Journal of Engineering Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Journal of Engineering Research

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Evaluation of significant greenhouse gas emissions reduction using

hydrogen fuel in a LFG/Diesel RCCI engine
Jafar Karbasi a, Seyed Ali Jazayeri b, *, Mojtaba Ebrahimi a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The production of solid waste in human societies and the related environmental and global warming concerns are
Dual-fuel heavy-duty diesel engine increasing. Extensive use of existing conventional diesel and dual-fuel engines also causes the production of high
RCCI combustion levels of greenhouse gases and aggravating the aforementioned concerns. Therefore, the aim of this study is to
Landfill gas
reduce the greenhouse emissions in existing natural gas/diesel dual-fuel heavy-duty diesel engine. For this
Emissions
Hydrogen
purpose, changing the type of combustion to reactivity-controlled compression-ignition combustion and using
landfill gas instead of natural gas in a dual-fuel engine were simultaneously implemented. Moreover, a tradi­
tional method was used to evaluate the effect of variations in three important parameters on the engine’s per­
formance in order to determine the appropriate engine operating ranges. The simulation results indicate that
although the consumption of 102,000 cubic meters per year of natural gas in each cylinder is reduced only by
replacing landfill gas, the level of engine greenhouse gas emissions is too high compared to the relevant levels of
emissions standards. Hence, by keeping the total energy content of the fuels constant, landfill gas enrichment
with hydrogen was considered to reduce the engine emissions. The simulation results show that by increasing the
hydrogen energy share up to 37%, the engine load has the potential to be improved up to 7% without any
exposure to diesel knock. However, the downfall is the reduction in the gross indicated efficiency up to 3%.
Meanwhile, not only the fifth level of the European emission standard for nitrogen oxides and the sixth level of
this standard for carbon monoxide can be achieved, but it is also possible to overcome the high level of unburned
methane as a drastic greenhouse gas and formaldehyde as a related carcinogenic species.

challenges of engine emissions in conventional diesel engines [8]. But,

the major problem with the mentioned combustion strategies is diffi­
1. Introduction
culty controlling the combustion phasing [8]. In order to resolve this
challenge, the concept of RCCI combustion was proposed by Kokjohn
High thermal efficiency in direct injection compression ignition en­
et al. [9]. The RCCI combustion strategy uses two fuels with different
gines (i.e., diesel engines) with almost no restriction on using the higher
reactivity: one with low reactivity and the other with high reactivity [9].
compression ratio together with the possibility of having a lean-burn
In this combustion strategy, the combustion phase and the combustion
combustion and having no throttling losses, which is vital in spark
duration can be controlled by the fuel ratios and the spatial stratification
ignition engines, has led to the widespread use of these engines in the
between two fuels [9]. In a RCCI engine, a low-reactive fuel with a low
fields of power generation, transportation, industrial applications, the
cetane number, such as gasoline or natural gas, is injected into the en­
marine sector, and so forth. The heterogeneous nature of combustion in
gine intake port through a low-pressure fuel injector during the intake
conventional diesel engines results in environmental pollutants, espe­
stroke. Thus, a low-reactive premixed air-fuel mixture is created in the
cially those affecting human health [1]. On the other hand, the use of
engine cylinder. Then, close to the end of the compression stroke, a
expensive after-treatment equipment to reduce the engine emissions
highly reactive fuel with a high cetane number, such as diesel fuel or
generates back pressure and increases the fuel consumption in the en­
biodiesel, is directly injected into the engine combustion chamber to
gine [2]. Thus, along with extensive research in the field of reducing
supply the required ignition energy for the available premixed charge.
diesel engine emissions [3–7], LTC technologies such as HCCI and PCCI
Several experimental and simulation studies in the RCCI combustion
have been proposed and considered by researchers to overcome the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: JAZAYERI@[Link] (S.A. Jazayeri).

[Link]
Received 16 September 2023; Received in revised form 10 January 2024; Accepted 11 January 2024
Available online 15 January 2024
2307-1877/© 2024 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Kuwait University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
([Link]

Please cite this article as: Jafar Karbasi et al., Journal of Engineering Research, [Link]
J. Karbasi et al. Journal of Engineering Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Nomenclature LFG Landfill gas

LHV lower heating value
ATDC after top dead center LTC low temperature combustion
CA crank angle m or ṁ mass or Mass flow rate
CA50 crank angle of 50% fuel burned NG natural gas
CFD computational fluid dynamic NOx nitrogen oxides
CH2O formaldehyde P in-cylinder Pressure
CO carbon monoxide PCCI premixed-charged compression-ignition
Cp heat capacity at a constant pressure PPRR peak pressure rise rate
Cv heat capacity at a constant volume PRF primary reference fuel
DFC dual fuel combustion R gas constant
DOE design of experiment RCCI reactivity-controlled compression-ignition
EGR exhaust gas recirculation RI ringing intensity
Ein total fuel energy per each cycle SOC start of combustion
EPA environmental Protection Agency SOI start of injection
EURO the European Emission Standard t time
EVO exhaust valve opening T temperature
GIE gross indicated efficiency TDC top dead center
H2S hydrogen sulfide UHC unburned hydrocarbon
HCCI homogeneous charge compression-ignition UM unburned methane
HES hydrogen energy share V volume
HRR heat release rate Vd cylinder volume displaced per each cycle
IMEP indicated mean effective pressure x mass fraction
IVC intake valve closing γ Cp /Cv ratio

field have been conducted with different fuel combinations [10–28].

Table 1 Nowadays, due to rapid population growth, especially in urban
Typical LFG sites in Iran [30,31]. areas, and the ever-growing volume of solid waste, landfills are the most
City
acceptable, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective way of man­
aging waste. However, the downfall would be generating massive
LFG components Shiraz Mashhad
landfill gas, mostly methane, into the atmosphere with an extreme
Methane (% by volume) 57-61 41-53 greenhouse effect if not captured (about 23 times compared to carbon
Carbon dioxide (% by volume) 21-24 20-28 dioxide) [29]. The use of LFG, which is mainly generated by chemical
Oxygen (% by volume) 2-6.8 1.5-6
Nitrogen (% by volume) 10-13 11.8-13
reactions and biological activities within landfills, not only resolves the
Sulfide Hydrogen (ppm) 300-314 300-320 greenhouse gas issues but also provides a cheap and very attractive
alternative fuel source that may be used directly in an internal com­
bustion engine. The main elements in landfill gas are methane and
carbon dioxide. The LFG composition will vary throughout the year,

Fig. 1. An overview of D87 engine on the test bed [47].

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Table 2 presence of methane with a high octane number as the main component
D87 heavy-duty diesel engine specifications [47]. of LFG makes it suitable to use as a low reactive fuel in RCCI engines.
Engine model: 12 cylinder V-type However, LFG still suffers from its lower energy content, and the use of
LFG in an engine would decrease the engine’s output power. Hence,
Engine power 650 kW
Displacement 38.1 L some modification of LFG is required to improve its energy content and
Compression ratio 11.5:1 engine performance. Recently, some studies have shown that one effi­
Bore x Stroke 150 mm × 180 mm cient way to increase the energy content is adding hydrogen to LFG [33,
Connecting rod length 282 mm 34]. The results of using LFG enriched with hydrogen are very promising
Engine speed 1500 rpm
Number of intake/Exhaust valves 2
for improving the combustion characteristics and reducing the engine
Intake valve closing (IVC) -150◦ ATDC emissions.
Exhaust valve opening (EVO) 125◦ ATDC Hydrogen as a green fuel has a large amount of energy per unit mass
Diesel fuel injection mechanism Common rail compared to conventional hydrocarbon fuels, and it can be considered a
Diesel fuel injection pressure 1800 bar
sustainable source of energy, especially for internal combustion engines.
Diesel fuel injector holes number 6
Injector hole diameter 290 µm Hydrogen has a wide flammability range, a small wall quenching dis­
Included spray angle 140◦ tance, a relatively high auto ignition temperature, very high diffusivity,
Piston bowl geometry Mexican hat a high flame speed, and a very low energy of ignition [35]. Because of
the fast flame speed of hydrogen, rapid combustion and faster HRR in
the engine combustion chamber occur. Thus, when hydrogen is used as
depending on the landfill well conditions and the waste type, as typically
an additive in an air-hydrocarbon fuel mixture, usually higher
presented in Table 1.
in-cylinder temperatures and higher NOx emissions are expected. In this
As listed in Table 1, the high content of carbon dioxide in LFG could
case, the use of EGR is an effective way to reduce the in-cylinder tem­
act similarly to the EGR strategy to prevent the excess increase of the
perature and the NOx emission level [36–46].
engine in-cylinder temperature and consequently NOx emission forma­
Thus, as mentioned earlier, the production of waste in human soci­
tion. But, the presence of a small amount of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a
eties and the related environmental and global warming concerns are
component of LFG can put the engine parts at risk of corrosion [32].
increasing. On the other hand, the use of existing conventional diesel
Therefore, this harmful species should be removed from LFG, or engines
and dual-fuel engines in various applications also causes the production
should be designed or modified for LFG sour gas. On the other hand, the

Fig. 2. Three dimensional computational model of the D87 engine combustion chamber and a top view of the diesel fuel spray axis.

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Fig. 3. - The simulation process flowchart in the AVL Fire CFD tool coupled with CHEMKIN chemistry tool.

engine using landfill gas instead of natural gas. For this purpose, a
Table 3 natural gas/diesel dual-fuel heavy-duty diesel engine is considered to
The D87 engine operating condition under DFC fueled with diesel fuel and NG
analyze its combustion characteristics and estimate its greenhouse gas
[47].
emissions level. Implementing RCCI mode of combustion, as an efficient
Parameter type Value low-temperature combustion strategy, and using landfill gas enriched
Gross IMEP (bar) 13.65 with hydrogen in dual-fuel engine was simultaneously proposed.
Intake Pressure (bar) 1.7 Moreover, the variation of some important parameters on engine per­
Intake Temperature (K) 338
formance is evaluated to determine the appropriate operating ranges of
Diesel fuel mass per each cycle (mg) 46.5
Natural gas (Methane) mass per each cycle (mg) 173.6 the engine in terms of the engine emissions while maintaining engine
Total fuel mass per each cycle (mg) 220.1 power without encountering any diesel knock.
Diesel fuel start of injection (º ATDC) -22
Exhaust gas recirculation (%) 0 2. Specifications of the Iranian National Heavy-Duty Diesel
Engine

Table 4 The general view of the Iranian national heavy-duty diesel engine
The used diesel fuel spray sub-models. known as D87, which has been tested at Iran Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine
Desired diesel fuel spray modeling Sub-model Manufacturing Company (DESA) is presented in Fig. 1 [47]. This engine
was designed to operate under DFC mode of combustion fueled with
Diesel fuel particles interaction with the individual Turbulence dispersion
turbulent eddies model[54] diesel fuel and natural gas for applications in Marine, railway, power
Diesel fuel spray-cylinder wall interaction Wall jet model[55] generation, and industrial use. The D87 engine specifications are listed
Diesel fuel droplet evaporation Dukowicz model[56] in Table 2.
Diesel fuel droplet break-up Wave standard model
[57]
Nozzle flow (injection velocities and initial droplet Diesel nozzle model[58] 3. Computational model and validation
diameters due to cavitations)
In the current study, for generating the computational model of the
D87 engine combustion chamber, the AVL FIRE CFD tool is used. Based
of high levels of greenhouse gases and aggravating the aforementioned on the mentioned engine specifications in Table 2, the generated three-
concerns [47–52]. Therefore, the focus of this study is to improve the dimensional computational model for conducting the RCCI combustion
combustion process and reduce the emissions in an existing dual-fuel simulation is only done for a single cylinder, as depicted in Fig. 2. As

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Fig. 4. The D87 engine in-cylinder pressure under dual-fuel combustion mode for validation purpose.

Table 5 MJ/kg are considered the representatives of NG and diesel fuel. The
The D87 engine gross IMEP and GIE for validation purpose under dual fuel mode reduced PRF mechanism in the current study includes 76 species and
of combustion fueled with NG and diesel fuel [47]. 464 reactions [53].
Combustion type Gross IMEP Gross GIE Since n-heptane, a highly reactive fuel, is directly injected into the
(bar) (%) D87 engine combustion chamber, the diesel fuel spray is modeled using
Dual fuel mode of combustion experimental data 13.65 40 some known sub-models as listed in Table 4.
[47] Based on the D87 engine experimental data under dual fuel mode of
Present study 13.44 39.75 combustion fueled with NG/Diesel fuel [47], the D87 engine in-cylinder
Error (%) 1.54 0.25
pressure was considered to validate the accuracy of the used computa­
tional model prediction.
Table 6 The simulation result for the D87 engine in-cylinder pressure, which
The D87 engine operating condition under RCCI combustion fueled with diesel was obtained from the implemented computational model, is compared
fuel and NG. with the experimental data [47] in Fig. 4. The simulation result
Parameter type Value
regarding the in-cylinder pressure shows an accurate prediction of the
used computational model.
Intake Pressure (bar) 1.7
Since, the D87 engine’s IMEP and GIE under dual-fuel mode of
Intake Temperature (K) 338
Diesel fuel mass per each cycle (mg) 46.5 combustion are accessible; these important engine output parameters
Natural gas (Methane) mass per each cycle (mg) 173.6 were also calculated and presented in Table 5. The calculated amounts
Total fuel mass per each cycle (mg) 220.1 of errors related to the D87 engine’s IMEP and GIE are less than 2% and
Diesel fuel start of injection (º ATDC) -45
1%, respectively.
Exhaust gas recirculation (%) 0
However, the dual-fuel combustion simulation result confirms that
the peak in-cylinder temperature is about 1560 K. In this temperature
mentioned in Table 2, in the D87 engine, the nozzle of the diesel fuel range, the simulation results estimates that 12.22 Tons per year of un­
injector is designed with six identical holes. Thus, for a better illustra­ burned methane and 198.7 Tons per year of carbon dioxide would be
tion, a top view of the diesel fuel spray axis is shown in the figure below. emitted into the atmosphere from each the D87 engine cylinder. Also,
In the present study, the D87 engine combustion was simulated by the level of carbon monoxide formation as an indicator of incomplete
the AVL FIRE CFD tool coupled with the CHEMKIN chemistry tool combustion will be high, approximately 2.62 Tons per year, while the
following the flowchart shown in Fig. 3. The D87 engine operates in a potential for NOx formation is very low.
dual-fuel mode of combustion, fueled with commercial diesel fuel and After ensuring the accuracy of computational model performance,
natural gas, based on the operating conditions presented in Table 3 [47]. the D87 engine is set to operate under RCCI combustion fueled with NG/
Thus, in order to couple the CHEMKIN chemistry tool with the AVL diesel fuel based on the conditions listed in Table 6. Although, a RCCI
FIRE CFD tool in the simulation process shown in Fig. 3, a reduced PRF engine uses two fuels with different reactivity like a dual-fuel engine,
mechanism should be used to predict all important reactions between compared to a dual-fuel engine, the diesel fuel injection into the engine
diesel fuel and NG. Therefore, based on the accessible PRF mechanisms, combustion chamber is very advanced, as listed in Table 6. In RCCI
methane with an LHV of 50 MJ/kg and n-heptane with an LHV of 44.6 combustion, the main combustion initiation completely depends on

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Fig. 5. The D87 engine in-cylinder pressure under RCCI mode of combustion fueled with diesel fuel and natural gas.

Table 7
The D87 engine gross IMEP and GIE under RCCI mode of combustion fueled with NG and diesel fuel [47].
Combustion type Gross IMEP (bar) Gross GIE (%)

Dual fuel mode of combustion experimental data[47] 13.65 40

RCCI combustion (Present study) 14.58 43.13
Enhanced (%) 6.81 3.13

Fig. 6. The D87 engine in-cylinder pressure under RCCI mode of combustion fueled with diesel fuel and LFG.

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Table 8 chemical reactions between some important species such as hydrogen

The D87 engine gross IMEP and GIE under RCCI mode of combustion fueled with peroxide, formaldehyde, and hydroxyl radical [9].
LFG and diesel fuel [47]. The D87 NG/Diesel RCCI engine simulation results in terms of in-
Combustion type Gross IMEP Gross GIE cylinder pressure are depicted in Fig. 5 and compared with the experi­
(bar) (%) mental data available [47]. As shown in Fig. 5, the D87 engine can
Dual fuel mode of combustion experimental data 13.65 40 operate under RCCI combustion while improving the gross IMEP and
[47] GIE about 7% and 3%, as presented in Table 7.
LFG/Diesel RCCI combustion (Present study) 12.77 32.95 Under RCCI mode of combustion, the peak in-cylinder temperature
Error (%) 6.5 7.05
increases to about 1600 K. Thus, the simulation results estimate that
compared to dual-fuel mode of combustion, the amount of unburned
Table 9 methane mass is reduced to 8.3 Tons per year (i.e., a decrease of 32%),
The variations of the considered engine input parameters under RCCI combus­ while the amount of carbon dioxide is increased to 212.9 Tons per year
tion strategy. (i.e., a 7% increase) due to better combustion of methane. While 1.36
Selected Input Parameters
Tons per year of carbon monoxide would be emitted into the atmo­
sphere, that is a lot. In contrast, the increase in the in-cylinder temper­
IVC IVC Temperature Diesel
ature increases the potential for NOx formation up to 1.28 g/kWh, which
Pressure (K) Fuel mass
(bar) (mg) is within the range of the Euro V standard (2.0 g/kWh).
As mentioned, it is considered that in this study, the D87 engine
IVC 2.7 340 44.0
Temperature 352
under RCCI combustion uses LFG as a low-reactive fuel and diesel fuel as
variation 360 a highly reactive fuel. Although, as indicated in Table 1, LFG contains
370 two dominant species with different volume percentages (i.e., methane
375 and carbon dioxide), in the present simulation study, it is assumed that
380
the methane: carbon dioxide volume ratio is 50:50. Moreover, compared
390
400 to the experimental operating conditions mentioned in Table 3 [47], the
IVC Pressure variation 2.5 352 44.0 amount of methane mass share in LFG increases to 207.4 mg per cycle,
2.7 and the amount of diesel fuel mass as an ignition energy source for the
2.8
air-LFG mixture is reduced to 44 mg.
2.9
3.0
The D87 LFG/Diesel RCCI engine’s in-cylinder pressure is depicted in
3.1 Fig. 6 and also compared with the experimental data [47]. As shown in
Diesel fuel mass variation 2.7 352 30 this figure, the D87 engine can operate under RCCI combustion with the
35 use of LFG as a low-reactive fuel. However, in addition to reducing the
40
fossil fuel consumption (i.e., NG and diesel fuel) by about 84.4%
44
50 (102000 cubic meters per year in a single-cylinder), the penalty for using
55 LFG in the D87 engine is a reduction in the gross IMEP and GIE of about
6.5% and 7%, as listed in Table 8.

Fig. 7. The effects of IVC temperature variation on the D87 LFG/diesel fuel engine performance.

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Fig. 8. The effects of IVC temperature variations on the D87 engine emissions: (a) NOx and CO (b) UHC and CH2O.

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Fig. 9. The effects of IVC pressure variation on the D87 LFG/diesel fuel engine performance.

4. Evaluation of some engine input parameters’ variations

5.1. The effect of the variations of the selected parameters on the D87
In the current study, based on the results obtained in the authors’ engine performance and emissions
previous work [52], the effects of three vital engine input parameters’
variations are assessed in a conventional way on the D87 engine’s per­ Figs. 7 to 12 show the D87 engine performance and emissions vari­
formance and combustion characteristics. Because, the RCCI combus­ ations based on the variations of the three input parameters in Table 9.
tion simulation is conducted in a closed cycle from the IVC to the EVO, as Also, the D87 engine operation is assessed in terms of the diesel knock
presented in Table 9, the selected engine input parameters are the IVC occurrence.
temperature, the IVC pressure, and the amount of diesel fuel mass.
Moreover, the engine output parameters that would be assessed are the A. The Effects of the IVC Temperature Variations
gross IMEP, the GIE, the CA50, combustion duration, diesel knock
occurrence, and the engine emissions, especially greenhouse gas As shown in Fig. 7 and presented in Table 10, when the D87 engine
emissions. uses LFG as a low-reactive fuel, considering the IVC temperatures below
340 K, the engine operations lead to a misfire.
5. Results and discussion On the other hand, by increasing the IVC temperature above 360 K,
the in-cylinder peak pressure is increased compared to the experimental
In the present study, in order to evaluate the D87 engine output value (i.e., 106.8 bar) [47], and the engine output power and efficiency
parameters, Eqs. (1) and (2) are used to determine the gross IMEP and would be improved. But, it causes the engine operations to be exposed to
the GIE [11]. According to Eng work [59], a heavy-duty diesel engine diesel knock, which should be avoided. Moreover, when the IVC tem­
operation would not be exposed to diesel knock (i.e., excessive com­ peratures get close to 400 K, the peak in-cylinder temperatures increase
bustion noise) if the PPRR value is less than 15 bar/º CA. Moreover, to more than 1900 K, which contradicts the LTC concept. Also, it shifts
another important criterion related to diesel knock is the RI, as proposed the CA50 to the TDC and reduces the combustion duration significantly.
by Eng [59]. It should be noted that the acceptable value of the RI, which Thus, according to the D87 engine simulation results, the appro­
can be calculated by Eq. (3), is 5 MW/m2. priate ranges of the IVC temperature can be considered between 345 K
and 360 K. At these proposed ranges of the IVC temperature, as depicted
∫
in Fig. 8, the D87 engine NOx emission level is between its EURO V (i.e.,
◦
+180
1
Gross IMEP = ⋅ P dV (1)
Vd − 180
◦ 2.0 g/kWh) and EURO VI levels (i.e., 0.4 g/kWh). Also, the CO emission
level gets close to its EURO VI level (i.e., 1.5 g/kWh). But, the EURO VI
∫ +180 ◦ level for UHC emission (i.e., 0.13 g/kWh) and the 2007 EPA level for
Gross work ◦ P dV
GIE =
Ein
= − 180
Ein (2) formaldehyde (i.e., 0.012 g/kWh) cannot be met under this condition.
[ ( ) ]
Ein = mfuel (x⋅ LHV) LFG (Methane) + 1 − x ⋅ LHVdiesel fuel
B. The Effects of the IVC Pressure Variations
( )2
1 0.05 (dP/dt)max √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ The effect of the IVC pressure variations on the D87 engine perfor­
RI = γ R Tmax (3)
2 γ Pmax mance and combustion characteristics is shown in Fig. 9 and Table 11.
By increasing the pressure of the inlet air-LFG mixture at the IVC,

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Fig. 10. The effects of IVC pressure variations on the D87 engine emissions: (a) NOx and CO (b) UHC and CH2O.

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Fig. 11. The effects of diesel fuel mass variation on the D87 LFG/diesel fuel engine performance.

compared to the experimental data [35], although the engine gross 5.2. The D87 engine performance and combustion improvement by LFG
IMEP can be improved up to 10%, the downfall is the GIE reduction enrichment by hydrogen
about 6%. However, in none of these operating conditions listed in
Table 9, the engine performance is exposed to diesel knock, and the LTC According to the developed model simulation results, which are
concept is satisfied. obtained from a conventional procedure, when the three selected engine
The appropriate range of the IVC pressure can be considered between input parameters change within the specified ranges in Table 13, the
2.7 and 3.0 bars. At these suggested ranges of the IVC pressure, as D87 LFG/diesel RCCI engine performance would be improved. But, the
depicted in Fig. 10, although the D87 engine NOx emission level is be­ D87 engine emissions level is far from the European and EPA emission
tween its EURO V and EURO VI levels, the CO emission level increases to standards.
outstrip its EURO VI level due to a significant reduction in the peak in- Therefore, in order to achieve a significant reduction in the D87 LFG/
cylinder temperature and the burning rate. Also, the EURO VI level for diesel RCCI engine emissions while setting the engine at the proposed
UHC emissions and the 2007 EPA level for Formaldehyde cannot be met ranges in Table 13, it is proposed that LFG be enriched with hydrogen at
under this condition. constant total fuel energy content, as listed in Table 14. It should be
noted that the diesel fuel mass as the ignition energy source of the
C. The Effects of the Amount of Diesel Fuel Mass Variations available low reactive air-LFG mixture is also assumed to be constant,
equal to 44 mg per cycle (Table 9). These choices are made solely to
Based on the experimental amount of diesel fuel injection (i.e., have a justified assessment of the engine under different operating
46.5 mg) [47], Fig. 11 and Table 12 indicate that the reduction in the conditions.
amount of diesel fuel mass as an ignition energy source of the available In the current study, the HES percentage increases with the gradual
air-LFG mixture into the D87 engine cylinder leads to a significant replacement of methane with hydrogen until the LTC concept is not
decrease the engine IMEP and GIE. violated. Thus, in the higher HES percentage, the EGR method is used to
In order to achieve the appropriate results in terms of the gross IMEP reduce the in-cylinder peak temperature and satisfy the LTC concept.
and the GIE, the amount of diesel fuel mass should be more than 40 mg. The HES and the EGR percentage are calculated by Eqs. (4) and (5).
But, the diesel fuel mass injection of more than 50 mg causes the RI to ( )
get close to the diesel knock limitation (i.e., 5 MW/m2 [59]) which HES % =
(ṁ × LHV)hydrogen
should be avoided. Thus, the optimal range for the amount of diesel fuel (ṁ × LHV)hydrogen + (ṁ × LHV)methane + (ṁ × LHV)diesel fuel
is between 40 and 50 mg. Within this range of the amount of diesel fuel × 100
injection, as presented in Fig. 12, the NOx emission level is between the
(4)
EURO V and EURO VI levels.
In contrast, the CO and UHC emissions levels are outside the EURO ( )
ṁEGR
VI level. Also, the 2007 EPA level for Formaldehyde cannot be met under EGR % = × 100 (5)
ṁEGR + ṁport injected fuels + ṁair
this condition.
As presented in Table 15, when the D87 engine operates under RCCI
combustion fueled with LFG and diesel fuel, the peak in-cylinder

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Fig. 12. The effects of the amount of diesel fuel injection variations on the D87 engine emissions: (a) NOx and CO (b) UHC and CH2O.

temperature decreases to about 1500 K. The LFG enrichment with faster flammability speed. By reducing the combustion rate resulting
hydrogen causes the peak temperature to increase; therefore, the com­ from the use of EGR, the CA50 gets farther away from the TDC, and the
bustion rate would also increase. It should be noted that for a HES combustion duration increases again.
percentage greater than 17%, the LTC concept is violated and the D87 The D87 engine’s emission assessment under RCCI combustion
engine operation leads to exposure to diesel knock; hence, the EGR is fueled with LFG enriched with hydrogen and diesel fuel is shown in
required to overcome the excessive in-cylinder peak temperature rise. Fig. 13. Hydrogen addition to LFG can easily reduce the NOx levels to
Although, the LFG enrichment by hydrogen causes the engine output EURO V and the CO emissions levels to EURO VI, while the engine
power to increase by up to 7%, relevant to the experimental data [47], at operation is not exposed to any diesel knock.
the same time the maximum reduction in the GIE is about 3%. As mentioned earlier, gas engines suffer from a high level of un­
Also, as listed in Table 16, the LFG enrichment with hydrogen causes burned methane, which has a key role in producing formaldehyde as a
the CA50 to get closer to the TDC. Thus, the combustion duration de­ carcinogenic species and causes global warming far worse than carbon
creases due to the faster combustion rate resulting from the hydrogen’s dioxide [29]. As presented in Fig. 13 (b), the LFG enrichment with

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Table 10 Table 15
The effects of changing the IVC temperature on some combustion The effects of LFG enrichment with hydrogen on some D87 engine performance.
characteristics. HES Peak T (K) Peak P RI (MW/ IMEP GIE (%)
IVC T Peak P Peak T CA50 Combustion Duration (%) (bar) m2) (bar)
(K) (bar) (K) (ºATDC) (CA)
0 1510 107.0 3.13 12.77 32.95
340 81.60 1299 16 35 7.2 1520 105.0 4.14 12.78 33.69
352 106.86 1510 8.5 33.5 11.2 1556 107.7 4.17 13.57 35.13
360 114.67 1607 7 33 17.0 1598 110.0 4.44 14.18 36.73
370 121.45 1717 4 32 29.4 1623 107.0 3.71 14.66 37.42
375 124.78 1777 3 31 36.5 1608 104.0 3.26 14.33 36.93
380 120.26 1768 2 30
390 120.81 1839 1.5 29
400 120.33 1920 1 28
Table 16
The effects of LFG enrichment with hydrogen on some D87 engine combustion
characteristics.
Table 11
The effects of changing the IVC pressure on some combustion characteristics. HES (%) 7.2 11.2 17.0 29.4 36.5

IVC P Peak P Peak T CA50 Combustion Duration Combustion Duration (CA) 36.0 35.5 35.0 41.8 43.5
(bar) (bar) (K) (ºATDC) (CA) CA50 (◦ ATDC) 9.5 9.4 9.3 11.6 12.3

2.5 97.3 1506 9.5 32

2.7 106.8 1510 8.5 33 6. Conclusions
2.8 111.7 1496 8 34
2.9 116.2 1493 7.5 34
3.0 120.2 1484 7 35 In order to resolve most efficiently the downfalls of using landfill gas
3.1 125.0 1485 7 35 as a fuel, the Iranian national heavy-duty diesel (D87) engine perfor­
mance was simulated under RCCI combustion fueled with LFG and
diesel fuel. By considering that LFG contains methane: carbon dioxide
volume ratio of 50:50, the following valuable remarks can be derived:
Table 12
The effects of changing the diesel fuel mass on some combustion characteristics.
1) By replacing natural gas with landfill gas, the consumption of
Diesel fuel Peak P Peak T CA50 Combustion 102,000 cubic meters per year of natural gas in a single cylinder is
mass (mg) (bar) (K) (ºATDC) Duration (CA)
reduced. The penalty for this substitution is a reduction in the engine
30 89.1 1225 9.5 34.0 load and efficiency of about 6.5% and 7%, respectively.
35 94.8 1324 9.3 34.5
2) In a LFG/Diesel RCCI engine, by considering the IVC temperature
40 100.5 1418 9.0 34.0
47 110.0 1551 8.0 32.0 less than 345 K, the engine operations lead to the misfire. Also, at IVC
50 114.0 1602 7.7 31.0 temperatures greater than 360 K, the engine operations are exposed
55 115.8 1670 7.0 30.0 to diesel knock. Moreover, the LTC concept is violated when the IVC
temperatures get close to 400 K. By adjusting the IVC temperature
between 345 K and 360 K, the NOx emission level is between its
EURO V and EURO VI levels, and the CO emission level gets close to
Table 13
The suggested ranges of the D87 LFG/diesel RCCI engine operating conditions
its EURO VI level. But, the EURO VI level for UHC emissions and the
by the traditional view. 2007 EPA level for formaldehyde would be out of reach.
3) In a LFG/Diesel RCCI engine, the engine performance is not exposed
IVC Pressure IVC Temperature Diesel fuel mass
(bar) (K) (mg)
to diesel knock, and the LTC concept is satisfied when the IVC
pressure is considered between 2.7 and 3.0 bars. At these ranges of
Suggested Between Between Between
the IVC pressure, the NOx emission level is between its EURO V and
ranges 2.7 and 3.0 345 and 360 40 and 50
EURO VI levels. The CO emission level increases beyond its EURO VI
level, and the EURO VI level for UHC emission and the 2007 EPA
level for formaldehyde could not be achieved.
Table 14 4) The appropriate amount of diesel fuel mass as an ignition energy
Gradually LFG enrichment with hydrogen. source for the air-LFG mixture in the engine combustion chamber
HES N-heptane Methane mass share Hydrogen mass EGR will be limited between 45 and 50 mg. At this proposed range, the
(%) Mass (mg) in LFG (mg) (mg) (%) NOx emission level is between the EURO V and EURO VI levels; the
0 44 207.4 0 0 EURO VI level for CO and UHC emissions would again be out of
7.2 44 188.6 7.4 0 reach, and the 2007 EPA level for formaldehyde similarly would not
11.2 44 178.8 11.5 0 be accessible.
17.0 44 164.5 17.4 0
5) By LFG enrichment with hydrogen up to 37% of the HES, the D87
29.4 44 136.8 30.5 2
36.5 44 117.3 37.6 3
engine output power can be improved up to 7% compared to the
experimental results, while the engine operation is not exposed to
diesel knock. But, the downfall is the reduction in the GIE up to 3%.
hydrogen causes a significant reduction in unburned methane compared 6) In contrast, in the case of LFG enrichment with hydrogen, the NOx
to the case of 0% HES. However, more reduction in unburned methane is and CO emissions levels lead to their EURO V and EURO VI levels.
limited at the higher HES due to decreasing the combustion rate 7) The major challenge of a gas engine is the high level of unburned
resulting from the need for further EGR. Moreover, the formaldehyde methane and formaldehyde emissions. LFG enriched with hydrogen
emission production, which is directly dependent on the amount of has proven to play a key role in a significant reduction in these
unburned methane, would be drastically reduced according to the in­ emissions.
crease in HES percentages.

13
J. Karbasi et al. Journal of Engineering Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. The effects of LFG enrichment with hydrogen on the D87 engine emission under RCCI mode of combustion: (a) NOx and CO emissions (b) UM and
CH2O emissions.

Declaration of Competing Interest Duty Diesel Engine Manufacturing Company (DESA) for their precious
cooperation and providing laboratory documents and the other infor­
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial mation required to conduct the simulation of the present work.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper. References

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