 2010. Stochastic optimal reactive power dispatch:
Formulation and solution method. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
Systems. 32(6):615–621.
Huang, C.M. , S.J. Chen , Y.C. Huang and H.T. Yang . 2012. Comparative study of evolutionary
computation methods for active–reactive power dispatch. IET Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, 6(7):636–645.
Iba, K. 1994. Reactive power optimization by genetic algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems. 9(2):685–692.
Jangir, P. , S. A. Parmar , I. N. Trivedi and R. H. Bhesdadiya . 2016. A novel hybrid particle
swarm optimizer with multi verse optimizer for global numerical optimization and optimal
reactive power dispatch problem. Engineering Science and Technology, an International
Journal. 20(2):570–586.
Kennedy, J. , and R. Eberhart . 1995. Particle swarm optimization. In Proceedings of the IEEE
International Conference on Neural Networks, Piscataway, NJ, USA; 1995, 1942–1948.
Khorsandi, A. , A. Alimardani , B. Vahidi , S. H. Hosseinian . 2010. Hybrid shuffled frog leaping
algorithm and nelder–mead simplex search for optimal reactive power dispatch. IET Generation,
Transmission and Distribution. 5(2):249–256.
Kinnear Jr., K.E. 1994. A perspective on the work in this book. In Advances in Genetic
Programming, edited by K. E. Kinnear Jr ., 3–19. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Krishnanand, K. R. , S. M. F. Hasani , B. K. Panigrahi and S. K. Panda . 2013. Optimal power
flow solution using self–evolving brain–storming inclusive teaching–learning–based algorithm. In
Advances in Swarm Intelligence, ICSI 2013, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 7928,
edited by Y. Tan , Y. Shi , H. Mo , 338–345. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Lai, L. L. , J. T. Ma , R. Yokoyama , and M. Zhao . 1997. Improved genetic algorithms for
optimal power flow under both normal and contingent operation states. International Journal of
Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 19(5):287–292.
Lee, K.Y. , Y. M. Park , J. L. Ortiz . 1985. A united approach to optimal real and reactive power
dispatch. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems. 104(5):1147–1153.
Liang, R-H. , J.-C. Wang , Y.-T. Chen , and W.-T. Tseng . 2015. An enhanced firefly algorithm
to multi-objective optimal active/reactive power dispatch with uncertainties consideration.
International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 64:1088–1097.
Mahadevan, K. and P.S. Kannan . 2010. Comprehensive learning particle swarm optimization
for reactive power dispatch. Applied Soft Computing. 10(2):641–652.
Mezura-Montes, E. , and C. A. C. Coello . 2011. Constraint-handling in nature inspired
numerical optimization: past, present and future. Swarm and Evolutionary Computation.
1(4):173–194.
Mohseni-Bonab, S.M. , A. Rabiee , and B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo . 2016. Voltage stability
constrained multiobjective optimal reactive power dispatch under load and wind power
uncertainties: A stochastic approach. Renewable Energy. 85:598–609.
Mohseni-Bonab, S.M. , A. Rabiee , and B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo . 2017. Multi-objective optimal
reactive power dispatch considering uncertainties in the wind integrated power systems. In
Reactive Power Control in AC Power Systems, edited by N. M. Tabatabaei , A. J. Aghbolaghi ,
N. Bizon , F. Blaabjerg , 475–513. Springer, Berlin.
Mohseni-Bonab, S.M. , A. Rabiee , S. Jalilzadeh , B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo , and S. Nojavan .
2015. Probabilistic multi objective optimal reactive power dispatch considering load
uncertainties using monte carlo simulations. Journal of Operation and Automation in Power
Engineering. 3(1):83–93.
Mohseni-Bonab, S.M. , A. Rabiee , B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo , S. Jalilzadeh , and S. Nojavan .
2016. A two-point estimate method for uncertainty modeling in multi-objective optimal reactive
power dispatch problem. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 75:
194–204.
Niknam, T. , M. R. Narimani , and R. Azizipanah-Abarghooee . 2012. A new hybrid algorithm for
optimal power flow considering prohibited zones and valve point effect. Energy Conversion and
Management. 58:197–206.
Panigrahi, B. K. , and V. R. Pandi . 2008. Bacterial foraging optimization: Nelder–mead hybrid
algorithm for economic load dispatch. IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution.
2(4):556–565.
Paranjothi, S. R. and K. Anburaja . 2002. Optimal power flow using refined genetic algorithm.
Electrical Power Components and Systems. 30(10):1055–1063.
Prusty, B. R. , and D. Jena . 2016. Combined cumulant and Gaussian mixture approximation for
correlated probabilistic load flow studies: a new approach. CSEE Journal of Power and Energy
Systems. 2(2): 71–78.
Prusty, B. R. , and D. Jena . 2018. Preprocessing of multi-time instant PV generation data. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems. 33(3):3189–3191.
Rajan, A. , K. Jeevan and T. Malakar . 2017. Weighted elitism-based ant lion optimizer to solve
optimum var planning problem. Applied Soft Computing. 55:352–370.
Rajan, A. , and T. Malakar . 2016. Exchange market algorithm based optimum reactive power
dispatch. Applied Soft Computing. 43:320–336.
Rajan , A, and T. Malakar . 2015. Optimal reactive power dispatch using hybrid nelder–mead
simplex based firefly algorithm. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems.
66:9–24.
Reddy, S. S. , and P.R. Bijwe . 2016. Efficiency improvements in meta-heuristic algorithms to
solve the optimal power flow problem. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
Systems. 82:288–302.
Reddy, S. S. , P. R. Bijwe , and A. R. Abhyankar . 2014. Faster evolutionary algorithm based
optimal power flow using incremental variables. International Journal of Electrical Power and
Energy Systems. 54:198–210.
Runarsson, T. P. , and X. Yao . 2000. Stochastic ranking for constrained evolutionary
optimization. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation. 4(3):284–294.
Sayah, S. and K. Zehar . 2008. Modified differential evolution algorithm for optimal powerflow
with non-smooth cost functions. Energy Conversion and Management. 49(11):3036–3042.
Schoenauer, M. and Z. Michalewicz . 1996. Evolutionary computation at the edge of feasibility.
In Parallel Problem Solving from Nature – PPSN IV, edited by H.M. Voigt ., W. Ebeling , I.
Rechenberg , H. P. Schwefel . 245–254. Springer, Berlin.
Shargh, S. , B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo , H. Seyedi , and M. Abapour . 2016. Probabilistic multi-
objective optimal power flow considering correlated wind power and load uncertainties.
Renewable Energy. 94:10–21.
Shaw, B. , V. Mukherjee , S. P. Ghoshal . 2014. Solution of reactive power dispatch of power
systems by an opposition-based gravitational search algorithm. International Journal of
Electrical Power and Energy Systems. 55:29–40.
Singh, M. and S. Santoso . 2011. Dynamic Models for Wind Turbines and Wind Power Plants- A
project report. The University of Texas at Austin, Texas.
Sivasubramani, S. , and K. S. Swarup . 2011. Multi-objective harmony search algorithm for
optimal power flow problem. Electrical Power and Energy System. 33(3):745–752.
Storn, R. , and K. Price . 1997. Differential evolution: A simple and efficient heuristic for global
optimization over continuous spaces. Journal of Global Optimization. 11:341–359.
Subbaraj, P. , and P.N. Rajnarayanan . 2009. Optimal reactive power dispatch using self-
adaptive real coded genetic algorithm. Electric Power Systems Research. 79(2):374–381.
Sulaiman, M. H. , Z. Mustaffa , M. R. Mohamed and O. Aliman . 2015. Using the gray wolf
optimizer for solving optimal reactive power dispatch problem. Applied Soft Computing.
32:286–292.
Ullah, A. S. S. M. B. , R. Sarker , and C. Lokan . 2012. Handling equality constraints in
evolutionary optimization. European Journal of Operational Research. 221(3):480–490.
Vaisakh, K. , L. R. Srinivas , and K. Meah . 2013. Genetic evolving ant direction particle swarm
optimization algorithm for optimal power flow with non-smooth cost functions and statistical
analysis. Applied Soft Computing. 13(12):4579–4593.
Varadarajan, M. , and K. S. Swarup . 2008. Solving multi-objective optimal power flow using
differential evolution. IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution. 2(5):720–730.
Wolpert, D. H. , and W. G. Macready . 1997. No free lunch theorems for optimization. IEEE
Transactions on Evolutionary Computation. 1(1):67–82.
Wood, A.J. , and B.F. Wollenberg . 1996. Power Generation, Operation and Control. John Wiley
and Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ.
Wu, G. , W. Pedrycz , P. N. Suganthan , and R. Mallipeddi . 2015. A variable reduction strategy
for evolutionary algorithms handling equality constraints. Applied Soft Computing. 37:774–786.
Yuryevich, J. and K. P. Wong . 1999. Evolutionary programming based optimal power flow
algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 14(4):1245–1250.
Zehar, K. and S. Sayah . 2008. Optimal power flow with environmental constraint using a fast
successive linear programming algorithm- application to the Algerian power system. Energy
Conversion and Management. 49(11):3361–3365.
Zhihuan, L. , L. Yinhong , and D. Xianzhong . 2010. Non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II
for robust multi-objective optimal reactive power dispatch. IET Generation, Transmission and
Distribution. 4(9):1000–1008.
Role of Stochastic Optimization for Power System Operation and
Decision-Making
Abujarad, S. Y. , M. W. Mustafa , and J. J. Jamian . 2017. Recent approaches of unit
commitment in the presence of intermittent renewable energy resources: A review. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 70:215–223.
Aghaei, J. , A. Nikoobakht , P. Siano , M. Nayeripour , A. Heidari , and M. Mardaneh . 2016.
Exploring the reliability effects on the short term AC security-constrained unit commitment: A
stochastic evaluation. Energy 114:1016–1032.
Aien, M. , A. Hajebrahimi , and M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad . 2016. A comprehensive review on
uncertainty modeling techniques in power system studies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
57:1077–1089.
Billinton, R. , B. Karki , R. Karki , and G. Ramakrishna . 2009. Unit commitment risk Analysis of
wind integrated power systems. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 24 (2):930–939.
Birge, J. , and F. Louveaux . 2000. Introduction to Stochastic Programming. Springer, New
York.
Carrión, M. , and J. M. Arroyo . 2006. A computationally efficient mixed-integer linear
formulation for the thermal unit commitment problem. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 21
(3):1371–1378.
Ding, X. Y. , W.-J. Lee , J. X. Wang , and L. Liu . 2010. Studies on stochastic unit commitment
formulation with flexible generating units. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 80 (1):130–141.
Growe-Kuska, N. , H. Heitsch , and W. Romisch . 2003. Scenario reduction and scenario tree
construction for power management problems. IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conf. Proc., 23–26
June 2003.
Guan, X. H. , Q. Z. Zhai , and A. Papalexopoulos . 2003. Optimization based methods for unit
commitment: Lagrangian relaxation versus general mixed integer programming. Proc. IEEE
Power Eng. Soc. General Meeting, 13–17 July 2003.
Holger, H. , and R. Werner . 2003. Scenario reduction algorithms in stochastic programming.
Comput. Optim. Appl. 24 (2):187–206.
Illinois Institute of Technology Power Group Test Case . Accessed 18 June 2021 .
http://motor.ece.iit.edu/Data/.
Huang, Y. P. , Q. P. Zheng , and J. H. Wang . 2014. Two-stage stochastic unit commitment
model including non-generation resources with conditional value-at-risk constraints. Electr.
Power Syst. Res. 116:427–438.
Jiang, R. , J. Wang , and Y. Guan . 2012. Robust unit commitment with wind power and
pumped storage hydro. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 27 (2): 800–810.
Lee, F. N. 1991. The application of commitment utilization factor (CUF) to thermal unit
commitment. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 6 (2): 691–698.
Lee, F. N. , and Q. Feng . 1992. Multi-area unit commitment. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 7
(2):591–599.
Li, N. , C. Uçkun , E. M. Constantinescu , J. R. Birge , K. W. Hedman , and A. Botterud . 2016.
Flexible operation of batteries in power system scheduling with renewable energy. IEEE Trans.
Sustain. Energy 7 (2):685–696.
Momoh, J. A. 2008. Electric Power System Applications of Optimization, Second Edition. Taylor
& Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
Morales, J. M. , R. Mínguez , and A. J. Conejo . 2010. A methodology to generate statistically
dependent wind speed scenarios. Appl. Energy 87 (3):843–855.
Nasrolahpour, E. , and H. Ghasemi . 2015. A stochastic security constrained unit commitment
model for reconfigurable networks with high wind power penetration. Electr. Power Syst. Res.
121:341–350.
Ortega-Vazquez, M. A. , and D. S. Kirschen . 2009. Estimating the spinning reserve
requirements in systems with significant wind power generation penetration. IEEE Trans. Power
Syst. 24 (1):114–124.
Ott, A. L. 2010. Evolution of computing requirements in the PJM market: Past and future. IEEE
PES General Meeting, 25–29 July 2010.
Ozturk, U. A. , M. Mazumdar , and B. A. Norman . 2004. A solution to the stochastic unit
commitment problem using chance constrained programming. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 19
(3):1589–1598.
Padhy, N. P. 2004. Unit commitment-a bibliographical survey. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 19
(2):1196–1205.
Pierre, P. , M. Henrik , N. Henrik Aa , P. George , and K. Bernd . 2009. From probabilistic
forecasts to statistical scenarios of short-term wind power production. Wind Energy 12
(1):51–62.
Pinson, P. , and R. Girard . 2012. Evaluating the quality of scenarios of short-term wind power
generation. Appl. Energy 96:12–20.
Pozo, D. , and J. Contreras . 2013. A chance-constrained unit commitment with an n-K security
criterion and significant wind generation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 28 (3):2842–2851.
Reich, D. 2013. A linear programming approach for linear programs with probabilistic
constraints. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 230 (3):487–494.
Restrepo, J. F. , and F. D. Galiana . 2011. Assessing the yearly impact of wind power through a
new hybrid deterministic/stochastic unit commitment. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 26 (1):401–410.
Sen, S. , and D. P. Kothari . 1998. Evaluation of benefit of inter-area energy exchange of the
Indian power system based on multi-area unit commitment approach. Electr. Mach. Power Syst.
26 (8):801–813.
Senjyu, T. , K. Shimabukuro , K. Uezato , and T. Funabashi . 2003. A fast technique for unit
commitment problem by extended priority list. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 18 (2):882–888.
Shaaban, M. , W.-S. Tan , and M. P. Abdullah . 2018. A multi-timescale hybrid
stochastic/deterministic generation scheduling framework with flexiramp and cycliramp costs.
Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 99:585–593.
Shoults, R. R. , S. K. Chang , S. Helmick , and W. M. Grady . 1980. A practical approach to unit
commitment, economic dispatch and savings allocation for multiple-area pool operation with
import/export constraints. IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst. PAS-99 (2):625–635.
Siu, T. K. , G. A. Nash , and Z. K. Shawwash . 2001. A practical hydro, dynamic unit
commitment and loading model. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 16 (2):301–306.
Snyder, W. L. , H. D. Powell , and J. C. Rayburn . 1987. Dynamic programming approach to unit
commitment. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2 (2):339–348.
Sumaili, J. , H. Keko , V. Miranda , A. Botterud , and J. Wang . 2011. Clustering-based wind
power scenario reduction technique. Proc. of 17th Power Syst. Computation Conf., Stockholm,
Sweden, 22–26 August 2011.
Tan, W. S. , and M. Shaaban . 2020. Dual-timescale generation scheduling with
nondeterministic flexiramp including demand response and energy storage. Electr. Power Syst.
Res. 189:106821.
Tan, W. S. , M. Shaaban , and M. P. Abdullah . 2017. Chance-constrained programming for
day-ahead scheduling of variable wind power amongst conventional generation mix and energy
storage. IET Renew. Power Gen. 11 (14):1785–1793.
Tan, W. S. , M. Shaaban , and M. Z. A. Ab Kadir . 2019. Stochastic generation scheduling with
variable renewable generation: Methods, applications, and future trends. IET Gener. Transm.
Distrib. 13 (9):1467–1480.
Venkatesh, B. , P. Yu , H. B. Gooi , and D. Choling . 2008. Fuzzy MILP unit commitment
incorporating wind generators. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 23 (4):1738–1746.
Wang, B. , X. Yang , T. Short , and S. Yang . 2017. Chance constrained unit commitment
considering comprehensive modelling of demand response resources. IET Renew. Power Gen.
11 (4):490–500.
Wang, J. D. , J. H. Wang , C. Liu , and J. P. Ruiz . 2013. Stochastic unit commitment with sub-
hourly dispatch constraints. Appl. Energy 105:418–422.
Wang, J. , M. Shahidehpour , and Z. Li . 2008. Security-constrained unit commitment with
volatile wind power generation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 23 (3):1319–1327.
Wang, Q. F. , Y. P. Guan , and J. H. Wang . 2012. A chance-constrained two-stage stochastic
program for unit commitment with uncertain wind power output. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 27
(1):206–215.
Wang, Q. , J. Wang , and Y. Guan . 2011. Wind power bidding based on chance-constrained
optimization. Proc. IEEE Power and Energy Soc. Gen. Meeting, 24–29 July 2011.
Wood, A. J. , B. F. Wollenberg , and G. B. Sheblé . 2013. Power Generation, Operation, and
Control. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
Wu, H. , M. Shahidehpour , A. Alabdulwahab , and A. Abusorrah . 2015. Thermal generation
flexibility with ramping costs and hourly demand response in stochastic security-constrained
scheduling of variable energy sources. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 30 (6):2955–2964.
Wu, H. , M. Shahidehpour , Z. Li , and W. Tian . 2014. Chance-constrained day-ahead
scheduling in stochastic power system operation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 29 (4):1583–1591.
Zhao, C. , Q. Wang , J. Wang , and Y. Guan . 2014. Expected value and chance constrained
stochastic unit commitment ensuring wind power utilization. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 29
(6):2696–2705.
Zheng, Q. P. , J. H. Wang , P. M. Pardalos , and Y. P. Guan . 2013. A decomposition approach
to the two-stage stochastic unit commitment problem. Ann. Oper. Res. 210 (1):387–410.
Zheng, Q. P. , J. Wang , and A. L. Liu . 2015. Stochastic optimization for unit commitment: A
review. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 30 (4):1913–1924.

Dependence Modeling of Multisite Renewable Generations

Aas, K. , Czad, C. , Frigessi, A. , and Bakken, H. 2009 “Pair-copula constructions of multiple
dependence,” Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, 44: 182–198.
Aas, K. and Berg, D. 2013 “Models for construction of multivariate dependence–a comparison
study,” in Copulae and Multivariate Probability Distributions in Finance: 43–64.
Fan, M. , Vittal, V. , Heydt, G.T. , and Ayyanar, R. 2012 “Probabilistic power flow studies for
transmission systems with photovoltaic generation using cumulants,” IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, 27(4): 2251–2261.
Gupta, N. , Pant, V. , and Das, B. 2014 “Probabilistic load flow incorporating generator reactive
power limit violations with spline based reconstruction method,” Electric Power Systems
Research, 106: 203–213.
Hourly PV generation. [Online] . Available: https://www.pvoutput.org
Jain, N. , Suman, S. , and Prusty, B.R. 2021 “Performance comparison of two statistical
parametric methods for outlier detection and correction,” IFAC-PapersOnLine, 54(16): 168–174.
Lu, Q. , Hu, W. , Min, Y. , Yuan, F. , and Gao, Z. 2014 “Wind power uncertainty modeling
considering spatial dependence based on pair-copula theory,” In 2014 IEEE PES General
Meeting Conference & Exposition, National Harbor, MD: 1–5.
Papaefthymiou, G. and Kurowicka, D. 2009 “Using Copulas for modeling stochastic
dependence in power system uncertainty analysis”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
24(1):40–49.
Prusty, B.R. and Jena, D. 2016 “Combined cumulant and Gaussian mixture approximation for
correlated probabilistic load flow studies: a new approach,” CSEE Journal of Power and Energy
Systems, 2(2): 71–78.
Prusty, B.R. , and Jena, D. 2017 “A critical review on probabilistic load flow studies in
uncertainty constrained power systems with photovoltaic generation and a new approach,”
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 69: 1286–1302.
Prusty, B.R. and Jena, D. 2018 “An over-limit risk assessment of PV integrated power system
using probabilistic load flow based on multi-time instant uncertainty modeling,” Renewable
Energy, 116: 367–383.
Prusty, B.R. and Jena, D. 2019 “A spatiotemporal probabilistic model-based temperature-
augmented probabilistic load flow considering PV generations,” International Transactions on
Electrical Energy Systems, 29(5): e2819.
Ranjan, K.G. , Tripathy, D.S. , Prusty, B.R. , and Jena, D. 2021 “An improved sliding window
prediction-based outlier detection and correction for volatile time-series,” International Journal of
Numerical Modelling: Electronic Networks, Devices and Fields, 34(1): e2816.
Usaola, J. 2010 “Probabilistic load flow with correlated wind power injections,” Electric Power
Systems Research, 80(5): 528–536.
Wang, S. , Zhang, X. , and Liu, L. 2016 “Multiple stochastic correlations modeling for microgrid
reliability and economic evaluation using pair-copula function.” International Journal of Electrical
Power & Energy Systems 76: 44–52.
Wu, W. , et al. 2015 “A versatile probability model of photovoltaic generation using pair Copula
construction,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, 6(4): 1337–1345.

Probabilistic Steady-State Analysis of Power Systems Integrated with

Renewable Generations
Aien, M. and Firuz-Abad, M. (2015). Probabilistic optimal power flow in correlated hybrid wind-
pv power systems: A review and a new approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 41:1437–1446.
Allan, R. and Al-Shakarchi, M. (1977a). Probabilistic techniques in ac load-flow analysis. In
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, volume 124, pages 154–160. IET.
Allan, R. N. and Al-Shakarchi, M. R. G. (1976). Probabilistic a.c. load flow. Proceedings of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers, 123(6):531–536.
Allan, R. N. and Al-Shakarchi, M. R. G. (1977b). Linear dependence between nodal powers in
probabilistic a.c. load flow. Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers,
124(6):529–534.
Allan, R. N. , Borkowska, B. , and Grigg, C. H. (1974). Probabilistic analysis of power flows.
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 121(12):1551–1556.
Allan, R. N. and Leite Da Silva, A. M. (1981). Probabilistic load flow using multilinearisa- tions.
IEE Proceedings C - Generation, Transmission and Distribution, 128(5):280–287.
Allan, R. N. , Leite Da Silva, A. M. , and Burchett, R. C. (1981). Evaluation methods and
accuracy in probabilistic load flow solutions. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, PAS-100(5):2539–2546.
Balakrishnan, N. and Lai, C. D. (2009). Continuous Bivariate Distributions. Springer Science &
Business Media, Berlin.
Bhat, N. G. , Prusty, B. R. , and Jena, D. (2017). Cumulant-based correlated probabilistic load
flow considering photovoltaic generation and electric vehicle charging demand. Frontiers in
Energy, 11(2):184–196.
Borkowska, B. (1974). Probabilistic load flow. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, PAS-93(3): 752–759.
Brucoli, M. , Torelli, F. , and Napoli, R. (1985). Quadratic probabilistic load flow with linearly
modelled dispatch. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 7(3):138–146.
Cai, D. , Li, X. , Zhou, K. , Xin, J. , and Cao, K. (2015). Probabilistic load flow algorithms
considering correlation between input random variables: A review. In 2015 IEEE 10th
Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA), pages 1139–1144. IEEE.
Chen, P. , Chen, Z. , and Bak-Jensen, B. (2008). Probabilistic load flow: A review. In 2008 Third
International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and Power
Technologies, pages 1586–1591.
Choroś, B. , Ibragimov, R. , and Permiakova, E. (2010). Copula estimation. In Jaworski, P. ,
Durante, F. , Härdle, W. , and Rychlik T. (eds.) Copula Theory and Its Applications, pages
77–91. Springer, Berlin.
Christian, J. T. and Baecher, G. B. (2002). The point-estimate method with large numbers of
variables. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics,
26(15):1515–1529.
Deng, X. , He, J. , and Zhang, P. (2017). A novel probabilistic optimal power flow method to
handle large fluctuations of stochastic variables. Energies, 10:1623.
Dong, L. , Cheng, W. , Bao, H. , and Yang, Y. (2010a). A probabilistic load flow method with
consideration of random branch outages and its application. In 2010 Asia-Pacific Power and
Energy Engineering Conference, pages 1–4.
Dong, Z. , Zhang, P. , Ma, J. , Zhao, J. , Ali, M. , Meng, K. , and Yin, X. (2010b). Emerging
Techniques in Power System Analysis. Springer, Heidelberg.
Dopazo, J. F. , Klitin, O. A. , and Sasson, A. M. (1975). Stochastic load flows. IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, 94(2):299–309.
Harr, M. E. (1989). Probabilistic estimates for multivariate analysis. Applied Mathematical
Modelling, 13(5):313–318.
Eie, M. H. (2018). Probabilistic load flow studies: Analytical and approximate methods. Master’s
thesis, NTNU.
Gui, W. (2009). Adaptive series estimators for copula densities.
Gupta, N. (2018). Gauss-quadrature-based probabilistic load flow method with voltage-
dependent loads including WTGS, PV, and EV charging uncertainties. IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, 54(6):6485–6497.
Hong, H. P. (1998). An efficient point estimate method for probabilistic analysis. Reliability
Engineering and System Safety, 59(3):261–267.
Kenari, M. T. , Sepasian, M. S. , Nazar, M. S. , and Mohammadpour, H. A. (2017). Combined
cumulants and Laplace transform method for probabilistic load flow analysis. IET Generation,
Transmission & Distribution, 11(14):3548–3556.
Kundur, P. (2007). Power system stability. Power System Stability and Control, pages 7–1.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Leite da Silva, A. M. , Allan, R. N. , Soares, S. M. , and Arienti, V. L. (1985). Probabilistic load
flow considering network outages. IEE Proceedings C - Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, 132(3):139–145.
Li, W. et al. (2013). Reliability Assessment of Electric Power Systems using Monte Carlo
Methods. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.
Moger, T. and Dhadbanjan, T. (2015). A novel index for identification of weak nodes for reactive
compensation to improve voltage stability. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution,
9(14):1826–1834.
Moger, T. and Dhadbanjan, T. (2016). Fuzzy logic approach for reactive power coor- dination in
grid connected wind farms to improve steady state voltage stability. IET Renewable Power
Generation, 11(2):351–361.
Nelsen, R. B. (2007). An Introduction to Copulas. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin.
Oke, O. A. and Thomas, D. W. P. (2012). Enhanced cumulant method for probabilistic power
flow in systems with wind generation. In 2012 11th International Conference on Environment
and Electrical Engineering, pages 849–853.
Papaefthymiou, G. and Kurowicka, D. (2008). Using copulas for modeling stochastic
dependence in power system uncertainty analysis. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
24(1):40–49.
Patra, S. and Misra, R. B. (1993). Probabilistic load flow solution using method of moments. In
1993 2nd International Conference on Advances in Power System Control, Operation and
Management, APSCOM-93, vol. 2, pages 922–934.
Prusty, B. R. and Jena, D. (2016). Combined cumulant and Gaussian mixture approximation for
correlated probabilistic load flow studies: A new approach. CSEE Journal of Power and Energy
Systems, 2(2):71–78.
Prusty, B. R. and Jena, D. (2017a). A critical review on probabilistic load flow studies in
uncertainty constrained power systems with photovoltaic generation and a new approach.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 69:1286–1302.
Prusty, B. R. and Jena, D. (2017b). A sensitivity matrix-based temperature-augmented
probabilistic load flow study. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 53(3):2506–2516.
Rezaee Jordehi, A. (2018). How to deal with uncertainties in electric power systems? A review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 96:145–155.
Rosenblueth, E. (1975). Point estimates for probability moments. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 72(10):3812–3814.
Rosenblueth, E. (1981). Two-point estimates in probability. Applied mathematical modelling,
5(5):329–335.
Sanabria, L. A. and Dillon, T. S. (1986). Stochastic power flow using cumulants and von mises
functions. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems, 8:47–60.
Singh, V. , Moger, T. , and Jena, D. (2021). Comparative evaluation of basic probabilistic load
flow methods with wind power integration. In 2020 3rd International Conference on Energy,
Power and Environment: Towards Clean Energy Technologies, pages 1–6.
Singh, V. , Navada, H. G. , and Shubhanga, K. (2018). Large power system stability analysis
using a foss-based tool: Scilab/xcos. In 2018 20th National Power Systems Conference
(NPSC), pages 1–6. IEEE.
Su, C.-L. (2005). Probabilistic load-flow computation using point estimate method. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, 20(4):1843–1851.
Wang, X. and McDonald, J. (1994). Modern Power System Planning. McGraw-Hill Inter-
national (UK) Limited, Maidenhead.
Wang, Y. and Pierrat, L. (1997). Simulation of three-phase voltage unbalance using correlated
Gaussian random variables.
Wood, A. J. , Wollenberg, B. F. , and Sheblé, G. B. (2013). Power Generation, Operation, and
Control. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
Yuan, Y. , Zhou, J. , Ju, P. , and Feuchtwang, J. (2011). Probabilistic load flow computation of a
power system containing wind farms using the method of combined cumulants and
gram–charlier expansion. IET Renewable Power Generation, 5(6):448–454.
Zimmerman, R. D. and Murillo-Sánchez, C. E. (2016) Matpower 6.0 user’s manual. Power
Systems Engineering Research Center, 9.

Risk Evaluation of Electricity Systems with Large Penetration of

Renewable Generations
IEA , “Data and statistics,” International Energy Agency, 2020.
G. Schellekens , A. Battaglini , J. Lilliestam , et al., “100% renewable electricity: A roadmap to
2050 for Europe and North Africa,” 2010.
J. Gronholt-Pedersen , “Denmark sources record 47% of power from wind in 2019,” A.
Richardson and K. Donovan , eds., 2020.
T. Mai , D. Sandor , R. Wiser , et al. , Renewable electricity futures study. Executive summary,
National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States), 2012.
Y. Ding , L. Cheng , Y. Zhang , et al., “Operational reliability evaluation of restructured power
systems with wind power penetration utilizing reliability network equivalent and time-sequential
simulation approaches,” Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.
329–340, Dec 2014.
J. Ambrose , “What are the questions raised by the UK’s recent blackout?”, 2019.
Y. Zhang , H. Sun , and Y. Guo , “Wind power prediction based on PSO-SVR and grey
combination model,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 136254–136267, 2019.
Q. Hu , P. Su , D. Yu , et al., “Pattern-based wind speed prediction based on generalized
principal component analysis,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 5, no. 3, pp.
866–874, 2014.
N. Safari , C. Y. Chung , and G. C. D. Price , “Novel multi-step short-term wind power prediction
framework based on chaotic time series analysis and singular spectrum analysis,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 590–601, 2018.
S. Sulaeman , M. Benidris , J. Mitra , et al., “A wind farm reliability model considering both wind
variability and turbine forced outages,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 8, no. 2,
pp. 629–637, 2017.
N. Nguyen , S. Almasabi , and J. Mitra , “Impact of correlation between wind speed and turbine
availability on wind farm reliability,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 55, no. 3,
pp. 2392–2400, 2019.
B. R. Prusty , and D. Jena , “A sensitivity matrix-based temperature-augmented probabilistic
load flow study,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 2506–2516,
2017.
R. Karki , S. Thapa , and R. Billinton , “A simplified risk-based method for short-term wind power
commitment,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 498–505, 2012.
M. Fan , K. Sun , D. Lane , et al., “A novel generation rescheduling algorithm to improve power
system reliability with high renewable energy penetration,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 3349–3357, Feb 2018.
R. Lu , T. Ding , B. Qin , et al., “Reliability based min–max regret stochastic optimization model
for capacity market with renewable energy and practice in China,” IEEE Transactions on
Sustainable Energy, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 2065–2074, Oct 2019.
A. Moreira , D. Pozo , A. Street , et al., “Reliable renewable generation and transmission
expansion planning: Co-optimizing system’s resources for meeting renewable targets,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 3246–3257, Jul 2017.
J. Yang , N. Zhang , Y. Cheng , et al., “Modeling the operation mechanism of combined P2G
and gas-fired plant with CO2 recycling,” IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 1, pp.
1111–1121, Jan 2019.
S. Clegg , and P. Mancarella , “Integrated modeling and assessment of the operational impact
of power-to-gas (P2G) on electrical and gas transmission networks,” IEEE Transactions on
Sustainable Energy, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 1234–1244, May 2015.
S. Chen , Z. Wei , G. Sun , et al., “Multi-linear probabilistic energy flow analysis of integrated
electrical and natural-gas systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 32, no. 3, pp.
1970–1979, May 2017.
Y. Ding , P. Wang , L. Goel , et al., “Long-term reserve expansion of power systems with high
wind power penetration using universal generating function methods,” IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 766–774, Aug 2011.
Y. Ding , C. Singh , L. Goel , et al., “Short-term and medium-term reliability evaluation for power
systems with high penetration of wind power,” IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, vol. 5,
no. 3, pp. 896–906, Jul 2014.
M. Al-Muhaini , A. Bizrah , G. Heydt , et al ., “Impact of wind speed modelling on the predictive
reliability assessment of wind-based microgrids,” IET Renewable Power Generation, vol. 13, no.
15, pp. 2947–2956, Nov 2019.
R. Billinton , B. Karki , R. Karki et al ., “Unit Commitment Risk Analysis of Wind Integrated
Power Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 930–939, May 2009.
B. R. Prusty , and D. Jena , “An over-limit risk assessment of PV integrated power system using
probabilistic load flow based on multi-time instant uncertainty modeling,” Renewable Energy,
vol. 116, pp. 367–383, 2018.
B. R. Prusty , and D. Jena , “A spatiotemporal probabilistic model-based temperature-
augmented probabilistic load flow considering PV generations,” International Transactions on
Electrical Energy Systems, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. e2819, 2019.
S. Yuanzhang , C. Lin , Y. Xiaohui , et al., “Overview of power system operational reliability,” In
2010 IEEE 11th International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems,
Singapore, 2010, pp. 166–171.
S. Datta , and V. Vittal , “Operational risk metric for dynamic security assessment of renewable
generation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 1389–1399, Mar 2017.
P. Wang , Y. Ding , and Y. Xiao , “Technique to evaluate nodal reliability indices and nodal
prices of restructured power systems,” IEE Proceedings - Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, vol. 152, no. 3, pp. 390–396, May, 2005.
D. Tang , and P. Wang , “nodal impact assessment and alleviation of moving electric vehicle
loads: from traffic flow to power flow,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 31, no. 6, pp.
4231–4242, Feb, 2016.
A. S. Dobakhshari , and M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad , “A reliability model of large wind farms for power
system adequacy studies,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 24, no. 3, pp.
792–801, Sep 2009.
R. Karki , H. Po , and R. Billinton , “A simplified wind power generation model for reliability
evaluation,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 533–540, Jun, 2006.
F. Melgani , and S. B. Serpico , “A Markov random field approach to spatio-temporal contextual
image classification,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, vol. 41, no. 11,
pp. 2478–2487, Nov 2003.
R. Lowe , T. C. Bailey , D. B. Stephenson et al. , “Spatio-temporal modelling of climate-sensitive
disease risk: Towards an early warning system for dengue in Brazil,” Computers &
Geosciences, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 371–381, Mar 2011.
W. J. M. G. Li , “Markov chain random fields for estimation of categorical variables,”
Mathematical Geology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 321–335, 2007.
Q. Yu , G. Medioni , and I. Cohen , “Multiple target tracking using spatio-temporal markov chain
monte carlo data association,” In 2007 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern
Recognition, 2007, pp. 1–8.
Y. Zhao , L. Ye , Z. Wang , et al., “Spatio-temporal Markov chain model for very-short-term wind
power forecasting,” The Journal of Engineering, vol. 2019, no. 18, pp. 5018–5022, 2019.
M. He , L. Yang , J. Zhang , et al., “A spatio-temporal analysis approach for short-term forecast
of wind farm generation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 1611–1622,
Jul 2014.
P. Giorsetto , and K. F. Utsurogi , “Development of a new procedure for reliability modeling of
wind turbine generators,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-102,
no. 1, pp. 134–143, Jan 1983.
Y. Sun , Z. Li , X. Yu , et al., “Research on ultra-short-term wind power prediction considering
source relevance,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 147703–147710, 2020.
M. Reshid , and M. Abd Majid , “A multi-state reliability model for a gas fueled cogenerated
power plant,” Journal of Applied Science, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1945–1951, 2011.
A. Seungwon , L. Qing , and T. W. Gedra , “Natural gas and electricity optimal power flow,” In
2003 IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, Dallas, TX, USA,
2003, pp. 138–143.
G. Gahleitner , “Hydrogen from renewable electricity: An international review of power-to-gas
pilot plants for stationary applications,” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 38, no. 5,
pp. 2039–2061, Feb 2013.
G. Wacker , and R. Billinton , “Customer cost of electric service interruptions,” Proceedings of
the IEEE, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 919–930, Jun 1989.
I. Cameron , “Using an excel-based model for steady-state and transient simulation,” In PSIG
Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Missouri, 1999, pp. 39.
Y. Zhou , C. Gu , H. Wu , et al., “An equivalent model of gas networks for dynamic analysis of
gas-electricity systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 4255–4264,
Nov 2017.
H. Jia , Y. Ding , Y. Song , et al., “Operating reliability evaluation of power systems considering
flexible reserve provider in demand side,” IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 3, pp.
3452–3464, May 2019.
C. Grigg , P. Wong , P. Albrecht , et al., “The IEEE reliability test system-1996. A report
prepared by the reliability test system task force of the application of probability methods
subcommittee,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 1010–1020, Aug
1999.
D. De Wolf , and Y. Smeers , “The gas transmission problem solved by an extension of the
simplex algorithm,” Management Science, vol. 46, no. 11, pp. 1454–1465, 2000.
W. Sheng , D. Yi , Y. Chengjin , et al., “Reliability evaluation of integrated electricity–gas system
utilizing network equivalent and integrated optimal power flow techniques,” Journal of Modern
Power Systems and Clean Energy, vol. 7, pp. 1523–1535, Oct 2019.
C. Unsihuay , J. W. M. Lima , and A. C. Zambroni de Souza , “Modeling the integrated natural
gas and electricity optimal power flow,” in 2007 IEEE Power Engineering Society General
Meeting, Tampa, FL, USA, 2007, pp. 1–7.