COURSE WORK 1:

Steps in Research Design

This coursework comprises of two phases:

1. Introduction to Research

2. Research Skills and Conducting Accurate Internet Research

1|Page
PHASE 1

Introduction to Research

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROCESS

What is research? Research is a series of logical steps used to gather and analyse
information to increase our comprehension of a particular problem/issue/topic. Generally, there are
three steps:
1. Posing a question
2. Collecting data as evidence or support
3. Answering the question based on the results from analysing the data

The process is perhaps familiar to us all. We engage ourselves in solving problems every day, and
we usually start by asking a question, collecting data and then finally form an answer. Though
there are a few more steps in a proper research, we will find these three basic steps in any
published study as the core elements.

Research is important for three reasons-

1. Research adds to our existing knowledge.
2. Research helps us improve practice. It offers us new ideas to consider and keep ourselves
updated.
3. Research also provides information to policy makers.

Educational research aims to bring a scholarly lens- the inquiry, curiosity, rigor and variety- to
what takes place in the classroom. “It begins with intellectual curiosity, is conducted
deliberately and systematically. Is grounded in an analysis of some evidence, and results in
findings shared with peers to be received and to expand a knowledge base.” (Laverty, 2018)

The reasons for educational research are-

1. Examining classroom practice via systematic enquiry.
2. Document failures and success with the objective of improving learning and teaching.
3. Reflection on findings on existing educational research literature.
4. Building theories in relation to educational approaches and validate teaching practice.
5. Share experiences to build upon our knowledge of teaching and learning process.

2|Page
Though an attempt is made to define ‘research’ in this lesson. It is not an easy task. The term
research has often been ‘misused’. For example- faculty members of a college/university may
claim to do research to prepare before a class. Here, what they mean is to read new materials or re-
read existing ones that they will present in class. Such preparations may take time and effort, but it
is not research. (Langenbach, Vaugn, and Aagaard, 1994)

Educational research is an iterative process where one level leads to another. New
information at each level influences the subsequent steps which causes changes in the research
process and design (Figure 1.1).

Recognize and
formulate
questions
Communicate
and share Reserach the
research literature

Evaluate nad Design approach

reflect on and select
reserach methods

Gather data and

Complete
complete
ethics review
analysis
Figure- 1.1 - Stages in Educational Research Process

3|Page
Chapter 2- RESEARCH ETHICS AND INTEGRITY

When conducting a research regardless of the type of research or stage, it is essential to be

aware of the basic ethics and to ensure that the research is conducted with integrity.
There are three key principles which should be kept note of to maintain academic integrity:
1. Facts should not be twisted to suit Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a statement or an
idea that is tested via research. It is not a truth. The point of all academic research is
to test a hypothesis for truth. This is done by considering all available evidence and
presenting evidence as faithfully, objectively, and fairly as possible. All relevant
elements and perspectives must be given due consideration which is encountered
during research.
2. Due credits must be given to other people and their work: Using a quote or
replicating an author’s research methods and concepts, including a photograph or
images, it is required to pay due credits to the individuals who originally came up
with these. Copying, pasting, or paraphrasing existing works of others without
paying due credits is considered offensive and ensures plagiarism, that is, passing on
others’ ideas as one’s own or failing to acknowledge their contributions.
3. Similar work in different contexts without declaring duplicity of the work must
not be submitted: This refers to plagiarising one’s own work. This may occur if a
work or a piece of extract from the work is re-submitted for more than one context.
Academic integrity enquires to create and submit original contributions every time.
(Research Ethics and Academic Integrity- NUI Galway, 2021)

Developing a deeper understanding of research ethics include-

1. Declaring potential conflicts of interest.
2. Obtaining consent from the participants of the research/study.
3. Considering data protection laws.
4. Respecting confidentiality and privacy of participants.
5. Practicing human and animal safety welfare rights.
6. Respecting cultural and other sensitivities.
7. Sharing of data when appropriate.

4|Page
Responsibilities towards research participants:
1. All participants must be treated with full dignity, free of all prejudices.
2. Participants must be informed of any possible risks related to the research study/project.
3. There should be no penalty for non-participation or withdrawals.
4. Confidentiality must be maintained at all costs.
5. Participants must be informed of the identity of the researcher and the purpose of research.
6. If participants are children, they cannot be expected to give informed consent. In this case
legal parents/guardians should be involved.
7. The consent form should be written in second person and in an easy language to
understand.
(Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research, fourth edition, 2018)

Rules for referencing:

1. Include relevant citations.
2. Publications cited must be read.
3. Citing must be done in accordance with content.
4. Citing must be transparent, not neutral.
5. Citing own work, when and if necessary.
6. Citation and referencing cultures differ across boundaries. However. APA and Harvard
formats are usually common.

5|Page
Chapter 3- FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTION AND CONDUCTING REVIEW

Events in a classroom quite often provide a trigger for an educational research. One may
observe students finding difficulty in grasping a specific topic/concept, which leads to an
awareness that students are not engaging or participating. An interest may rise about how group
work or task-based learning helps students.
The first step would be to describe what is observed in the students’ behaviour, which needs
deeper probing and finally a change. The statement should set the parameters or limit of the
research- this includes explaining the classroom context, which is the study needed and its
significance. Once this is set, formulating a research question becomes easier.
In their guide to educational research ‘Researching Teaching and Student Outcomes in Post
Secondary Education: A guide’, directions for the purpose of study are identified:

Exploratory To gain insight into a phenomenon to study it further.

Example- What does active learning look like in an environmental
studies classroom?
Descriptive To describe a situation, group, sample or population.
Example- How do students prefer to learn Pythagoras Theorem?
What misconceptions do teachers have regarding this topic?
Relational To find out how two or more variables or themes are related.
Example: What is the relation between ethnicity and attitude towards
inquire-based projects?
Explanatory To derive casual assertations or inferences
Example- what kind of online discussions engage students the most?
Does assigning metacognitive activities improve problem-solving skills?
(Elgie, Childs and E. Fenton, 2021)
Blaikie talks about three types of research questions:
What Questions which address the Example- group-based learning,
effectiveness of certain teaching teaching core content from a
approaches or technologies, features different perspective.
and characteristics of an activity, or What were students’ perceptions
entirely new approaches. of the learning benefits of the
peer review process?
How Examination of how particular Example- how did participation
processes are used or how can outcomes in peer review process influence
be changed. student writing process?

Why Exploring causes or reasons behind Why does peer review work
certain patterns or understanding better in fourth-year classes than
relationships between activities and first-year classes?
processes.

6|Page
(Blaikie and Priest, n.d.)

In order to identify research questions, we can consider the following process:

1. Note down all questions that can be thought of related to the topic/problem.
2. Review the list- group the questions under themes and omit questions which do not
fit under the main area of interest.
3. Categorize what why and how questions.
4. Each question must be stated simple and clear; they must be open-ended and
unambiguous.
5. Limit the focus to only the questions which can be tackled reasonably within the
project.
6. Separate subsidiary and major questions.
7. Put into operation the technical terms used in the questions- that is gathering
evidence in support and connecting to theories to form base.
(Laverty, 2018)

Examples of research questions:

Example 1

Humanities scenario-
Instructors at a small undergraduate university introduce Google Books Archive as a key
primary source during a research paper assignment for a fourth-year English literature
course focusing on Victorian novels in order to increase depth of reading, interpretation,
and analysis.
Research questions:
a. Does primary source research help students develop a deeper analysis when interpreting
literary texts? (Explanatory)
b. What are student perceptions of how primary source research benefits their
interpretation of literacy texts? (Descriptive, Explanatory)
c. What methods do students use to locate primary source materials? (Descriptive)
Cited from- Karpenko, L., & Dietz, L. (2013). The 21st century digital student: Google
books as a tool in promoting undergraduate research in the humanities. Journal of Effective
Teaching, 13(1), 89-106.

7|Page
Example 2
Health Sciences scenario:
Researchers want to identify the teaching methods that students and expert teachers at two
different colleges perceived as being the most effective for achieving stated learning
outcomes in anatomy.
Research Questions:
a. What are the differences in opinion between the students from the two colleges, and
students and the expert anatomists, regarding the teaching methods? (Relational)
b. What are the differences in opinion between the expert anatomists and the students
regarding the teaching methods best suited to the learning outcomes? (Relational)
c. What were student perceptions regarding “fitness for purpose” for each anatomical
teaching method? (Descriptive)
d. What were student perceptions regarding “fitness for purpose” for each anatomical
teaching method? (Descriptive)
Cited from: Kerby, J., Shukur, Z. N., & Shalhoub, J. (2011). Kerby, J., Shukur, Z. N., &
Shalhoub, J. (2011). The relationships between learning outcomes relationships between
learning outcomes and methods of teaching anatomy as perceived by methods of teaching
anatomy as perceived by medical students. Clinical Anatomy students. Clinical Anatomy,
24(4), 489-497.

Literature Review

Literature review is a comprehensive review of the literature available for any research
question/statement. It is the summary, analysis and evaluation of the literature and an explanation
of any research that has already been performed for a specific research topic/area. (Skills for
learning, 2018)
Functions of literature review:
1. Alerts the researcher regarding all existing research in a particular area.
2. Set context and grounds for justification for the research.
3. Ensure that the research is not just a ‘replication’ study.
4. Highlight flaws in previous works and identify or suggest areas where fresh research in
needed.

Steps of literature review:

1. Identify the discipline, focus, scope, and type of the review that are intended to be written.
2. Read and collect current research on the related topic/area. Only the most relevant is to be
selected.
3. Summarize, critique, and compare the selections to assess the field/area of research as a
whole.
4. Develop a claim about the existing research and decide how to organize the material.
5. Revise and finalize the grammar, structure, and style.
8|Page
Literature review format:

Introduction
 Provide an overview of the topic, theme, or issue.
 Identify your specific area of focus.
 Describe your methodology and rationale. How did you decide which sources to include
and which to exclude? Why?
 How is your review organized?
 Briefly discuss the overall trends in the published scholarship in this area.
 Establish your reason for writing the review.
Body
 Find the best organizational method for your review.
 Summarize sources by providing the most relevant information.
 Respectfully and objectively critique and evaluate the studies.
 Use direct quotations sparingly and only if appropriate.
Conclusion
 Summarize the major findings of the sources that you reviewed, remembering to keep the
focus on your topic.
 Evaluate the current state of scholarship in this area (ex. flaws or gaps in the research,
inconsistencies in findings)
 Identify any areas for further research.
 Conclude by making a connection between your topic and some larger area of study such as
the discipline.
(The literature review, 2021)

Example:

In the wake of the various feminist movements of the twentieth century in America, we have
become increasingly aware of what it means to be a woman, and the ways in which societal
expectations shape the expression of femininity. What such discussions often leave out—or at least
gloss over—is a corresponding critical examination of what societal expectations are for men, and
what the implications of these expectations may be. A brief comparison of three vastly different
essays—Gretel Ehrlich’s “About Men,” Dave Barry’s “Guys vs. Men,” and Paul Theroux’s “Being
a Man”—offers us a useful framework for thinking about the social construction of masculinity,
particularly in terms of its limitations.

Underlying all three essays is a sense of masculinity as prescriptive—and limiting. All three
acknowledge, at least tacitly, that society often valorises masculinity as aggressive, unfeeling, and
powerful. Although Barry glosses over manhood on his way to defining “guys,” he acknowledges
9|Page
that masculine behaviour “can produce unfortunate results such as violent crime, war, spitting, and
ice hockey” (361). Ehrlich acknowledges the negative limits of manhood by taking pains to
establish the androgyny (primarily through proofs of emotional sensitivity and vulnerability) of
what is typically considered one of the most

“manly” occupations—the cowboy. Theroux, of the three authors, is the most explicit about the
negative limits of masculinity, and the ways that expectations about masculine behaviour damage
our society—both by the resulting misogyny and by the limits masculinity puts on cultural and
emotional expression of men.

This is a successful example of a literature review because the review presents an organized,
cohesive argument, and the sources are analysed rather than summarized.

(This example is from Penn State’s Graduate Writing Centre’s “Strategies For Writing Literature
Reviews.”)

10 | P a g e
Chapter 4- INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH, STUDY DESIGNS AND
METHODS

Quantitative research methods deal with numbers and all that is measurable in a systematic
investigation of events/situations/circumstances and their relationships. A quantitative study
generally ends with disconfirmation or confirmation of the tested hypothesis. In this method,
researchers identify one or a few variables which they intend to use in their research work and
proceed with data collection in relation to those variables.
Quantitative research methods typically begin with data collection followed by application
of descriptive or inferential statistics. The method falls under the wide heading of ‘descriptive
research’. The three types of descriptive research are-

1. Observation studies
2. Correlational research
3. Survey research

Observation studies:
Observation is often used as a method to observe/note down behaviour and effect in
respond to a specific phenomenon. The other way would be to ask people how they feel or what
they are doing and why; sometimes both are used simultaneously depending on the phenomenon.
(Malderez, 2003)
Observation studies are involved in both quantitative and qualitative research methods.
However, in quantitative methods, the focus of observation studies is on a particular factor of
behaviour and it is quantified. In this type of design, a researcher will try to maintain objectivity in
assessing the behaviour being studied. The table below summarises some strategies used in this
design. ([Link]. 2021)
No. Strategies Description
1. Using rating scale Using rating scale (e.g., Likert Scale) to evaluate the
behaviour in terms of specific factor or reasons.
2. Defining the behaviour Defining the behaviour being studied in a precise and
solid manner so that the behaviour is easily recognised
during its occurrence.
3. Rated by two or more Having two or more individual ratings the same
individuals behaviour independently, without the knowledge of
one another’s ratings.
4. Clustering the observation Divide the observation period into small clusters and
periods then record whether the behaviour does or does not
occur during each cluster or segment. Time period

11 | P a g e
 may be assigned with some intervals depending on the
study’s requirement.
5. Train the person(s) who Making the participants who will rate, made aware of
will rate the behavior to follow some specific requirement until
consistent ratings are obtained during any of the
behavioural occurrences.

Correlational research:
This type of a study examines the differences between characteristics or variables of two or
more entities. A correlation exists if one variable increase or decreases in correspondence to the
other variables. Correlational results can be represented using several means of visualisation. One
such common mean is the scatterplot.

Figure 4.1- A scatterplot, Source: quantitative_research_methodology.pdf

By examining the scatterplot, we can identify or describe the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the
two variables. Secondly, we can describe the degree of which the two variables are intercorrelated
or using statistical approach known as correlation coefficient. Finally, we can interpret these data
and give them meaning. ([Link]. 2021) Figure 4.1 shows an example of a scatterplot.

Survey research
The goal of survey research is to learn about a large population. It is also called descriptive
survey or normative survey. This method allows researchers to pose a series of questions to
participants. The responses are summarised in percentages, frequency distribution or other
statistical approaches. This method may also include telephone interviews or face-to-face
interviews. Using questionnaires is common in this method. The questionnaires have questions
concerning-
12 | P a g e
 1. What are the beliefs?
2. What do they know?
3. What have they done?
4. What do they expect?

The two types of surveys are-

a. Cross-sectional Surveys- Collecting data at only one point of time.

b. Longitudinal Surveys- Collecting data more than once over a certain period of time to
observe changes. (Figure 4.2)

Figure 4.2 - Two types of surveys. Source-Cohen and Manion, 2007

Basic research design for quantitative study

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive
or experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyse, and interpret the results. A
descriptive study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the
intention is to only establish associations between variables; the study may include a sample
population of hundreds or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized
relationship between variables has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects
measured before and after a particular treatment, the sample population may be very small and
purposefully chosen, and it is intended to establish causality between variables.

13 | P a g e
Introduction

The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the
third person point of view. It covers the following information:

 Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state
clearly and concisely the research problem being investigated.
 Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes
and, if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and
analysis. Note where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or
clarifies existing knowledge.
 Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or
hypothesis underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex
terms, concepts, or ideas and provide the appropriate background information to
place the research problem in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic,
etc.].

Methodology

The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study
will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed
assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem.
The methods section should be presented in the past tense.

 Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust it is;
note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for selection.
 Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and
identify the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data;
note if the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself.
If you gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note
that no data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.
 Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analysing the data. If
appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research
objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used
to manipulate the data.

14 | P a g e
Results

The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format.
In quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual
elements to help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not
stand in isolation from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the
results and to help clarify key points being made.

Statistical analysis -- how did you analyse the data? What were the key findings from the
data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret
these trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be
presented in the past tense.

Discussion

Discussions should be analytical, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld
together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within
the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be
presented in the present tense.

 Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and

compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study.
Did they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?
 Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -
- describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated
and statistical insignificant findings.
 Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key
findings based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important.
How have the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
 Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if
necessary, note why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the
results.

15 | P a g e
Conclusion

End your study by summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the
study.

 Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not

report any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings
and describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
 Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings
with policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
 Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s
limitations or to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your
study.

(source of sample study design-

[Link]
%20are%20either,an%20experimental%20study%20establishes%20causality.)

16 | P a g e
Chapter 5 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

Data which is collected through questionnaires or methods in quantitative research need to be

analysed and interpreted. Usually, statistical procedures are quantitative data approaches. Here, let
us look at some common statistical approaches for quantitative data analysis (Figure 5.1).

Quantitative Data
Analysis

Mean
Standard deviation
differences between two mean
Testing for significant

T-test (independent)

T-test (dependent)

ANNOVA
Correlation coefficients

Perfect relationship- positive

Perfect relationship- negative

No relationship

17 | P a g e
 Figure- 5.1 - Summary of all the components for this section.

 Mean - Mean, is also known as average. A mean is the sum of all scores divided by the
number of scores. The mean is used to measure central tendency or centre of a score
distribution generally. For example, the distribution in the following example (Figure 4.2)
fits real data that has been collected from 14-year-old girls during a study.

Normal distribution

Below average Above average

mean

Figure 5.2- Example of mean in distributed scores. (Adapted from-

[Link]

 Standard Deviation -A standard deviation tells us how close the scores are centred around
the mean. When the scores are bunched together around the mean, the standard deviation is
small and the bell curve is steep. When the scores are spread away from the mean, the
standard deviation is large and the bell curve is relatively flat (Figure 4.4).

68%

-2.5% 95% 2.5%

2
-2
-1

18 | P a g e
 Mean = 50th percentile
X

Figure 5.3 - Standard Deviation

To explore better what standard deviation means, we shall refer to above figure (Figure 5.3). The
mean is 20 and the standard deviation (SD) is 5. The above figure (Figure 5.3) represents the score
obtained on grid test for two organisation terminals using cluster computing with the same mean of
20.
 One standard deviation (SD= 5) from the mean in either direction on the horizontal axis
accounts for around 68% of the organisation in this group. In other terms, 68% terminals obtained
15 and 25 optimal time.
 Two standard deviations (5+5=10) away from the mean accounts roughly 95% of terminals. In
other words, 95% terminals obtained between 10 and 30 optimal time.
 Three standard deviations ( 5+5+5=15) away from the mean accounts for roughly 99% terminals.
In other words, 99% terminals obtained 5 and 35 optimal time.

Testing for Significant Differences between Two Means Using the t-Test (Independent
Groups)
Let’s say you are conducting a study to compare the effectiveness of the use of a ‘service discovery
protocol’ (independent variable) in enhancing network appliances detection in home networks. The
mean score and standard deviation for the application test are shown in the table below and you
want to test the null hypothesis.
Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the experimental group and the control
group in terms of enhancing network appliances detection.
To solve this, you may use the statistical approach called t-test to obtain the value for independent
means. In this case, independent means that two groups consist of different subjects. The t-test
gives the probability that the difference between the two means is caused by chance. For testing the
significance, you will need to set a risk level called the alpha level. Similar to social science
research within ICT research, we set the alpha level at .05. This means that the obtained result
which is significant at .05 level could occur by chance only 5 times in trial of 100.
N Mean Standard Deviation
Experimental 10 13.8 2.10
Group
Control group 10 11.4 1.96
t value = 2.65 degrees of freedom = 18 p<0.02

 Table above displays t-value of 2.65 obtained. If you are using statistical software like
SPSS or SAS, the probability value is given (i.e. p<0.02). We could also refer to the table of
critical values to find out whether the t-value is large enough to say that the difference
between the groups is not likely to have been a chance finding.
19 | P a g e
  We can also determine the degrees of freedom (df) for the test which is the sum of the
terminals in both groups minus 2 (i.e.n-2). By the given alpha level, the df and the t-value,
we can refer to the t-value in the table of critical values.
 Refer Table below. The obtained t-value (2.65) is bigger than the critical value (2.1009) for
18 degree of freedom (20-2=18). From this, we can conclude that the differences between
the means for two organisations is significantly different at the 0.05 level of significance.

Extract from the Table of Critical Values

df p = 0.05 p = 0.01
17 2.1098 2.8982
18 2.1009 2.8784
19 2.1009 2.8609

 Please note the difference is NOT SIGNIFICANT at the 0.01 level of significance because
t-value (2.65) is smaller than the critical value (2.8784) for 18 degrees of freedom.

Testing for Significant Differences between Two Means Using the t-test (Dependent groups)
Let’s say you would like to conduct a study to compare the effectiveness of the use of a ‘service
discovery protocol’ (independent variable) in enhancing network appliances detection (dependent
variable) in ONE home network (IEEE 802.11). You gave a pre-test and after testing the protocol
with the IEEE 802.11 network, you give a post-test. Here, the same group of subjects are tested 2
times. The mean score and standard deviation obtained for network detection are in the Table
below. You want to test the null hypothesis.
Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the pre-test mean and the post-test mean in
terms of network appliances detection enhancement.
Means and Standard Deviation Obtained for the Pre-test and Post-test Scores
Mean Standard Deviation
Pre-test 9.90 1.66
Post-test 10.90 0.99
N=10; t value=1.94; degrees of freedom=9;
p<0.09

 By using the t-test for dependent groups, we can obtain value of 1.94. In this case,
dependent means that the two means are obtained from the same groups.
 From the Table below, we can highlight that for 9 degree of freedom, the critical value is
2.2622, which is larger than the t-value 1.94. We can conclude that the means are NOT
significantly different at the 0.05 level of significance.

20 | P a g e
 Extract from the Table of Critical Values of t
df p = 0.05 p = 0.01
8 2.3060 3.3554
9 2.2622 3.2498
10 2.2281 3.1693

Testing for Differences between Means Using One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
In ANOVA, the mechanism is similar to t-test, although the method differs. Whenever a researcher
wants to compare more than two means, he/ she will always opt to use One-Way Analysis of
Variance or widely known as ANOVA. For example, say you want to conduct an experiment on
three types of buffering methods for video streaming over mobile device. The means and standard
deviation obtained are shown in the table below.

Means and Standard Deviation for Three Types of Buffering Methods

N Mean Standard Deviation
Buffer Method 1 10 14.6 1.83
Buffer Method 2 10 15.6 2.22
Buffer Method 3 10 18.0 2.10

Summary of the Buffering Method Analysis

Summary Sum of df Mean Square F p
Squares
Treatment 61.066 2 30.533 7.1811 0.003
Within 114.800 27 -
TOTAL 175.866 29

In this example, a researcher used One-Way ANOVA and obtained an F-value of 7.1811 which is
significant at 0.003 (Table Summary of the Buffering Method Analysis). Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no differences between means is rejected. However, it is unsure which of the
differences contributes to the significance. To overcome this problem, another statistical approach
needs to be considered. A researcher can perform Pos Hoc Comparisons such as Scheffe Test or
Tukey Test. These tests are usually applied after an analysis of variance.
Tukey Test for the Analysis
Buffer Method 1 vs Buffer Method 1 Not significant
Buffer Method 1 vs Buffer Method 3 Significant at p < .01
Buffer Method 2 vs Buffer Method 3 Significant at p < .05

From the above table , we can conclude that there is no significant difference between the
performance using Buffer Method 1 and Buffer Method 2. Buffer Method 3 performed
significantly better at significance level 0.05. Buffer Method 3 also outperformed Buffer Method 1
at the 0.01 level of significance.

21 | P a g e
Correlation Coefficient
To find the relationship or correlation between two variables, the approach used is called
correlation coefficient. For example, in a research work, you collected data on ‘bandwidth rate’ and
also ‘jitter’. You may want to find out if there is a correlation between bandwidth rate and jitter in
network performance. It is important to note that correlation has direction and can be positive or
negative. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (represented by ‘r’) is used to show
the strength of relationship between two variables. A coefficient can range from r = +1.00 to -1.00.
The Figure below shows what the coefficient means.

Figure 5.4 - Graphs showing Different Correlation Coefficients. Source:

quantitative_research_methodology.pdf

22 | P a g e
The figure above (Figure 5.4) shows perfect positive correlation ( r=+1) which means an increase
in variable y is also followed by an increase in variable x. The second diagram shows a perfect
negative correlation (r = -1) which means an increase in variable y is followed by a decrease in
variable x or vice-versa. The third diagram shows a zero correlation(r=0.00) which means there is
no relationship between variable y and variable x.

(Please note- the examples used in this lesson are direct adaptations from a published extract. The
link to the entire pdf is mentioned below which you may access for your convenience-
quantitative_research_methodology.pdf
For further help with statistics for quantitative data analysis you may find this -
[Link] - useful ).

Further readings:
 Introduction to quantitative methods: Handbook of Methodological Approaches to
Community-based Research;;Publisher: Oxford;Editors: Leonard A. Jason, David S.
Glenwick
 Handbook of Quantitative Methods for Educational Research;Editors: Teo, Timothy
(Ed.)

Chapter 6- CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining studies or research to judge its
validity, reliability, trustworthiness and relevance in a specific context.

Most of us are aware that it is not safe to believe everything that we read in a newspaper or
from any online source, also that we cannot rely 100% on papers written and published by the most
prestigious academic journals. Different studies reported in literature have different strengths and
weaknesses. Even if the contents of a paper are reliable, it is sometimes difficult to find specific
information and interpret it accurately.

Critical appraisal allows us to:

 Reduce information overload by eliminating irrelevant or weak studies
 Identify the most relevant papers
 Distinguish evidence from opinion, assumptions, misreporting, and belief
 Assess the validity of the study
 Assess the usefulness and clinical applicability of the study
23 | P a g e
  Recognise any potential for bias.

To be precise, critical appraisal helps to separate what is significant from what is not.
Questions to consider when critically appraising a paper:

 Is the study question relevant to my field?

 Does the study add anything new to the evidence in my field?
 What type of research question is being asked?
A well-developed research question usually identifies three components: the group or
population of patients, the studied parameter (e.g.: a therapy or clinical intervention) and
outcomes of interest.
 Was the study design appropriate for the research question?
 Did the methodology address important potential sources of bias?
 Bias can be attributed to chance (e.g.: random error) or to the study methods (systematic
bias).
 Was the study performed according to the original protocol?
Deviations from the planned protocol can affect the validity or relevance of a study, e.g.: a
decrease in the studied population over the course of a randomised controlled trial.
 Does the study test a stated hypothesis?
 Is there a clear statement of what the investigators expect the study to find which can be
tested, and confirmed or refuted?
 Were the statistical analyses performed correctly?
The approach to dealing with missing data, and the statistical techniques that have been
applied should be specified. Original data should be presented clearly so that readers can
check the statistical accuracy of the paper.
 Do the data justify the conclusions?
Watch out for definite conclusions based on statistically insignificant results, generalised
findings from a small sample size, and statistically significant associations being
misinterpreted to imply a cause and effect.
 Are there any conflicts of interest?
 Who has funded the study? Can we trust their objectivity? Do the authors have any
potential conflicts of interest, and have these been declared?

At the end of the appraisal process, we should have a better appreciation of how strong the
evidence is, and ultimately whether or not we should consider and what not. (Dissecting the
literature: the importance of critical appraisal — Royal College of Surgeons, 2021)

Further readings-

24 | P a g e
Critical appraisal of quantitative and qualitative research literature
T Smith, 2009
[Link]
Critical appraisal: a checklist- [Link]
checklist/
Critical appraisal of quantitative research- University of Queensland -
[Link]

Chapter 7- INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH, STUDY DESIGNS AND

METHODS

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research

consists of an investigation that:

• seeks answers to a question.

• systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question.
• collects evidence.
• produces findings that were not determined in advance.
• produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
Qualitative research shares these characteristics.

Additionally, it seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the
local population it involves. Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally
specific information about the values, opinions, behaviours, and social contexts of populations.

The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual descriptions of
how people experience a given research issue. It provides information about the “human” side of
an issue –often contradictory behaviours, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships of
individuals. Qualitative methods are also effective in identifying intangible factors, such as social
norms, socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity, and religion. When used along with
quantitative methods, qualitative research can help us to interpret and better understand the
complex reality of a given situation and the implications of quantitative data.

The three most common qualitative methods, explained in detail in their respective
modules, are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Each method is
particularly suited for obtaining a specific type of data.

25 | P a g e
 • Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviours
in their usual contexts.
• In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,
perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.
• Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in
generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups
represented.

One advantage of qualitative methods in exploratory research is that use of open-ended

questions and probing gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words, rather than
forcing them to choose from fixed responses, as quantitative methods do. Open-ended questions
have the ability to evoke responses that are:

• meaningful and culturally salient to the participant

• unanticipated by the researcher
• rich and explanatory in nature

Another advantage of qualitative methods is that they allow the researcher the flexibility to probe
initial participant responses – that is, to ask why or how. The researcher must listen carefully to
what participants say, engage with them according to their individual personalities and styles, and
use “probes” to encourage them to elaborate on their answers.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

It is not necessary to collect data from everyone in a community in order to get valid results. In
qualitative research, only a sample of a population is selected for any given study. The study’s
research objectives and the characteristics of the study population (such as size and diversity)
determine which and how many people to select. Three of the most common sampling methods
used in qualitative research are: purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. As
data collectors, we will not be responsible for selecting the sampling method. The explanations
below are meant to help us understand the reasons for using each method.

Purposive sampling
One of the most common sampling strategies is to group participants according to preselected
criteria relevant to a particular research question (for example, HIV-positive women in Capital
City). Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed prior to data collection, depend on the
resources and time available, as well as the study’s objectives. Purposive sample sizes are often
determined based on theoretical saturation (the point in data collection when new data no longer

26 | P a g e
bring additional insights to the research questions). Purposive sampling is therefore most successful
when data review and analysis are done in conjunction with data collection.

What is quota sampling?

Quota sampling, sometimes considered a type of purposive sampling, is also common. In quota
sampling, we decide while designing the study how many people with which characteristics to
include as participants. Characteristics might include age, place of residence, gender, class,
profession, marital status, use of a particular contraceptive

method, HIV status, etc. The criteria we choose allow us to focus on people we think would be
most likely to experience, know about, or have insights into the research topic. Then we go into the
community and – using recruitment strategies appropriate to the location, culture, and study
population – find people who fit these criteria, until we meet the prescribed quotas.

How do purposive and quota sampling differ?

Purposive and quota sampling are similar in that they both seek to identify participants based on
selected criteria. However, quota sampling is more specific with respect to sizes and proportions of
subsamples, with subgroups chosen to reflect corresponding proportions in the population. If, for
example, gender is a variable of interest in how people experience HIV infection, a quota sample
would seek an equal balance of HIV-positive men and HIV-positive women in a given city,
assuming a 1:1 gender ratio in the population. Studies employ purposive rather than quota sampling
when the number of participants is more of a target than a steadfast requirement – that is, an
approximate rather than a strict quota.

What is snowball sampling?

A third type of sampling, snowballing – also known as chain referral sampling – is considered a
type of purposive sampling. In this method, participants or informants with whom contact has
already been made use their social networks to refer the researcher to other people who could
potentially participate in or contribute to the study. Snowball sampling is often used to find and
recruit “hidden populations,” that is, groups not easily accessible to researchers through other
sampling strategies. ([Link]. 2021)

There are numerous qualitative research methods that can be used when conducting qualitative
research. These can include (but are not restricted to):
• One-on-one Interviews
• Focus groups
• Surveys*
• Case studies
• Longitudinal studies
• Observation
• Document analysis
27 | P a g e
Examples of research designs associated to qualitative research methods:

Grounded theory-

Purpose- theory Used in discovering what problems exist in a social scene

development &how persons handle them.

Involves formulation, testing, & redevelopment of

propositions until a theory is developed.
Method- steps occur Data collection - interview, observation, record review, or
simultaneously; a constant combination.
comparative process
Analysis Concept formation.

Concept development - reduction; selective sampling of

literature; selective sampling of subjects; emergence of core
concepts.

Concept modification & integration.

Outcomes Concept modification and integration.

Ethnography

Purpose to describe a culture's characteristics

Method Identify culture, variables for study, &
review literature

28 | P a g e
 Data collection - gain entrance to culture;
immerse self in culture; acquire informants;
gather data through direct observation &
interaction with subjects
Analysis - describe characteristics of culture
Outcomes Description of culture

Historical

Purpose- describe and examine events of the past to understand the present
and anticipate potential future effects
Method Formulate idea - select topic after reading related literature.

Develop research questions.

Develop an inventory of sources - archives, private libraries, papers.

Clarify validity & reliability of data - primary sources, authenticity,

biases.

Develop research outline to organize investigative process.

Collect data
Analysis - synthesis of all data; accept & reject data; reconcile conflicting
evidence
Outcomes - select means of presentation - biography, chronology, issue paper

Case studies

Purpose Describe in-depth the experience of one person, family, group,

community or institution
Method Direct observation and interaction with subject
Analysis Synthesis of experiment
Outcomes In-depth description of the experience
29 | P a g e
(qualitative research design source- [Link]

Further Readings
• Bernard HR. Research Methods in Anthropology, Second Edition. London: Sage
Publications, 1995.
• Denzin NK, Lincoln YS (eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage
Publications, 2000.
• Marshall PA. Human subjects protections, institutional review boards, and cultural
anthropological research. Anthropol Q 2003;76(2):269-85.
• National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research. The Belmont Report. Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of
Human Subjects of Research. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, 1979.
Available: http:// [Link]/guidelines/[Link].
• Nkwi P, Nyamongo I, Ryan G. Field Research into Social Issues: Methodological
Guidelines. Washington, DC: UNESCO, 2001.
• Pelto P, Pelto G. Studying knowledge, culture and behavior in applied medical
anthropology. Med Anthropol Q 1997;11(2):147-63.
• Pope C, Mays N. Qualitative Research in Health Care. London: BMJ Books, 2000.
• Schensul, J, LeCompte M. Ethnographer’s Toolkit. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press,
1999.

30 | P a g e
Chapter 8- ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA

There are two main approaches to qualitative data:

Deductive Approach
The deductive approach involves analysing qualitative data based on a structure that is
predetermined by the researcher. A researcher can use the questions as a guide for analysing the
data. This approach is quick and easy and can be used when a researcher has a fair idea about the
likely responses that he/she is going to receive from the sample population.
Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, on the contrary, is not based on a predetermined structure or set ground
rules/framework. It is a more time-consuming and thorough approach to qualitative data analysis.
An inductive approach is often used when a researcher has very little or no idea of the research
phenomenon.

5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis

Whether analysing qualitative data collected through a one-to-one interview or qualitative data
from a survey, these simple steps will ensure a robust data analysis.

Step 1: Arrange the Data

Once we have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and sometimes makes no sense when
looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential that as a researcher, we first need to transcribe the data
collected. The first step in analysing your data is arranging it systematically. Arranging data means
converting all the data into a text format. We can either export the data into a spreadsheet or
manually type in the data or choose from any of the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
tools.

31 | P a g e
Step 2: Organize the Data

After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to organize the data. There
are chances you most likely have a large amount of information that still needs to be arranged in an
orderly manner. One of the best ways to organize the data is by going back to the research
objectives and then organizing the data based on the questions asked. Arrange the research
objective in a table, so it appears visually clear. At all costs, avoid the temptations of working with
unorganized data.

Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected

Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead. Coding is one of the best
ways to compress a tremendous amount of information collected. The coding of

qualitative data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to the collected
data. Coding is an important step in qualitative data analysis, as you can derive
theories from relevant research findings. After assigning codes to your data, you can then begin to
build on the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help make informed decisions.

32 | P a g e
 Fig 7.1 – An example of coding. Source-
[Link]

Step 4: Validate your Data

Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for successful research. Since
data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to ensure that the data is not flawed. Please note
that data validation is not just one step in qualitative data analysis; this

is a recurring step that needs to be followed throughout the research process. There are two sides to
validating data:

• Accuracy of the research design or methods.

• Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data consistently.

Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process

33 | P a g e
It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically presenting the data, a
report that can be readily used. The report should state the method that a researcher used to conduct
the research studies, the positives, and negatives and study limitations. In the report should also
state the suggestions/inferences of the findings and any related areas for future research.
(Qualitative Data- Definition, Types, Analysis and Examples, 2021)

Questions that can be considered when analysing qualitative data include (but are not limited
to):
• What patterns/common themes emerge around specific items in the data?
• How do these patterns (or lack thereof) help to shed light on the broader study question(s)?
• Are there any deviations from these patterns?
• If, yes, what factors could explain these atypical responses?
• What interesting stories emerge from the data?
• How can these stories help to shed light on the broader study question?
• Do any of the patterns/emergent themes suggest that additional data needs to be collected?
• Do the patterns that emerge support the findings of other corresponding qualitative and
quantitative analyses that have been conducted?

Chapter 9 – CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF QUALITATIVE DATA

While the purpose of qualitative research is to provide a different (potentially complementary) type
of data to quantitative studies, it nevertheless shares a concern with establishing the trustworthiness
of data and of the inferences that can be drawn from findings.

Ten key issues in Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research

34 | P a g e
 KEY ISSUES FACTORS
Is the purpose of study clearly stated?  Rationale for study explained
 Research question clearly presented
 Context in which results will be interpreted
Is an appropriate rationale provided for Maximise strengths of study design to address
using a qualitative approach? study purpose. Researcher's expertise
demonstrated
Do the researchers clearly outline the Use of theory described (i.e., descriptive level
conceptual framework (if any) within which only; imposed on or generated from data)
they are working? Researchers “alive” to data outside of the
theory/framework
Do the researchers demonstrate an  Appropriate informed consent
understanding of the ethical implications of  Opportunity to withdraw
their study?  Opportunity to retain data
 Participants give feedback about the study
results
 Appropriate support available to
participants
 Results anonymous/confidential
 Approval of institutional ethics committee
and disclosure of funding source
Is the sampling strategy appropriate and will  Sampling strategy explained and related to
the sample represent the target group? purpose of study
 Relationship between researchers and
subjects explained
 Sample size explained
 Sample specifically defined
Does the research provide information about  Relationship of method to research
data collection procedures and how they question
were derived?  Description of development of data
collection tool (including revisions,
changes in structure)
 Theme/concept list for interviews/group
discussions
 Observation schedule for observations
Do the researchers describe the procedures  Recording of data described (e.g., audio
for keeping data organised and retrievable? tape, written notes)
 Transcriptions checked for accuracy
 Use of a software program described
 Field notes and memos kept and included
in data analysis
What methods of data analysis are used and  "Blueprint' for replication Coding systems
are they appropriate to address the study and interpretation processes clearly
purpose? described
 More than one researcher involved
35 | P a g e
 Does the researcher address the threats to  Prolonged engagement and immersion
reliability and validity in data collection,  Peer debriefing and consultation
analysis and interpretation?  Record of "progressive subjectivity'
 Search for negative cases or disconfirming
evidence
 Member checks and iteration
 Triangulation Audit trail and grounded
interpretation
 Appropriate generalisation
Is there a clear progression from research Clear analytic logic
question to conclusions drawn from data?

Bias is an inherent threat to any research endeavour and steps should be taken within each
activity to minimise its effects. In research reports the activities and procedures should be clearly
described so that the reader can come to his or her own conclusions about the trustworthiness of the
methods, analytical procedures and interpretation of the data. A further challenge for qualitative
researchers is to present the degree of detail needed to address these issues in journal papers where
space is limited.

It is believed that the use of qualitative methods is a valuable and suitable tool for research
in clinical contexts. This checklist presents a guide for qualitative research. (Treloar, Champness,
Simpson and Higginbotham, 2000)

Further readings:
1. Critical appraisal checklist for qualitative research studies. Treloar, C., Champness, S., Simpson, P. and
Higginbotham, N., 2000. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, [online] 67(5), pp.347-351. Available at:
<[Link]
10.1007_bf028206851.pdf>.
2. CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES. University of Oxford. Available at-
[Link]
3. Critically appraising qualitative research. BMJ, 2008. Available at- [Link]
content/uploads/2016/06/kuper_2008_bmj_-_critically_appraising_qualitative_research_1.pdf

Chapter 8- INTRODUCTION TO MIXED METHODS RESEARCH, STUDY DESIGNS

AND METHODS

What is mixed methods research?

Mixed methods research requires a purposeful mixing of methods in data collection, data
analysis and interpretation of the evidence. The key word is ‘mixed’, as an essential step in the
mixed methods approach is data linkage, or integration at an appropriate stage in the research

36 | P a g e
process. Purposeful data integration enables researchers to seek a more panoramic view of their
research landscape, viewing phenomena from different viewpoints and through diverse research
lenses. For example, in a randomised controlled trial evaluating a decision aid for women making
choices about birth after caesarean, quantitative data were collected to assess knowledge change,
levels of decisional conflict, birth choices and outcomes; qualitative narrative data were collected
to gain insight into women’s decision-making experiences and factors that influenced their choices
for mode of birth.

What are the strengths and challenges in using mixed methods?

Choosing the right research method starts with identifying the research question and study
aims. A mixed methods design is appropriate for answering research questions that neither
quantitative nor qualitative methods could answer alone. Mixed methods can be used to gain a
better understanding of connections or contradictions between qualitative and quantitative data;
they can provide opportunities for participants to have a strong voice and share their experiences
across the research process, and they can facilitate different avenues of exploration that enrich the
evidence and enable questions to be answered more deeply.

These six core characteristics focus on activities of the mixed-methods researcher and
include the following actions:
- Collecting and analysing persuasively and rigorously both qualitative and
quantitative data, based on research questions.
- Mixing – or integrating or linking – the two forms of data either concurrently by
combining or merging them, sequentially by having one to build on the other, or
embedding one within the other.
- Giving priority to one or to both forms of data, again based on the research
questions and the emphasis of the research.
- Using these procedures in a single research study or in multiple phases of a
program of research.
- Framing these procedures within philosophical worldviews and theoretical
lenses.
- Combining the procedures into specific research designs that direct the plan for
conducting the study.

These core characteristics provide an extremely comprehensive perspective on the critical

aspects of engaging in mixed-methods research.

The process of mixing methods within one study, however, can add to the complexity of
conducting research. It often requires more resources (time and personnel) and additional research
training. (Shorten and Smith, 2017)

Similar to any other approach to conducting research, when preparing a research study that
will use a mixed methodology, the researcher must provide a justification for the use of this
approach. Researchers would need to do this even if they were engaged in a study that was purely
37 | P a g e
qualitative or purely quantitative. Specific situations would more likely allow a research approach
that requires the combination of quantitative and qualitative data. Creswell and Plano Clark (2011)
have elaborated on six scenarios or examples of research problems that are best suited for mixed-
methods research:

- A need exists because one data source may be insufficient. Qualitative data provide
understanding through greater depth, whereas quantitative data provide broader, more
general understanding. Each approach has its advantages and limitations. Qualitative
data may provide a deep examination of a phenomenon of interest but only with respect
to a handful of participants. On the other hand, quantitative data can provide
information across a much broader sampling of participants, but the depth of that
information is certainly limited. Depending on the goals of a research study – as well as
its guiding research questions – one type of data alone may not tell the complete picture
or adequately answer the research questions. Additionally, the results from the analysis
of qualitative data and those from the collection of quantitative data may be
contradictory, which could not have been discovered if only one type or the other was
collected and analysed. Using both types of data in a single research study provides
depth as well as breadth.
-
- A need exists to explain initial results. Sometimes researchers find themselves in
situations where the results of the study do not provide complete understanding of the
research problem; further explanation is needed. This additional explanation can be
provided through the collection and analysis of a second set of data that helps explain
the results of the initial set of data. For example, quantitative data can be used to
provide numerical expressions of the relationships among variables or differences
between groups, but detailed
-
-
-
-
-
- understanding of what those relationships mean or from where the differences came
(i.e., the meanings behind the results of the statistical tests) can be provided only by
qualitative data collection and analysis, as a follow-up to the initial collection of
quantitative data.
-
- A need exists to generalize exploratory findings. As you know from your studies of
qualitative research methods, in some research investigations entered into by
researchers, the research questions are not known, the variables cannot yet be
identified, and the goals of the research cannot be specified at the outset of the study. In
these scenarios, an initial phase focused on the collection of qualitative data is

38 | P a g e
 necessary simply to explore the setting or participants involved. Once there is enhanced
general knowledge of the research situation, the qualitative phase can be followed up
with a quantitative study to generalize and test what was learned from the initial
exploration.
-
- A need exists to enhance a study with a second method. In some research situations,
a second method can be added to provide enhanced understanding of some phase of
research that has been conducted. For example, a researcher could add a qualitative
component to enhance an experimental, correlational, or causal-comparative study.
Similarly, quantitative data could be added to enhance the findings of an ethnographic,
narrative, or grounded theory research study. In these situations, however, the second
method is embedded or nested within the primary method. The design of this approach
should not be confused with the one described above, where the second method is used
as a follow-up to the initial method of data collection.
-
A need exists to best employ a theoretical stance. There may be a particular research
situation where a theoretical perspective dictates the need to collect both quantitative
and qualitative data. All data could either be collected simultaneously or sequentially,
with one form of data building on the other. The application of a particular theoretical
viewpoint may determine this specific need.

- A need exists to understand a research objective through multiple research

phases. Many research studies require multiple research phases – which may or may
not be viewed as individual, separate studies – whereby researchers may need to
connect several seemingly independent studies to achieve the overall research goal.
This is a common approach used in comprehensive and/or multiyear evaluation or other
types of longitudinal studies. As with the previous need, data may be collected
simultaneously or sequentially.

The above scenarios illustrate situations in which mixed-methods research would be an appropriate
design for investigating the particular problems. Although this list is not necessarily exhaustive,
these cases and explanations can certainly serve as justifications for the researchers’ need to use a
particular mixed-methods research design. In many cases, researchers may combine some of these
six explanations to provide the most accurate justification for the use of mixed-methods designs.
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011)

Types of mixed method designs

MIXED RESEARCH PROCESS EXAMPLE
METHOD
TYPE
39 | P a g e
 Explanatory Quantitative data are AIM: Identify levels of stress among new
sequential collected and analysed graduate registered nurses (RNs) working in
first, then qualitative emergency room (ER) settings
data are collected and QUAN: National survey of new RNs working
analysed to help explain in ER settings measuring levels of workplace
quantitative data. stress
QUAN → QUAL QUAL: Personal interviews with 15–20 new
RNs working in ER settings to discuss their
experiences with stressful workplace situations
SYNTHESIS: Sequential
QUAL data help explain QUAN data
Exploratory Qualitative data are AIM: Identify highest sources of workplace
sequential collected and analysed stress for new RNs working in hospital ERs
first, then quantitative QUAL: Focus group data collected from newly
data are collected and registered RNs working in hospital ERs within
used to test findings a local area health service to discuss workplace
empirically. stress
QUAL → QUAN QUAN: QUAL data used to create a national
survey administered to all RNs working in ERs
about sources of workplace stress experienced
within their first year of practice
SYNTHESIS: Sequential
QUAL data inform collection of QUAN data,
which verify QUAL data
Parallel Qualitative and AIM: Identify sources of stress for RNs
quantitative data working in ER settings, personal coping
collected and analysed strategies used and types of programmes or
concurrently. support systems provided by hospitals
QUAL + QUAN QUAN: National survey of all RNs working in
ER departments, based on the literature, to
identify common sources of stress and methods
of support used by employers to reduce RN
stress
QUAL: Focus groups and interviews with a
random selection of RNs working in ERs to
broaden understanding of different sources of
stress and personal coping strategies used
SYNTHESIS: Data integration during
interpretation phase after QUAN and QUAL
data analyses
Nested Can be either QUAL or AIM: Test an online peer support programme
QUAN main design with designed to reduce workplace stress for new
the alternative paradigm RNs working in ERs
embedded within the QUAN: RCT to test online programme effect
study to answer a on stress levels and intention to remain working
complementary question. in the ER

40 | P a g e
 QUAL + QUAN or QUAL: Interview nested in the RCT, focused
QUAN + QUAL on user experiences of the online programme
SYNTHESIS: qual analysis embedded within
the main QUAN study

(Source from- Halcomb and Hickman, 2015)

Further Readings:
 Creswell JW , Plano ClarkV L . Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks,
California: BMJ Publishing Group, [Link] Scholar
 Greene JC , Caracelli VJ , Graham WF . Toward a conceptual framework for mixed method evaluation
designs. Educ Eval Policy Anal 1989;11:255–[Link].3102/01623737011003255 CrossRefGoogle
Scholar
 Ivankova NV . Using mixed methods sequential explanatory design: from theory to practice. Field
methods 2006;18:3–[Link].1177/1525822X05282260 CrossRefWeb of ScienceGoogle Scholar
 Shorten A , Shorten B , Kennedy HP . Complexities of choice after prior cesarean: a narrative analysis.
Birth 2014;41:178–[Link].1111/birt.12082 Google Scholar
 Andrew S , Halcomb EJ . Mixed method research. In: Borbasi S , Jackson D , eds. Navigating the maze
of research: enhancing nursing & midwifery practice. 3rd ed. Marrickville, New South Wales: BMJ
Publishing Group, [Link] Scholar
 Halcomb E , Hickman L . Mixed methods research. Nurs Stand 2015;29:41–
[Link].7748/ns.29.32.41.e8858 Google Scholar

Chapter 10- ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF MIXED METHODS DATA

Analysing the data consists of examining the database to address the research questions or
hypotheses. There are multiple levels of analysis in both quantitative and qualitative analysis. In
41 | P a g e
quantitative data analysis, the researcher analyses the collected data based on the type of questions
or hypotheses and applies appropriate statistical test to address the stated questions or hypotheses.
Selection of a statistical test is based on the type of research question asked (e.g., a description of
trends, a comparison of groups, or the relationship among variables); the number of variables in the
question; the types of scales used to measure those variables; and whether the variables’ scores are
normally or non-normally distributed. Information in research methods texts discusses all these
considerations.

The next step in the analysis process is to represent the results of the analysis in summary
form in statements, tables, or figures. In quantitative data analysis, researchers represent the results
of analysis in statements, tables, and figures. Statements of quantitative results generally identify
the results and summarize the statistical evidence for those results. There is standard information
that should be reported for each type of statistical procedure, and various statistics books provide
sample tables as models. Researchers use figures to present quantitative results in a visual form,
such as in bar charts, scatterplots, or line graphs. These visual forms depict the trends and
distributions of the data. The information needs to augment rather than duplicate information
provided in the text, be easy to read and understand, and omit visually distracting details. Some
statistical programs permit figures to be copied directly into word processing documents. In
developing statistical summary statements, tables, and figures, researchers need to follow an
appropriate style guideline.

In qualitative data analysis, representing the results may involve a discussion of the
evidence for the themes or categories, the presentation of figures that depict the physical setting of
the study, or diagrams presenting frameworks, models, or theories. When discussing the evidence
for a theme or category, the basic idea is to build a discussion that convinces the reader that the
theme or category emerges from the data. Writing strategies for providing this evidence include
conveying subthemes or subcategories, citing specific quotes, using different sources of data to cite
multiple items of evidence, providing multiple perspectives from individuals in a study to show the
divergent views. Apart from these discussions, researchers may represent their findings through
visuals, such as figures, maps, or tables that present the different themes. The interrelated themes
may comprise a model (as in grounded theory), a chronology (as in narrative research), or
comparison tables (as in ethnography). A map may show the physical layout of the setting in which
the research took place. As with quantitative approaches to representation, the qualitative
researcher needs to follow style guidelines in representing the data analysis.

Interpreting the results

After presenting the results or findings, the researcher next seeks to interpret the meaning of
the results. This often comes in a discussion section of a report. Basically, an interpretation of
42 | P a g e
results involves stepping back from the detailed results and advancing their larger meaning in view
of the research problems, the questions or hypotheses in a study, the existing literature, and perhaps
author-related experiences (in qualitative research). For quantitative interpretation, this means
summarizing the major quantitative results and then comparing the results with the initial research
questions asked to determine how the questions or hypotheses were answered in the study. It also
means comparing the results with prior predictions or explanations drawn from past research
studies or theories. Other aspects of interpretation involve identifying the limitations of the study
procedures and drawing out implications for future research and for audiences.
In qualitative interpretation, the researcher provides similar explanations about the results
but with a few differences. Like quantitative research, the interpretation begins with a summary of
the major qualitative findings, and how the research questions were answered by the qualitative
findings. In addition, comparisons can be made between the findings and those of past research
studies in the literature. Different from quantitative research, however, qualitative researchers may
bring in their personal experiences and draw personal assessments of the findings. This feature sets
qualitative research apart from quantitative approaches, and it reflects the role of the qualitative
researcher, who believes that research (and its interpretations) can never be separated from the
researcher’s reflexivity or personal views and characterizations. Finally, in interpretation, the
researcher identifies limitations of the study and indicates implications for future research and for
audiences.

Validating the data and results

In quantitative research, the researcher is concerned about issues of validity and reliability.
Standards for assessing these issues are available from several sources, such as the American
Psychological Association (2014). Quantitative validity (also called construct validity) means that
the scores received from participants are meaningful indicators of the construct being measured.
Quantitative reliability means that scores received from participants are consistent and stable over
time. Researchers establish the reliability and construct validity of scores by selecting quality
instruments and by analysing their data. They also use procedures throughout the study to reduce
threats to internal validity (i.e., extent to which cause-and effect claims can be made) and to
external validity (i.e., the extent to which the results can be generalized to other persons, settings,
or times).

In qualitative research, there is more of a focus on validity than reliability. Qualitative

validity comes from standards based on researchers, participants, and reviewers. There are
strategies available to determine this validity, and it can be recommended that qualitative
researchers use at least three of the following strategies.

43 | P a g e
 1. Member-checking is a frequently used strategy in which the investigator takes summaries
of the findings (e.g., case studies, major themes, theoretical model) back to key participants
in the study and asks them whether the findings are an accurate reflection of their
experiences.
2. Another validity strategy is the triangulation of data drawn from several sources (e.g.,
transcripts and pictures) or several individuals such that the inquirer builds evidence for a
code or theme from these sources or individuals during data analysis.
3. A third strategy consists of reporting disconfirming evidence. Disconfirming evidence is
information that presents a perspective that is contrary to the one indicated by the
established evidence. A report of disconfirming evidence in fact confirms the accuracy of
the data analysis because in real life we expect the evidence for themes to diverge and
include more than just positive information.
4. A final strategy is to ask others to examine the data. These others may be peers (e.g.,
graduate students or faculty) who are familiar with qualitative research as well as the
content area of the specific research, or they may be external auditors not affiliated with the
project who review the database and the qualitative results using their own criteria.

Reliability plays a minor role in qualitative research because the inquirer instead emphasizes the
value of his or her subjective interpretations. When reliability is emphasized in qualitative research,
it relates primarily to the reliability of multiple coders on a team to consistently agree on codes for
passages in the text. Therefore, reliability is useful in qualitative research when there is interest in
comparing coding among several coders.

Several overarching principles of validity need to guide mixed methods approaches. First,
since mixed methods research involves both quantitative and qualitative strands of data, there is a
need to address the specific types of validity checks associated with both strands. Second, even
though different terms are available in the mixed methods literature, it is believed that the best term
to use is validity because of its acceptance by both quantitative and qualitative researchers today
and because such use presents a common language understandable to many researchers.

In mixed methods data analysis, the researcher needs to incorporate sound procedures of
data analysis for both the quantitative and qualitative strands of the study. This involves preparing
the data for analysis, exploring the data, analysing the data to answer the research questions and
test the research hypotheses, representing the results of the data analysis, interpreting the results,
and validating the data, results, and interpretation. In mixed methods research, the additional
process of mixed methods data analysis and interpretation exists for each type of design. As data
44 | P a g e
integration is central to mixed methods analysis, the intent of integration, the procedures for
integration, the representation of integration and the use of joint displays, and the interpretation of
the results of integration take different shapes for the core designs and the complex designs.
Furthermore, validation for a mixed methods study needs to be considered in terms of rigorous
quantitative and qualitative validity procedures as well as validity considerations unique to mixed
methods. Within each type of design, the threats to validity differ, and mixed methods researchers
need to engage in strategies that minimize these threats. Mixed methods researchers also have
access to data analysis software programs that increasingly offer capabilities for facilitating the
mixed methods data analysis and integration procedures. (Creswell and Plano Clark, n.d.)

Chapter 11- CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

A writing structure that conveys the elements of mixed methods research and is organized
to reflect the type of design used adds to the sophistication and credibility of a completed study.
For those conducting mixed methods research, it is important to consider how to evaluate the
quality of their study and to reflect on the criteria that others, such as graduate committee members,
funding agencies, journal editors, and readers in general, might use in their assessment of the study.

A rigorous quantitative study phase in mixed methods research must use an appropriate
design (e.g., experimental or correlational) that matches the research question; a theory that frames
the study; and data collection that will lead to reliable and valid scores. The sample needs to be
carefully selected and described, and the sample size needs to provide sufficient statistical power to
address the questions of interest. The statistical test must be appropriate and robust. The overall
study needs to have accurate measures and be generalizable, valid and reliable, and replicable.

The standards for evaluating a qualitative study depend on how the researcher positions
herself or himself in the study. Qualitative researchers differ in the criteria they use, which include
philosophical criteria, participatory and advocacy criteria, or procedural, methodological criteria.
Approach to qualitative research stress on the importance of procedural or methodological criteria.
(Creswell and Plano Clark, n.d.)

These criteria include the following:

 framing the study within philosophical assumptions of qualitative research;

 using an accepted approach to inquiry (e.g., ethnography, case study);
 focusing on a single phenomenon;
 emphasizing rigorous data collection;
 using validity strategies to confirm the accuracy of the account;
 conducting multiple levels of data analysis;

45 | P a g e
  and writing a study that is persuasive and engages the reader

Evaluation Tool for 'Mixed Methods' Study Designs

Bibliographic details Author, title, source (publisher and place of publication), year
Purpose What are the aims of this paper?
If the paper is part of a wider study, what are its aims?
Key findings What are the key findings?
Evaluative summary What are the strengths and weaknesses of the study and theory,
policy and practice implications?
The study What type of study is this?
What was the intervention?
What was the comparison intervention?
Is there sufficient detail given of the nature of the intervention
and the comparison intervention?
What is the relationship of the study to the area of the topic
review?
The Setting Within what geographical and care setting is the study carried
out? What is the rationale for choosing this setting?
Is the setting appropriate and/or sufficiently specific for
examination of the research question?
Is sufficient detail given about the setting?
Over what time period is the study conducted?
Sample What was the source population?
What were the inclusion criteria?
What were the exclusion criteria?
How was the sample (events, persons, times and settings)
selected? (For example, theoretically informed, purposive,
convenience, chosen to explore contrasts)
Is the sample (informants, settings and events) appropriate to the
aims of the study?
If there was more than one group of subjects, how many groups
were there, and how many people were in each group?
Is the achieved sample size sufficient for the study aims and to
warrant the conclusions drawn?

46 | P a g e
 What are the key characteristics of the sample (events, persons,
times and settings)?
Outcome What outcome criteria were used in the study?
Measurement Whose perspectives are addressed (professional, service, user,
carer)? Is there sufficient breadth (e.g. contrast of two or more
perspective) and depth (e.g. insight into a single perspective)?
Ethics Was Ethical Committee approval obtained?
Was informed consent obtained from participants of the study?
How have ethical issues been adequately addressed?
Comparable groups If there was more than one group was analysed, were the groups
comparable before the intervention?
In what respects were they comparable and in what were they not?
How were important confounding variables controlled (e.g.
matching, randomisation, or in the analysis stage)?
Was this control adequate to justify the author's conclusions?
Were there other important confounding variables controlled for
in the study design or analyses and what were they?
Did the authors take these into account in their interpretation of
the findings?
Qualitative date What data collection methods were used in the study? (Provide
collection methods insight into: data collected, appropriateness and availability for
independent analysis)
Is the process of fieldwork adequately described? (For example,
account of how the data were elicited; type and range of
questions; interview guide; length and timing of observation
work; note taking)
Qualitative date How were the data analysed?
analysis How adequate is the description of the data analysis? (For
example, to allow reproduction; steps taken to guard against
selectivity)

Is adequate evidence provided to support the analysis? (For

example, includes original / raw data extracts; evidence of
iterative analysis; representative evidence presented; efforts to
establish validity - searching for negative evidence, use of
multiple sources, data triangulation); reliability / consistency
(over researchers, time and settings; checking back with
informants over interpretation)
Are the findings interpreted within the context of other studies
and theory?
Researcher’s Potential What was the researcher's role? (For example, interviewer,
Bias participant observer)
Are the researcher’s own position, assumptions and possible
biases outlined? (Indicate how these could affect the study, in
particular, the analysis and interpretation of the data)

47 | P a g e
 Policy and Practice To what setting are the study findings generalisable? (For
implications example, is the setting typical or representative of care settings
and in what respects?
If the setting is atypical, will this present a stronger or weaker test
of the hypothesis?
To what population are the study’s findings generalisable?
Is the conclusion justified given the conduct of the study? (For
example, sampling procedure; measures of outcome and results
achieved)
What are the implications for policy?
What are the implications for service practice?
Other possible What was the total number of references used in the study?
guidelines Are there any other noteworthy features of the study?
List other study references

(This table was developed while the lead author was at the Health Care Practice R&D Unit
(HCPRDU) at the University of Salford. The tools has been directly adapted from-
[Link] )

Bibliography

1. Adler PA, Adler P. Observational techniques. In:Denzin NK, Lincoln YS ed,. Handbook of
Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks; Sage Publications, 1994; 377-392

2. Bailey, K., 2014. Methods of social research,. 4th ed. [Place of publication not identified]:
Free Press.

3. [Link]. 2021. Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research, fourth edition (2018).
[online] Available at: <[Link]
educational-research-2018> [Accessed 15 May 2021].

4. Blaikie, N. and Priest, J., n.d. Designing social research.

5. British Educational Research Association [BERA] (2018) Ethical Guidelines for

Educational Research, fourth edition, London. [Link]
resources/publications/ethicalguidelines-for-educational-research-2018

6. Cohen, L. and Manion, L., 2007. Research methods in education. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge.

7. [Link]. 2021. [online] Available at:

<[Link] [Accessed 19 May 2021].

48 | P a g e
 8. Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods
research (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

9. Creswell, J. and Plano Clark, V., n.d. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 3rd ed.

10. Treloar, C., Champness, S., Simpson, P. and Higginbotham, N., 2000. Critical appraisal checklist for
qualitative research studies. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, [online] 67(5), pp.347-351. Available at:
<[Link]
10.1007_bf028206851.pdf>.

11. [Link]. 2021. The Literature Review. [online] Available at:

<[Link]
[Accessed 17 May 2021].

12. Denzin NK, Lincoln YS. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks; Sage
Publications, 1994.

13. Elgie, S., Childs, R. and E. Fenton, N., 2021. Researching Teaching and Student Outcomes
in Postsecondary Education: A Guide. [online] [Link]. Available at:
<[Link]
[Link]> [Accessed 16 May 2021].

14. Grinnell (1988). Social work research and evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock
Publishers.

15. Halcomb, E. and Hickman, L., 2015. Mixed methods research. Nursing Standard, 29(32), pp.41-47.

16. Kerlinger, F. (1973). The structure of scientific revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.

17. Knafl KA, Howard MJ. Interpreting and reporting qualitative research. Research in Nursing
and Health 1984; 7 : 17-24.

18. Kumar, R. (2005). Research methodology. SAGE Publications.

19. Langenbach, M., Vaughn, C. and Aagaard, L., 1994. An introduction to educational
research. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, pp.1-2.

20. Laverty, D., 2018. Educational research: A practical guide. Centre for Teaching and
Learning, [online] pp.4-10. Available at:

49 | P a g e
 <[Link]
esearch_Guide%20May%[Link]> [Accessed 15 May 2021].

21. Leedy, P. D. (1993). Practical research: planning and design. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

22. Malderez, A., 2003. Observation. Oxford Academic Journals, [online] Available at:
<[Link] [Accessed 19 May 2021].

23. Miles M, Huberman A. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Source Book of New Method,.
London; Sage Publications, 1994.

24. Shorten, A. and Smith, J., 2017. Mixed methods research: expanding the evidence base. Evidence Based
Nursing, [online] 20(3), pp.74-75. Available at: <[Link]

25. [Link]. 2021. Research Ethics and Academic Integrity - NUI Galway. [online]
Available at: <[Link]
skills/readingandresearch/ethicsintegrity/> [Accessed 15 May 2021].

26. Quantitative research methods, 2021. [online] Available at:

<[Link]
0021_22_research_methodology.pdf> [Accessed 17 May 2021].

27. QuestionPro. 2021. Qualitative Data- Definition, Types, Analysis and Examples. [online] Available at:
<[Link] [Accessed 21 May 2021].

28. Royal College of Surgeons. 2021. Dissecting the literature: the importance of critical appraisal — Royal
College of Surgeons. [online] Available at: <[Link]
publications/library/blog/dissecting-the-literature-the-importance-of-critical-appraisal/> [Accessed 21 May
2021].

29. Skills for Learning (2018) Guide to report writing [online] Wolverhampton: University of
Wolverhampton [Access date 16 May 2021] Available from
[Link]
[Link]

PHASE 2

Research Skills and Conducting AccurateInternet Research

50 | P a g e
Introduction

We are thriving in a world where almost every piece of information we seek is

available online. Similarly, there is an abundance of other sources of information such
as books, journals, newspapers, reports, movies, podcasts, television, and many more.
Put simply, the world has become information- rich, and it has become a lot easier
for both professionals and students to gather new information and develop new
perspectives. This act of looking for information that suits your specific assignment or
task can be defined as ‘research’. Particularly, students must carry out a lot of research
because they often come across assignments that push them to study beyond the
subject material and look for fresh ideas and information. In fact, a student who
performs thorough research usually manages to learn more while completing their
assignments. Moreover, for students involved in postgraduate learning, the element of
research and self-study increases because the adult learners are expected to be mature
and committed. There are different types of research, and numerous platforms and
tools that can be used to carry out research. Nevertheless, students must first develop
a set of essential researchskills in order to be able to locate the right information and
data at the right time. For many professionals, student-level research might be very
new, and they may hence take some time to wrap their heads around the entire
research process. In this foundation subject, we will delve into the ways to develop
and enrich your research skills so that you can write your assignments effectively.

51 | P a g e
Chapter 1. Basic Research Skills

It is worth noting that research is not merely about going to the internet andcollecting
information. In fact, it happens to be a very structured process that necessitates a range
of basic skills. Research skills can be defined as the extent to which you accurately
target a goal, compile appropriate information from the right sources, and then
clearly convey your findings to the evaluator or other readers. Here are some of the
basic research skills that students need to develop. Don’t worry, developing these
skills is nota rocket science, and this subject will be a useful guide to help you get
accustomed with research.

 Goal Setting Skills: As mentioned before, research is a process that starts off
with the ability to establish a clear, concise, and feasible goal. You need to
outline the specific outcomes you are expecting to derive from a particular
research assignment. For instance, if your assignment requires you to develop
a report on a company’s change management strategies, you can establish the
goal to highlight the marketing department’s change strategies in response to
competitors’ actions over the last five years. This goal is specific, realistic,
time- specific, and in accordance with the report topic. Following this, your
next goal can be to identify the change strategies adopted by the manufacturing
unit in response to supply shortages during festive times of the year such as
Christmas and Easter. Once again, you are picking a very focused goal. These
specific goals will lend a sense of direction to your research. Importantly, you
need to be very patient, realistic, read about the company’s previous
information, and organized in order to be able to develop such relevant goals.

52 | P a g e
  Data Collection Skills: Once you have built the capacity to choose pertinent
goals for your research project, you need to be able to collectdata using the
right tools and sources. Data collection is one of the more vital skills in the
research process because the insights you obtainusing this skill will ultimately
form the basis of your final analysis and report or assignment. Students with
adequate data collection skills must first elect the right data collection method.
There are two fundamental techniques to collect data, primary and secondary
research. We will look further into them in one of the upcomingsections. In
short, primary research involves obtaining new information by observing or
interacting with people, whereas secondary research deals with using existing
information available across books, journals, podcasts, newspapers, blogs,
and the internet. In addition, data collection skills include the ability to select
the right set of questions and area for research. This is where the goal-setting
strategy comes in handy. If you were just to research about your company's
change management strategies, then it would be very vague, and the data
collection process would become very daunting as you would keep coming
across different layers and types of information related to change
management. On the contrary, since you now have developed specific goals,
you can formulate questions based around those goals. To illustrate, you can
speak to the employees in the manufacturing unit and interview them about
the supply shortages they faced, why the shortages arose, what operational
changes were subsequently required, and how were those changes finally
managed?If you do not ask the right questions, no matter how many journals
your read or people you interview, your research will never produce fruitful
results.

 Data Analysis Skills: While data collection may be one of the most essential
research skills, the story does not end there. Referring to the example on
change management, even after using the right sources and asking the right
questions, you can still end up with loads of

53 | P a g e
 information, some of which may not be as relevant to the purpose of your
research. Moreover, simply presenting the information you collected is
usually not enough because it might appear meaningless tosomeone who has
no idea about how the manufacturing unit functions. This is where analysis
comes in.

Analysis refers to the act of making sense out of the data gathered, making
connections between the change strategies, evaluating the employees’
reactions to the strategies, comparing the change strategies used in different
years, and considering the potential implications of each. In short, analysis
adds an additional layer of investigation wherein the readers do not only come
across the information gathered, but they also comprehend what the
information means, its uses, its consequences, and many more. In order to
develop strong analytic skills, students need to be good critical thinkers. They
need to question the information they gather and consider alternative
perspectives for treating the information. Importantly, to enable thorough
analysis, students need to gather information from multiple sources and then
jointly analyze the varied or similar information relayed by each source. For
example, to validate your interview findings, you can also observe and study
past documents of the manufacturing unit to gather a more holistic
understanding of their change management strategies.

 Online/Internet Research Skills: In the very start of this subject, we

mentioned that we are living in a world where almost any information can be
spotted on the internet. In fact, the internet has become a major source of
information for research as popular search engines such as Google and Bling
have developed a database of academic research papers, journals, and e-
books. This has escalated the quality of research that can be performed using
the internet, and some students solely use the internet to carry out research.
However, it is worth remembering that unlike offline sources, students are
more likely to get overwhelmed by the amount of information available on
the internet, and they may end up with a lot of irrelevant information. At the
same time, since anyone can post information on the internet, it

54 | P a g e
 is important to watch out for false information, and only visit securedand
reliable sources for reference.

 Writing Skills: Setting the right goals, gathering appropriate information, and
even thoroughly analyzing the data will lose all its value if the final findings
are not written and presented in an understandable and professional manner.
In fact, if English is not your native language, then writing reports or essays in
English can bedifficult because you must use formal, academic writing when
producing them. Nonetheless, the launch of useful software such as
Grammarly, and even the grammar correction service offered by Microsoft
Word can help address grammatical errors. The best way to nourish your
writing skills is to practice a lot of writing and reading. Increased exposure to
a particular language tends to increase one’s confidence in using the language
for communication. Your final report or assignment must also include a
summary of all the information you gleaned. This is necessary because readers
may sometimes not find thetime to read the entire report, and hence they may
only read the summary to get a glimpse of what the research is about, what
methodswere used, and what the findings were.

 Time Management: Time management is another key skill that underlies

successful research projects. If you take a step back and consider all the points
covered so far, you will realize that research is not as easy as it sounds. It
requires a lot of skills, focus, patience, and dedication. You will also realize
that each of these steps can take up a considerable amount of time and
eventually affect your punctuality if you do not schedule your tasks properly.
The skills have been presented in alignment with the steps of the research
process. For instance, goal setting has been highlighted as the first basic skill
because setting a goal is also the first stage in the research process. It is
important for you to assign a deadline for each of these stages and come up
with an overall timeline that leaves you with a week before

55 | P a g e
 final submission. This way, you will get time to make changes or address
unexpected mistakes in your final work. Often, we tend to procrastinate and
leave things for later. However, that is a bad idea, especially if you are
engaging in academic research for the first time and have not written a report
or an academic assignment in a long time.

 Note-Taking Skills: Whether you are searching for information on the

internet or through other sources, you must take note of the important and
relevant pieces of information that you come across. For example, when
researching about change management, you may want to highlight specific
responses offered by the employees or note down particular data mentioned
in the documents. Later, these notes can stimulate your thinking in the
direction of the important information that you gathered. Additionally, the
final writing and analysis process becomes easier once you have taken notes
as you no longer have to fishthrough the large chunks of information that you
initially collected. Here are a few tips to make your note-taking process more
efficient.
o Remove vowels to shorten words. For example, "shorthand"becomes
"shrthnd."
o Write compound words as their initials with slashes. "Because"
becomes "b/c." Without becomes "w/o." Individual becomes "i/d" or
"i/v."
o Over time, you will create your own shorthand. Be consistent and use
what works for you.

If you have decided to take notes by hand, make sure that they are legible,
leave lots of white space, and number your pages so that you can keep track
of the information. If this will be an extensive project, you may want to put
your notes into a three-ring binder, with tabs for each book that you have notes
on.

Alternatively, when taking notes through electronic means, do not forget to

use different files for different books, journals, and news reports. Sometimes,
you can also save the link of an interesting article

56 | P a g e
 for future reading. There are also programs designed for taking notes, like
Microsoft OneNote, Annotate, and Jamal, which have built-in ways to take
and organize notes. When taking notes, you can also consider jotting down a
few keywords that you can later use to find more precise and specific
information.

 Retention Skills: Despite taking notes and storing all the information in your
computer, you still need to develop firm retentionskills. It is true that you will
have all the information handy, but students who mentally stay in par with the
gathered information and keep recalling them for critical thinking tend to
perform better becausethey happen to interact a lot more with the information.
o What did you eat for breakfast this morning?
o What have you had for supper three days ago?
o What was the last conversation with your best friend about?
o What was the first topic covered in this subject?

Many people tend to struggle with their short-term memory. However, you can
cultivate your retention skills, just like analysis and note- taking skills. Having
a better memory will help you read material, organize it, and remember it
when you're writing later. You can consider the following suggestions.

o Your Attitude: Start with a mental shift. Instead of saying, "I have a
terrible memory," say to yourself, "I'm going to really work on focusing
on what's happening and remembering things." We also recommend
slowing your pace down. Many people multi-task like mad, spreading
themselves so thin that they can't give proper attention to anything.
Focus on one thing at a time –that means no e-mailing during meetings,
turning the TV off during conversations, and stopping what you're
doing when the phone rings.
Taking time when doing a task, so that you aren't rushed, can help too.
If you're having trouble focusing on the task at hand,

57 | P a g e
 write your worries down. Deep breathing can help, too, both physically
and mentally.

o Use All Your Senses: Most of us tend to use one of our senses the most
– you might be a visual person, for example, or an auditory person.
Think about this and try to decide which sense you use the most often.
Then, tailor your research tools to the sense that you prefer.
For example, if you identify yourself as a visual learner, you can choose
to color-code your highlighting, or use more diagrams and graphics. If
you're an auditory person, listening to audiobooks might be a
better way of learning. Note that no matter what sense
you use, teachers generally agreethat reading out loud greatly improves
your retention. Try reading to yourself or having a friend quiz you on
material.

o Sing it, Say it, Rhyme it: I'm sure that you can remember the alphabet
song and other rhymes from early childhood. Use the same technique
to help you remember what you read. Make it into rhymes, create
acronyms, and sing songs. Not only will it improve your retention, but
it can also make a research session a lot more fun. (Just make sure to
keep quiet in the library!)

o Organize and Pattern: After all the necessary notes have been taken,
you need to procure a fresh piece of paper to organize andstructure the
notes. They can be presented in a graphical or tabular format for you to
better understand the information and locate trends or patterns. You
must try to position the notes in a sequence that makes sense to you and
corresponds with the structure you have decided for your final report.
However, make sure that your arrangement does not make the
information

58 | P a g e
 inaccurate or invalid. Structuring the information will make it a lot
easier for you to digest and analyze the information.

o Remember the 7+-2 Rule: The 7±-2 rule was first introduced by George
Miller. According to Miller, human beings can hold on to five to nine
chunks of information (in other words, seven plus orminus two) in their
short-term memory. There is no consensus on what a chunk of
information generally constitutes of. It mostlydepends on how familiar
you are with the information. Importantly, the more you can relate to a
particular piece of information, the more likely you are to retain it in
the short and long run.

Chapter 2. Planning Your Research Strategy

Now that you have read through some of the basic research skills, it is time to start
putting it into action. First, understand what your research project should not be:

 A string of quotes mashed together that lacks originality and analysis of

any sort. In fact, quotes are often spoken in a certain fashion that may not
make any sense to the readers. For example, an old quote delivered in
colloquial English may be tricky for everyone to interpret.

59 | P a g e
  A regurgitation of everything you have read about a particular [Link]
this will prevent the evaluator from gauging your views on the topic.
Applying your critical thinking skills is very important.

 A paraphrase of one person's opinion on the topic. This might not be

enough because there is no guarantee if that one person’s opinionis reliable.
You must consider a spectrum of opinions and insights shared by different
people to conduct fair and unbiased analysis.

Now, let us take a deeper dive into understanding what research is about.

Choosing a Research Topic

Whilst many might believe that choosing a research topic is the easiest task, it can
often turn out to be the trickiest and more challenging tasks. When westart the act of
choosing a research topic, our minds can get bombarded with a plethora of ideas
popping up from all the different experiences and learnings we have been exposed
to. This is a natural occurrence, but it does not make the task of choosing a topic any
easier. However, this can still be made easier if you refer to the following
recommendations.

Interest: Choose a topic on something that interests you. This makes the process
much easier because although you may have experienced numerous things in
your life, not all of them interested you. That said, not only will this narrow down
your options, but you are also more likely to be passionate about a research topic
60 | P a g e
that excited you. This will lead to increased dedication and the quality of your
research will naturally accelerate.

 Knowledge: Sometimes, choosing a topic that you hold adequate knowledge

about may be a solution. If you know the topic well, you will feel a lot more
confident about researching on it and will know where to find the right sets of
information from. Interestingly, in some cases, students may choose topics that
they do not possess enough knowledgeabout and would hence want to learn
more. This will equip them with heightened inquisitiveness once they
commence their research project.

 Guidelines: Although contemplating your knowledge and interest around

certain topics is important, the topic must still match the degrees or your
instructors’ requirements. For instance, if you are attending an MBA degree,
researching about wildlife habitat will not be relevant, even if it is a topic that
interests you. Instead, you can tweak the topic and make it more aligned with
the guidelines by researching about management strategies employed by
wildlife protection or wildlife tourism agencies.

61 | P a g e
Identifying a Focal Point

A focal point is a simply a point of focus. As mentioned in the goal setting example,
you cannot possibly gather all the information related to a certain topic. It is hence
important to establish focal points that will enable you to invest your time, efforts,
and energy on a particular section or area that is focused, not too vague, realistic,
and in alignment with the actual research topic.

Let us view this through an example. Think about a project on the solar system. If
you were to do research on this topic, how would you know what you are looking
for? Will you read everything out there on the solar system? How will you know
what is relevant?

You need to narrow down your research focus. Typically, it is best phrased asan open-
ended question, such as:

 How could the subprime mortgage crisis in the year 2007 have been
minimized or avoided?
 Which of these climate policies should be prioritized: reforestation, or
cutting down on plastic waste?
 Is there any concrete evidence suggesting that aliens landed in
Roswell in the 1950's?

You can see that these specific questions are much more viable to answer because
you will be able to find enough information to answer these. Nevertheless,
information load could still arise because there can be multiplearguments and views
of the ways to address climate change. Therefore, it is worth noting that despite
narrowing down your research focus, you must learn to stick to a few core points
that you think is important for your research. You can try adopting any of these
following strategies to establish a focal point for your research.

62 | P a g e
  Brainstorming: This is often treated as the most efficient way for generating
a range of ideas. You can choose a broad topic and then brainstorm the
different sub-topics or categories associated with it. The beauty of
brainstorming is that there are no restrictions, and you can think in any
direction you like. Make it a point to write down all the ideas or you will lose
track. However, brainstorming often leads to ideas that are not viable to
research about because they could be either very complex, or finding
information around them might be difficult due to limited former research.

 Choose a focal point that you can find information around: This is a very
prudent thing to do. You can skim the internet about yourtopic and see which
sub-areas have been covered by multiple journals, e-books, and blogs.
Likewise, you might have a book or two that conforms with a certain sub-
topic. In such cases, choose this as your focal point because you are certain
that you will be able to gather reliable information to analyze it. It is vital to
ensure that the topic is manageable, and that there is enough material available
for you to readand evaluate.

 Be flexible: Sometimes, you may be personally eager to research around a

certain focal point, but that area may have limited information available.
Sometimes you may realize this after you have started your research and have
already made some progress. In such circumstances, do not push yourself into
researching about that topic, despite knowing that you will not gather enough
material about it, and the analysis will be half-hearted. Staying flexible and
willing to switchbetween focal points will prove to be useful.

Once you have established a relevant focal point for your research, you are almost
ready to get started! Before you dive into that pile of reference materials, though,
there is one more thing that you should do. You should get a general knowledge of
your topic – think of a short, one-minute elevatorpitch to your boss, or a supper table
63 | P a g e
 update to your spouse.

Your pitch should focus on the five W's and the H:

 Who?
 What?
 When?
 Where?
 Why?
 How?

Find an authoritative, all-encompassing reference source (like an authentic

encyclopedia, either in print or online), and prepare a few brief sentences onyour
focal point. (Remember to use the reading and note-taking techniques that we
discussed earlier!

64 | P a g e
Writing a Draft Online

The next aspect of your research is about preparing an outline for your first draft. A
draft can be defined as a rough copy of your writing that you initiallyproduce before
stepping into preparing the final work. Drafts are likely to add to your confidence
and direct you in terms of the structure and content that must be included in the final
paper.

A draft outline will typically review the paragraphs that will be included in the draft,
the content of each paragraph will be outlined, and the logical flow of the paragraphs
will be studied to ensure that the information will be presented in a rational sequence.
A draft outline will basically be a skeleton to your final draft, which will then be
followed by the final paper. Outlines are often used to help students think through
the various stages of their writing process.

So now you have your topic, and you generally understand what you will be writing
about. Before you start writing, create a draft outline that shows the main points that
you plan to make during your research presentation. Typically, you will want to
write about five main points, although you can have more if your project will be a
complex one.

As an example, let's use our focal point, "Which of these climate policies should be
prioritized: reforestation, or cutting down on plastic waste?" You can refer to the
following outline, research about the climate change policies,and try writing down
your findings beneath each of these topics.

65 | P a g e
 i. Introduction – This will set the stage for the paper and highlight the structure
and content covered in the following sections of the researchpaper.

ii. Understanding the importance of reforestation

iii. Understanding the importance of cutting down on plastic waste

iv. Outline of the similarities in the benefits of both the policies

v. Outline of the differences in the benefits of both the policies

66 | P a g e
 vi. Conclusion – This is where you summarize the findings, justify your final
choice, mention some of the limitations in the research youcarried out, and
highlight areas that require further research.

Chapter 3. Where and What to Look for?

Primary vs Secondary Sources

There are two main types of sources: primary and secondary.

 Primary Source: A primary source refers to information procured right from

the source. In other words, primary research is a type of research that you
conduct for yourself. It requires you to go directly to the source, such as a text
from a book, an original article, or an original recording. Under primary
research, you can also directly interact with people, interview them, or send
them questionnaires to gather their original insights. Companies usually
choose this method to conduct

67 | P a g e
 market research. They directly communicate with their existing and
prospective customers to gauge their views and develop their products,
promotions, and marketing strategies accordingly. When performing primary
research, you will generally collect two types of information:

o Exploratory: This refers to qualitative quotations, interview responses,

and descriptive views shared by your source. This type of information
tends to be subjective, but they lend an insight into the source’s
experiences, preferences, and latent emotions. For example, when a
person shares their experiences around climate change and how they
‘feel’ about it, the information is more exploratory. Nonetheless, too
much of exploratory data can be hard to analyze and can lead to
information overload.

o Specific: These are quantitative data that are specific and can be easily
quantified into figures or number. For example, if you ask a group of
university students to assign a score from 1-10 to showcase their
preference for reforestation and reducing plastic waste, you will procure
numeric data for each of these two climate change solutions. You can
then compare the numbers todeduce which policy scored higher. These
kinds of data are easy to infer, but they do now manifest the reasons
behind the scores assigned.

 Secondary Source: A secondary source will comprise of interpretations or

references to a primary source. For example, if you are referring to an article
that drew its information from the original source, you are engaging in
secondary research. It is a type of research that has already been gathered,
compiled, and published by other organizers. It includes government reports,
trade reports, business reports, news reports. There is an abundance of
secondary sources

68 | P a g e
 available on the web, which makes it an easier and more convenient choice
for the early stages of your research. Secondary research is particularly
important to help you build a background about your chosen topic. You can
go through different reports to get an understanding of what the topic looks
like, and then refer to these to devise the questions for your primary research.
You can also gather information by visiting a reference library or contacting
industry associations or trade organizations.

Whenever possible, go to the original source. If the book you are reading refers to
a particular study, go to that study and check out the sources yourself. You can then
refer directly to it in your research presentation. Your presentation will be that much
stronger, and you will have more confidence in your work.

If you cannot find the original source, or referring to it isn't possible (for example,
because it's in a different language and you need to use the translation), make sure
that you state this in your research presentation. Forexample: "From Smith & Smith's
2006 study Solar Phenomena Over the Past Decade, as quoted in Solar Phenomena
Basics by Sue Jones, 2007, Acme Publishers." (We will cover more on
documentation later on.)

A primary source refers to information right from the source. Someexamples:

 Text from a book

 An original article
 A research study
 An original recording

A secondary source is an interpretation of, or a reference to, a primary source. Some

examples:

 Quoting statistics from a research study

 Analysis of eyewitness accounts

69 | P a g e
  Translation of an original recording

Whenever possible, go to the original source. If a website refers to a particular

study, go to that study and check out the sources yourself so that you can refer to the
primary source.

Now that you know what primary and secondary sources and researchmeans, let us
go through some of the benefits and drawbacks associated witheach of these research
methods.

Primary Research

 Benefits: One of the greatest advantages of primary research is that itenables

the researchers to collect non-distorted, original data that happens to be a lot
more accurate, current, and in accordance with the researcher’s requirements.
For instance, if you want to know about what people in a certain locality feel
about the urbanization of their neighborhood, you can exactly ask questions
that will evoke responses in alignment with the research purpose. This may not
be the case in secondary research as the data available may not be specific to
your research requirements. In addition, the researcher can exhibitownership
of the data collected through primary research. You can choose to make it
available publicly, protect it through patents, or even sell the data to other
organizations. Besides, with full control, you can choose the ways you want
to organize and analyze the data.

 Drawbacks: Because of the processes involved, primary research can

sometimes become very time-consuming, often consuming months or even
years. If you want to interview many people, then recording and analyzing
each of the responses can take up a lot of time. Likewise, if you want to
observe certain changes such as the social behavior of people in a particular
space, you might want to do it over a period to locate any material changes.
Once again, this too will take time. It can

70 | P a g e
 also be a very costly process. Moreover, it might not be feasible to collect
primary data in some cases due to its complexity and required commitment.

Secondary Research

 Benefits: Since this format of research is mainly based on existing data that
has already been derived from previous research and original sources,
gathering information is a lot quicker. Importantly, with easy access to the
internet, you can expose yourself to large amounts of information with a few
simple clicks. It is also a relatively less expensive method of research.
Besides, secondary data enables the researcher to implement longitudinal
studies without having to wait for a long time to reach conclusions.

 Drawbacks: A major disadvantage of secondary research is that the

researcher may have difficulty procuring information specific to his or her
needs. This issue arises because you have to refer to an article or report that
has been devised by someone who prepared it in orientationwith their needs and
research purpose. As it happens, your research purpose will be very different
from another author’s. What is more, existing research data may not have the
currency necessary to be useful. In other words, they might be out-of-date,
hence making your research less credible.

71 | P a g e
Analyzing Sources

As mentioned before, with great accessibility and affordability that supports the
internet, it has also become a hub for attracting fake and inaccurate information. This
mostly happens because anyone from any corner of the world can create a free
webpage and post it on the net. If they present it in a professional manner, you might
even start believing that the information relayed is true. Landing on false
interpretations and facts that damage the quality of your research as the information
you will present may not even be true. This is not much of a problem with books and
newspapers because these sources anyways undergo rigorous verification before
being published publicly. The same does not happen with internet sources.
Therefore, you should evaluate all sources with a critical eye. Questions to ask
yourself include:

 Who is the author? Are there other articles that have been written by the
same author?
 What kind of credentials do they have?
 What alternative motives can they possibly have? (For instance, if I
promote a certain type of customized software designing firm in this
course, you might want to check to see if I am somehow involved with the
company. Note that having a secondary agenda doesn't mean that a source
is completely unreliable – just be sure to read the information.)
 What organization(s) are they associated with?
 What other materials have they published?
 What is your overall impression of the material? Is it well organized? Does
it include proper citations, and have good spelling and grammar? Or is it
unprofessionally written? What does the URLof the site look like? Can you
see the ‘locked’ icon next to the URL ofthe site?
 How objective is the material? Does it focus on facts and build to a
conclusion, or does the author rely on opinions?
 Overall, does it make sense? Does it feel right? If something is bothering
you, dig further.

72 | P a g e
 The amount of digging that you do will depend on the type of source. You canhave
faith in most published books (unless they're written on scraps of loose- leaf and
covered with coffee stains – then you might want to reconsider). Internet sites are
typically subject to the most scrutiny. Keeping these factors in mind, let's consider
some of the other elements you can consider for verifying the validity of your
internet sources.

 Currency:
o How recent is the information?
o How recently has the website been updated?
o Is it old information that's been "recycled"? You need to keep an eye
on other sources with similar information to spot these.

 Reliability:
o What kind of reputation does the source have? Usually, you canfind
comments and reviews about the site from previous visitors.
o Is the content of the resource primarily opinion? Is it balanced?
o Does the creator provide references or sources for data or
quotations?
o Are there other sources that can corroborate the information?

 Authority:
o Who is the creator or author?
o What are their credentials?
o Who is the publisher or sponsor? Are they reputable?
o What is the publisher's interest (if any) in this information?

 Purpose/Point of View:
o Is this a fact or an opinion?
73 | P a g e
 o Is it biased?
o Is the creator/author trying to sell you something or persuade you in
any ways?

Chapter 4. Learning How to Find Information theOld-Fashioned Way

Useful Resources and Reference Sources

Traditional reference sources (if they are published by a reputable company)can be a

great starting point, particularly for your one-minute pitch. They can also be a good
way of verifying information, such as the spelling of a placeor the exact date of an
event. In addition, traditional references can also help you build a foundation of
knowledge regarding your research topic. Before you dive into your research project,
you first need to construct some core knowledge and understanding of the topic. If
this is not done, then advancedresearch and information surrounding your research
topic will become difficult for you to comprehend. Traditional reference sources can
be particularly useful for bridging this gap.

These sources include:

 Dictionaries and lexicons

 Thesauri
 Almanacs and yearbooks
 Encyclopedias
 Atlases and gazetteers
 Directories and who's who guides.
 Manuals and handbooks

74 | P a g e
Libraries vs the Internet

For many of us born on the internet-era, we have probably not even had to visit the
library. In fact, therefore many schools and universities have designed their own
online libraries that follow the structure of a traditional library but operate online.
However, go and talk to one of your parents or grandparents, and they will still rate
the idea of holding a book and reading it above visiting online libraries and reading
from e-books displayed on the computer screen. You too can consider visiting the
library to look for research sources. Let us take 1. Everything is not on the Internet.
The Internet consists of a small percentage of what’s published. Search engines such
as Google, AltaVista, Firefox and Yahoo access are limited. ALA reportsthat only 8%
of all journals and even fewer books are on the Internet. The most reliable scholarly
information is available in books and journals. Preliminary steps to find the
appropriate search terms should start with print indexes and subject headings volumes.

 The Internet Is Not Organized: Try typing a word on a search engine, and
you will often be directed to pages that are in no way related to what you are
looking for. This can be a drawback because you do not always know what
you are exactly looking for. There is not any centralized system that catalogs
and organizes all resources on the Internet. A search on the Internet is like
searching an unclassified catalog. When you use any of the search engines,
you’re searching onlypart of the Internet. Searches are not always relevant to
your topic andcan cause a lot of wasted time, annoyance and confusion.

 The Internet Has a Lack of Quality Control: Quality control isn’teasy to

achieve on the Internet, especially because there are no constraints on the type
of information and profile of the authors who can contribute sites and content
on the internet. Open-Source

75 | P a g e
 information on the Internet is quite common and easy to get misinformed
information. Anyone with access to the Internet can publish a website and
express whatever they want. Eventually, some readers who can relate with the
content might share it further, and subsequently, and entire network of false
information will circulate.

 Sources on the Internet are More Difficult to Identify: When looking for
information on the internet, it can sometimes be hard to determine who is
telling what, and the location from which the information generated.
Moreover, if you are living in a certain country, the information may be
restricted by the government, and only limitedsources may be available. When
you use information in your paper from the Internet, it’s important to print it
out and cite your sources. Information taken from the Web can change
overnight, hence questioning the dependability of the information.
Information taken from the library or databases in the library gives the exact
location. One must give full documentation when using information from a
site. See the Academic Integrity Statement under Academic and Classroom
Conduct for Tennessee State University’s response to plagiarism and
academic dishonesty.

 Online Library Resources are Available 24/7: Online databases can be

accessed 24 hours a day 7 days a week from the library’s webpage. This is a
huge benefit, especially if you are on a holiday or visiting a place in a different
time zone, need to get your work done, nevertheless. These databases are a
part of the library’s collection and can be accessed on campus and remotely
with your University ID via the Internet. Please note that this should not be
confused with searching the Internet.

76 | P a g e
  Tuition and Fees Pay for Library Use: If you are a student enrolled with a
university, payment for library resources is usually included in your tuition
and fees. Hence, you must take full advantage of it. What is more, libraries
render free access to scholarly books, journals, newspapers, encyclopedias,
and other print reference sources. A lot of information on the Internet is FREE,
except scholarly materials. A paid subscription is required to access. In fact,
by being able to access such credible sources, you no longer have to worry
aboutwading through the internet with the fear of gather false information.

 Trained Professionals Available for Assistance: One of the greatest perks

of an online library is that you can find friendly and knowledgeable librarians
who can guide you through the process of locating information. They can do
this in person, or via chats, telephone calls, or emails. By requesting
assistance, you can save a lot of your valuable time and spend that on
organizing and analyzing yourdata instead.

 E-books are Available: E-books are useful sources because they comprise of
the full text and are easily searchable on an online [Link], all E-book
collections have records on the online catalog and can be accessed individually
by title or in collections such as PsycBooks, Credo, Books 24x7, or EBSCO’s
E-Book Collection.

 Does Library-less Universities Work: A virtual library cannot replace the

traditional library. Two California libraries (Monterey and California
Polytechnic University) tried this method for a certain period, only to find out
firsthand that it can’t work. They found out that everything is not on the
Internet.

77 | P a g e
Journals and Trade Publications

Academic journals and trade publications are another excellent resource, provided
that they have been edited and vetted properly and are from a reputable source.
Generally, journals are a compilation of individual research articles that have been
produced by different scholars and researchers. These articles have been composed
using both primary and secondary research techniques, and several other protocols
had to be followed to publish them. For instance, if you are performing a research
for your degree, you will need ethics approval and permission slips from your
university and research participants in order to make any progress. That said, journal
articles tend to be credible sources. Journals can also be a goodway to find other
resources, gather primary information, and gather background on a particular author.

On the other hand, trade publications are journals or magazines that have been
prepared for people belonging to a specific trade. These sources are useful for
finding information that is focused upon your research topicbecause a publication
for a trade will consist of relevant information in that circle. They are a combination
or scholarly and popular sources that professionals in specific industries use to
transmit insights about that industry.

Interestingly, trade publications comprise several graphs, diagrams, and images.

Visual information might spur clearer understanding of the content amongst certain
researchers. Once again, these publications are assessed and reviewed before being
published, thus making them quite dependable.

Some of the places where you can find journals and trade publications are asfollows:

78 | P a g e
  Industry organizations
 Universities and colleges
 Journal databases (online or at your local library)

Your Network

In many cases, people can turn out to be a good resource too! And they can give you
a much-needed break from traditional research. The people we come across tend to
hold different levels of former experiences and learnings. As they share their
perspectives, we can often uncover information that can be helpful for our research.
The idea is not to turn a social event into an information gathering session, but you
can always absorb their ideas and opinions through informal interactions, and then
pen them down once you get home. The people you can interact with can include:

 Friends, to bounce ideas off them and test your one-minute pitch.
 Professors, to get expert opinions.
 Librarians, to get help finding information.

The best thing about gathering information through social interactions is that they
are free of cost, you obtain practical insights, and you do not have to spend a lot of
time scouring through books and journals to identify the right chunk of information.
Moreover, you can relax and enjoy, and gather information at the same time.

The Dewey Decimal System

79 | P a g e
 If the previous comparison between libraries and internet search convinced you to
go visit a library, it is a good idea to establish a grasp upon how everything is
organized. Many libraries use the Dewey Decimal System to organize materials.
This is a proprietary library classification system that was first launched in the United
States by Melvil Dewey, in 1876.

The Dewey Decimal System uses a numerical hierarchy where each work is
identified by at least four numbers, with a decimal after the third number. The more
numbers after the decimal, the more specific the subject is. For example, 746.92 is
the call sign for fashion design.

The first number of the Dewey call sign (known as the first summary) indicates the
class or topic:

 0: General information
 1: Philosophy and psychology
 2: Religion
 3: Social sciences
 4: Language
 5: Science and mathematics
 6: Technology and applied sciences
 7: Arts and recreation
 8: Literature
 9: History, geography, and biography

The next two numbers (termed as the second summary or the hundred divisions)
signal the area of study. Here are a few examples:

 020: Library and information services (the first number, 0, indicates

this belongs to the General Information class)

80 | P a g e
  710: Landscaping (the first number, 7, indicates this belongs to the Arts
and Recreation class)
 410: Linguistics (the first number, 4, indicates this belongs to the
Language class)

Chapter 5. Researching Using the Internet andSearching in the

Web

It is important to keep in mind that even though some of the information found in the
internet may not be reliable, this does not mean that the internetdoes not comprise of
robust sources. In fact, many of the journals and publications mentioned in the
previous chapters are nowadays freely available on multiple search engines.

Here are some sites that we have found reliable and useful over the years.

IMPORTANT NOTE: Websites can and do change over time.

 Online Computer Library Center

 Wolfram
 [Link]
 Canadian and U.S. Encyclopedias
 Encyclopedia Britannica
 ERIC
 Google
 Internet Archive

81 | P a g e
  Dun & Bradstreet

If you do think that the Internet might hold the answer to your research question,
here are some broad categories of resources for you to keep in mind.

 Search engines like Google and Bing

 Reference sites like Wikipedia and Google Books
 Deep web resources like journals and newspaper archives
 Multimedia files like audio and video recordings

Let us look at some of the tips that you can follow in order to make your internet
search experience easier and more efficient.

 Start at your university or institute: One of the best ways to make your
internet research experience easier is to interact with your professors or
instructors and asking them for recommendations. Your instructors are more
likely to recommend you with sites and sources that have been verified and
are hence credible. This partially resolves your concern for gathering
inaccurate information from shady sources. In some cases, your institute or
instructors may have paid subscriptions to online journals or websites. Getting
access to them willbe very helpful as these sources can give you information
that you would not generally find through regular internet search. Notably,
using the internet should be an additional tool, not your only tool for
researching a topic. Your school library is full of books, magazines, and other
resources to help you.

82 | P a g e
  Sort fact from fiction: Before you begin your research, prepare a list of the
types of sites and online sources that are best for your chosen research topic
and its respective focal point. Is the website reliable and up to date? Ensure if
the author is identified and sources are cited. Usually, government sites ending
in ‘.gov’ and educational sites endingin ‘.edu’ tend to be safe bets. Likewise,
established news-related sites such as [Link] can also be used. However,
make sure that you're using the original source. If a newspaper article
mentions another source, like an organization or website, go directly to that
source to find the information. It is also vital to check if the newspaper article
is politically or culturally biased. In such cases, the information will not be
dependable.
Moreover, sites ending in .org are usually run by nonprofit organizations and
can thus be good resources. Nevertheless, it is always a good practice to have
your instructor to look at the site/s and verify if s/he considers the site to be
appropriate for your research. [Link] is popular and ranks high in
search results, but it can beedited by anyone, whether a person has accurate
knowledge of the topic or not. It is often viewed as a source for building
foundational knowledge but is barely recommended to be cited as an academic
source.
 When dealing with commercial websites ending in .com, it is important to spot
if the site has multiple advertisements. If it does, it may be biased since it's
trying to sell a product. And blogs, personal websites, and social media sites
(like YouTube, Digg, Tumblr, Pinterest, or Facebook) are more likely to give
personal opinions rather than facts. These will be subjective and not always
fair and should be used as your last resort.

 Search smartly: It is generally a good idea to initiate your online search

journey with an established search engine, like Google or Bing. Although
search engines are typically good at guessing what you need and generating
suggestions, accordingly, using more specific terms will get you much better
results. Try alternative searches with different words and use search
operators, symbols, or advanced search to

83 | P a g e
 narrow your results. If you want to learn more ways to improve your searches,
ask your instructor or librarian for guidance. As it happens, many
search engines such as Googles are paid byindividual organizations to place
certain results as advertisements. Sometimes these ads show up at the top of
the search result page. The ads will look different from the regular results (e.g.,
appearing on a shaded background) and must be clearly marked as ads. Even
when thetop results are not ads, they still might not be the best possible choices.
That's why it helps to know the best sites for your needs. The arrangement of
the sites on the search engine tends to make your searching process easier
because when you feed specific keywords or phrases into the search engine,
it uses a smart algorithm to locate all the sites that uses those keywords, and
then ranks them on the basis oftheir relevance to your search.

 Remain focused: When you are finally ready to check out websites or go to
search engines such as Google, stay focused on your research by logging off
from social media and email. By now you must be awarethat research can be
quite an extensive task, and the last thing you would want is any kind of
unrequited distraction. If you do not pay fullattention, you may miss out on
critical bits of information that could have made an impact on your final paper.
If you need to take a break, make a note of where you are before you walk
away from your computer. Taking a 5 or 10-minutes' break from the computer
every hour works well for most people. Use the time to move around and
stretch a bit. Do not overdo yourself because then your energy levels will drop,
and the quality of your research will be perturbed.

 Cite use the right techniques: When you research online, it can beeasy to
copy and paste text, then forget to cite the source or go back andput the thought
in your own words later. This can be dangerous because if you do not
paraphrase the text, your work will lack originality. Moreover, by citing, you
will manifest that you have

84 | P a g e
 researched using the right sources and have hence reached valid conclusions.
Citations are the backbone of your research, and they justify every fact you
mention or any analysis you perform. Just like your instructors can recognize
your voice in class, most can recognize your voice in your writing. Moreover,
plagiarism is very easy to spot because there are plenty of plagiarism checkers
available online for theevaluators to use. Even accidental plagiarism can have
serious consequences for your grades — so don't take a chance. Identify the
text you've quoted and add the citation before moving on to the rest ofyour
paper. The format for citing online resources is different from print resources,
so be sure to check the style your teacher wants you to use for Internet citations.
We will take a closer look at citations in the following chapters.

There are three major global search engines: Google, Bing, and Yahoo! (which is
powered by Bing). As well, some regions have specialized search engines, such as
Baidu in China and Yandex in Russia. Google is by far the biggest search engine,
with about 69% of the global market share (accordingto NetMarketShare). Google
also powers and owns many other search and Internet services.

Key Elements of an Internet Search Plan

Have you heard the old saying, “Failing to plan is planning to fail?” If you don’t plan
out your Internet research strategy, the chances are high that you will get
overwhelmed, distracted, and sent off course from your original purpose. In the
following sections of this chapter, we will explore the different facets of internet
research, and how you can make the most of it.

Your Internet research strategy will depend on what kind of information you are
looking for. If you want to know who wrote a particular song, for example,

85 | P a g e
 you might sketch out a plan in your head in a matter of seconds. If you’re doing a
competitive analysis for a new product, your plan will probably be more detailed. In
the latter case, you will have to specify the competitors you want to study, the
products that you want to analyze, what aspects of the product you want to study
such as its market share or feedback review, price, or promotional offers. Once you
have outlined these classifications, you will be able to search for more focused
information.

What Do I Need to Know?

The first step in your research strategy is to outline your search question. This should
be an open-ended, focused, objective question that asks who, what, where, when, or
how. Once you pose these questions, you will be able to break down your research
question into smaller bits that can then be research separately.

Remember that you want a question that can be answered. So, rather than asking,
“Do entrepreneurs contribute to the economy?” you might ask, “How much of the
United States’ retail sector’s income is generated by small businesses?”

Expanding the Research Question

If your research question is detailed, you may want to break it into sub- questions to
help you stay focused and find relevant information. For example, let’s say that our
question was, “How much of the Indian retail sector’s income is generated by small
businesses?”
86 | P a g e
 Sub-questions might look like this:

 What do we mean by “small business?” (Under 50 employees, less

than $5 million in sales annually, etc.)
 What types of businesses does the retail sector include?
 How much money did the Indian retail sector generate in 2020?
 How much money did small businesses in the retail sector generate in
2020?
 Has there been a growth in the earnings of the retail sector and the small
businesses over the past 5 years?

About Wikipedia

Wikipedia ([Link] is one of the Internet's great controversies.

You will find a group of students who worship Wikipedia as a source of information,
and a group of scholars who frown upon the idea of using Wikipedia for gathering
information. On the plus side, it is available in many languages, it's free, and it has
information on almost every topic that you can imagine. On the negative side,
anyone can post to Wikipedia, so the information is not always accurate.

If you are researching for an academic purpose, professors and universities often ban
the use of Wikipedia. So, first and foremost, find out the rules surrounding your
research purpose and abide by them. Also take a close look at the research and
assignment guide to check if the use of Wikipedia is restricted.

87 | P a g e
 Usually, it is advisable to treat Wikipedia with the utmost skepticism and only as a
starting point for your research. First, be sure to carefully analyze the source of the
article. (Sources should be listed at the bottom of the article,if there aren't any, dismiss
the article completely.) Then, go back to the primary source to verify the
information, and cite the original source, rather than Wikipedia. Sometimes, you can
also compare the information gathered from Wikipedia with those present in other
sites to see if the information is correct.

Wikipedia can be used to obtain:

 An overview of, or an introduction to a topic

 Information on current events or obscure topics
 Links to authoritative sources
 Direction to more information in books, articles, etc.
 Deep web links

Some of the common advantages associated with using Wikipedia as a research

source are as follows:

 Anyone can edit the content on a Wikipedia page.

 Easy to use and learn and the language used is very simple and clear.
 Wikis are instantaneous, which enhance our access to quick information. This
eliminates the need to wait for a publisher to create a new edition or update
information.
 People located in different parts of the world can work on the same document
and share their different views to create more comprehensive content. This
reduces the scope for biased writing.
 The wiki software keeps track of every edit made and it's a simple process to
revert to a previous version of an article. By allowing this, false information
can be corrected.
 Helps widen access to the power of web publishing to non-technical users and
enables them to share their learning, which can be shared

88 | P a g e
 further by others. In other words, it promotes the exchange of
knowledge.
 There is no predetermined structure – subsequently, it is a flexible toolthat
can be used for a wide range of applications.
 There are a wide range of open-source software wikis to choose from. Thus,
licensing costs are not a barrier to installing an institutional wiki.

Despite the advantages, there are some disadvantages that disrupt

Wikipedia’s ability to be used as a credible source of information.

 Anyone can edit so this may be too open for some applications, for example
confidential documentation. This can threaten the privacy ofboth individuals
and organizations and make this a less ethical source. However, it is possible
to regulate user access.
 Another major concern is that Wikis are open to SPAM and Vandalismif not
managed properly. However, there are easy ways to restore a page. Moreover,
you must be logged on to WikiEducator to edit pages, so this reduces
vandalism by automated spam bots.
 Requires Internet connectivity to collaborate, but technologies to produce
print versions of articles are improving.
 The flexibility of a wiki's structure can mean that information becomes
disorganized. As a wiki grows, the community plans and administers the
structure collaboratively.
 Since anyone can edit and add information, despite regulation, wikis are more
susceptible to comprising false or misleading information that can confuse
researchers and hamper the quality of their work.

89 | P a g e
90 | P a g e
How do Search Engines Operate?

A search engine is a software system that is devised to carry out web searches. Web or
internet searches are the process of structurally exploring the World Wide Web for
information that orients with the searcher’s web search query. The information can
be a combination of links to webpages, videos, images, graphs, audio files, research
papers, reports, articles, and other types of files.

One of the most popular search engines, Google, gathered prominence around the
2000s, when Google’s founders introduced PageRank, “an iterative algorithm that
ranked webpages based on the number and PageRank of other web sites and pages
that link there, on the premise that good or desirable pages are linked to more than
others.”
Each search engine indexes various pages on the Internet and compiles a database.
Then, when a user types a query into the engine, the search engine retrieves and
displays related results. Of course, the Internet is so large and changing so frequently
that it is impossible for search engines to be completely up to date or to catalog
everything on the Internet. As well, somecontent may be inaccessible due to file type
or password protection. Experts estimate that only about 5% of the Internet is indexed
via search engines.

In addition to these limitations, the results that users see are often customized by the
search engine. Google, for example, looks at the user’s search history, location, and
a few other variables when deciding what results to display. Several people in the
same room who are all searching for the same keywords may each get very different
results.

Because of these limitations, search engine queries are useful for providing quick
facts, basic information about a topic, or places where you can find more detailed
information. Due to the differences in how search engines catalog pages, be sure to
perform your query on several search engines for the most comprehensive results.

For a better understanding of how search engines operate, let us break downtheir
main functions and investigate them individually.
91 | P a g e
  Web Crawling: Web search engines get their information by initiating web
crawling from site to site. Firstly, the "spider" looks for the standard filename
[Link] that has been addressed to it. Normally, the [Link] file consists
of directives for search spiders, commanding it around which pages to crawl
and which pages not to crawl. This command is based on the search query
posed by the searcher. After checking for [Link] and either finding it or
not, the spider sends certain information back to be indexed. This depends on
many factors, such as the titles, page content, JavaScript, Cascading Style
Sheets (CSS), headings, or its metadata in HTML Meta tags. After a certain
number of pages have been crawled, amount of data indexed, or time has been
spent on the website, the spider stops crawling and moves on to attend to the
next query.

 Indexing: Indexing refers to the process of associating words and other

definable tokens available on web pages to their domain names and HTML-
based fields. The associations are made in a public database that has been
made available for web search queries. A queryfrom a user can range from
being a single word to multiple words, phrases, or a sentence. The index helps
find information relating to the query as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Some of the techniques for indexing, and caching are trade secrets, whereas
web crawling is a straightforward process of visiting all sites on a systematic
basis.

 Searching: As the name suggests, search is the process of inputting a few

keywords or phrases into the search engine and waiting for the search engine
to display a list of webpages, images, and other files that conforms to your
query. Typically, when a user enters a query into a search engine, the index
already has the names of the sites containingthe keywords, and these can be
instantly extracted from the index. Thereal processing load is in generating the
web pages that are the search

92 | P a g e
 results list. Every page in the entire list must be weighted according to
information in the indexes.

Types of Search Engines

There are various types of search engines, each performing a different function
and catering to the needs of searchers with varying preferences.

 Meta Searching Engines: A metasearch engine is responsible for searching

a number of different search engines and provides the results in a single page.
Put simply, it encompasses more than one search engine, and is hence able to
access a larger database of information. Dogpile and Yippy are two common
examples of this typeof service. In theory, this sounds like a great idea, since
it enables you to search multiple engines at once and saves you the trouble of
resorting to different search engines for fresh information. However, there
are several drawbacks of using this type of search engine. Notably, metasearch
engines may not cover all the larger search engines. (A good metasearch
engine should cover at least Google, Yahoo!, and Bing.) They may also only
return the first dozen or so records from each and might not always support
advanced search features. Some metasearch engines also include ads without
clearly identifying them as such, which is particularly problematic for
researchers.

 Graphic Search Engines: Several new, graphic search engines

offer the ability to view results graphically. This can be an appealing

93 | P a g e
 choice for visual learners who do not enjoy reading lines and lines of texts.
TouchGraph (which runs using plug-ins) and Quintura (which requires a
software download) are two of the most popular graphic search engines.
Nevertheless, graphic search engines may be able to deliver a limited amount
of information because certain information cannot be represented graphically.

 Specialized Search Engines: There are also specialized search engines that
concentrate upon particular types of content, region, or topics. Blinkx, for
example, focuses on videos. KidRex is targeted to children. WolfRamAlpha
focuses on mathematics and calculations. These types of engines can be very
useful if you are doing a particular type of research or looking for a particular
type of resource. They can help save time as you do not have to sort through
data to look for information that corresponds with your area of research. On
the contrary, there is no guarantee that a specialized search engine exists for
your field of research.

 Directories: A ‘directory’ employs human editors who oversee and are in

charge of deciding what category the site belongs to. Following that, they
place websites within specific categories in the ‘directories’ database. The
human editors comprehensively check the website and rank it, based on the
information they find, using a pre-defined set of rules.
There are two major directories at the time of writing:
o Yahoo Directory ([Link])
o Open Directory ([Link])

94 | P a g e
Constructing a Keywords’ List

Since the internet is loaded with different types of information, you would have to
use the right mix of keywords or phrases to find relevant information. Before you start
searching, you should have a list of keywords relating to yourresearch question. Doing
so will save you a lot of time. Here are some tips forcreating a keyword list that will
generate results.

 Pay close attention to the people, places, and things in your researchtopic.
 Include a range of synonyms and antonyms that can provide alternate
search paths if you get stuck.
 Avoid general words like “best” or “favorite” because the search engines
can produce tons of webpages and files comprising these keywords.
Instead, use specific phrases like “highest grossing” or “visitor ranking.”
 Eliminate words that search engines ignore, like “the” and “is.”
These generally include punctuations, pronouns, prepositions, etc.
 You can develop a concept map as a graphical tool to organize and
structure your knowledge.

Keywords and phrases can easily be discovered by scanning:

 Your initial research questions and focal points that you came across.
 Encyclopedia and other articles used when conducting background
research.
 Bibliographies found at the end of books and articles that you haveread.
 Your previous discussions with your instructor/s regarding the
research topic.

95 | P a g e
 If you are still struggling, try referring to these suggestions:

 Use a thesaurus to identify synonyms that you are more familiar with.
 Find pictures related to your topic and then describe the picture.
 Brainstorm keywords with a librarian, your instructor, or a friend.

Concept Map Activity

Write down your most important word or short phrase in the center of the sheet.

Think for a minute about what you just wrote down, and then circle it.

Thinking freely, write down all other important words, concepts, or symbols related
to the topic outside the circle. Now, use lines and/or arrows to connect items.

Leave lots of white space so your concept map can grow. You can prepare a mind
tree using the space provided below.

Don't worry about being exact or perfect – don't analyze your work at this point!

Analyze what you have done so far:

96 | P a g e
  Think about the relationship of outside items to the center item.
 Erase and either replace or shorten words to some key ideas.
 Relocate important items closer to each other for better organization.
 Link concepts with words to clarify relationships.

A Guide for Searching

Let’s look at performing a search with Google. Usually, the steps will remain
the same for other search engines as well.

1. First, visit the Google website ([Link]). The top-level domain

(.com) may change depending on the region from where you are searching.
For example, whilst Indian searchers will be taken to [Link],
Australian searchers will be taken to [Link].

As you start typing your search keywords, a results page will pop up. You will see
search suggestions that you can click on (or select with thearrow keys on your
keyboard and press Enter

97 | P a g e
 2. Search results will appear in the order of how relevant the search engine thinks
they are. You may see summary information on the side or quick facts at the
top, depending on your search terms.

3. You may also notice ads at the top of or beside your search results. Be careful
of these when doing research as such sites may turn out to be tools for
propaganda and be biased.

4. To go to the page referenced in a result, click the blue link.

5. If the search engine thinks you misspelt a term, you may see information about
the correction at the top of the results, as well as a link to search for your
original terms or the new terms.

6. Most search engines display text-based results. Often, you can search other
types of results (images, videos, etc.) using links on the results page.

7. After you have reviewed the first few pages of results and marked relevant
pages, you should be able to refine your keyword search, perform a new query,
and obtain more information about your topic. Usually, performing three or
four five-minute searches will give you a good starting point for a moderately
complex topic. A simple question may require just one or two quick searches.

98 | P a g e
 8. The information that you come across during your Internet research can be
quite overwhelming. As you look at each result, ask yourself how it relates to
your topic. Create a separate file for resources that seem useful but are not
directly related to your current search. If you find yourself straying from your
original topic, review your research question and the information that you
have gathered. Then, go back to your keyword list and refine your search to re-
focus on your topic.

Many search engines offer advanced options. This is where their real power lies. To
illustrate, when searching with Google, you can click the “Search tools” button on
the results page to add some simple filtering options to narrow down your search
options and obtain better clarity.

Most search engines (including Bing and Google) offer the ability to quickly search
for quick facts, such as:

 Travel information (such as flight and rail schedules)

 Numeric conversions (for example, from metric to imperial)
 Calculations
 Movie information: Entering the name of a movie (and the city, if desired)
into Google will show your local show times.
 Stock prices: Many search engines can provide instant stock information
when you use the stock: prefix followed by the desired stock symbol.
 Word definitions
 Weather information

99 | P a g e
Searching in the Deep Web

In the last chapter, it was highlighted that only about 5% of the Internet is indexed
via search engines. So where does the rest of the content originate? The answer is
the deep web. The deep web, also known as the hidden or invisible web, is made
up of content that search engines cannot access. Theterm ‘deep’ stems from the idea
that the information comprised in this web is beneath the surface level, and hence
not seamlessly visible. This usually involves databases, statistical information,
government documents, and internal systems that are stored with confidentiality, and
are not madeavailable to the general public. Additionally, it can include files that are
not in standard web page format (such as multimedia files). However, search engines
are eventually getting better at identifying and displaying these typesof content. The
deep web is where you will find answers to many research questions, particularly
statistical data or academic information. Some other content of the deep web
involves:

 The content of your personal email accounts

 The content of your social media accounts
 The content of your online banking accounts
 Data that companies store on their private databases
 Content contained within scientific and academic databases
 Medical records
 Legal documents

So how do you find this hidden part of the web? To start, you can use a regular
search engine to direct you towards possible deep web sites. For example, you might
search for “small business database statistics.” Academic journals or industry
publications may also be able to guide you towards specific sites.

100 | P a g e
 You may also be able to come across subject directories or research guides that list
deep web resources related to your query. Although these types of guides tend to be
quite specialized and selective (and therefore quite useful in some cases), their
quality can vary and can be affected by paid sponsors. As of this writing, IPL2, the
WWW Virtual Library, and the Search Engine Guide provided some effective
resources. You can also use a regular search engine to track down directories related
to your research topic by using phrases such as “copyright law research guides” or
“small business subject directories.”

Finally, you can use a deep web search engine. However, these engines are
frequently discontinued and can vary in their results. As of this writing, Google
Books, Google Scholar, and WorldCat were some of the most popularacademic deep
search engines. Similarly, Biznar for businesses, Mednar for medical information,
and [Link] for science searches are other typical examples. Tech Xtra and
SurfWax offer a more general searching experience.

Programs such as Bright Planet, browser plug-ins such as Tor, and the Gopher
protocol can also be used to access hidden resources.

Is the Deep Web Safe?

It may be fair to say that accessing content on the deep web is safe because it mostly
comprises of confidential information. For instance, you probably check your email,
and your credit card statements online without a great dealof worry. However, that
does not depict that accessing such confidential personal information has no risks.

For example, your account on the deep web is likely to consist of a lot of yourpersonal
information that might be of immense value to cyber criminals. That is one of the
prime reasons why it is important to use strong and unique passwords on all your
accounts. Generally, each site has specific password requirements that have been
prepared to help you develop passwords that
101 | P a g e
 are not easy to guess. That might include a hard-to-guess combination of letters,
numbers, and symbols.

Another potential risk can arise if you choose to access your personal information
on the deep web on an unprotected public Wi-Fi network. For instance, you might
want to pay your bills while waiting to catch a flight at an airport.

But do not do it on a public network. Instead, use a virtual private network

— commonly known as a VPN — which can encrypt your data and help protect
your online privacy.

Finally, it is also possible you could receive an email that appears to be from a
reputable source. It might look like it’s from the IRS, for instance, an agencythat keeps
your personal information on the deep web. The email might ask you to supply your
Social Security number to access your account or to click on a link to respond to a
request for information.

Chapter 6. Searching for Multimedia

Ways to Enhance your Search Techniques

Searching for Images in the form of charts, diagrams, graphs, and maps, can all
collectively help you in your research quest. Most search engines have an image
database built in. Image types such as infographic summaries of the key points can
be a great introduction to a topic if they come from an authoritative source. Simply
enter the phrase “infographics on” with your search term in the images database of
a search engine. Results will appear, with popular links sorted by category at the top.

102 | P a g e
 Another excellent resource is Google’s “Search by image” feature. First, go to
[Link] From here, you can enter an image URL, drag and drop
an image from another web page, or upload your own image. Click “Search by
image” to see the results.

Searching for Audios and Videos: Podcasts, video recordings, speeches, and songs
can all be valuable resources in your Internet search. One way to find these resources
is to add the term “audio” or “video” (or whatever specific type of resource you are
looking for) into your search terms. You can also narrow your search to specific
file types using the filetype. Another option is to use multimedia-specific search
engines like YouTube, Play Audio Video (PAV), or the Internet Archive. As well,
the Internet Movie Database is a great resource for finding information about
television shows and movies.

Assessing the Reliability and Utility of Research Sites

Before you decide to use information from a particular site, you should
critically evaluate it. Questions to ask include:

 Who is the author of the page in question? What organization(s) are they
associated with? What kind of credentials do they have?
 Who runs the overall site? What is their background?
 What alternative motives might the author and/or site owners have? (For
example, if I promote a certain type of search engine in this course, you
might want to check to see if I am somehow involved with the company.
Having a secondary agenda doesn’t mean that a source is completely
unreliable; just be sure to read theinformation.)
 What other materials have the author and site owners published?

103 | P a g e
  What is your overall impression of the material? Is it well organized? Does
it include proper citations and have good spelling and grammar? Or is it
unprofessionally written?
 How objective is the material? Does it focus on facts and build to a
conclusion, or does the author rely on opinions?
 When was the material written, published to the Internet, and last updated?
 Is there a print counterpart to the online document? Are there any
differences between the two documents?
 Overall, does it make sense? Does it feel right? If something is bothering
you, dig further.

The top-level domain of a site (.com or .edu, for example) can also help you assess
its validity and credibility. The top-level domain may indicate a country, industry, or
organization. However, it is not definitive. For example, the .org domain was intended
for non-profit agencies but has been adopted by many for-profit groups.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority provides a complete, up-to-date overview

of top-level domains at [Link]

Methods to Avoid False or Misinformation

Throughout the previous chapters, we discussed about the concerns surrounding

false information and how they can mislead your researchprocess. While it might
not be possible for you to prevent others from spreading false information on the
internet, here are a few methods you candeploy to avoid getting duped into spreading
false information.

104 | P a g e
  Double-check your Facts: This is the first step that you must alwaystake. If an
original source is not cited, search for corroboration from another
authoritative source. It is important to go through numerous sources before
deciding if the facts you have gathered are reliable. Also,do not forget about
offline sources for cross-checking. For example, thecopyright information on
book websites is sometimes incorrect or out of date. Go find a copy of the
book yourself or seek help at your local library to verify the information.
Double-checking your facts is particularly important because it will enable
you to ensure your facts are correct and accurate the first time they are
communicated. It is difficult to change someone’s mind about a topic once
misinformation is presented, even if they do accept the correction.

 Check out the Site: Verify the credibility and accuracy of each site that you
use in your research. You can do this by checking out the grammar and
spellings’ accuracy, the way the content has been structured, and how
professional the language is. Identifying the top- level domain (as we discussed
earlier) is a good starting point, althoughnot definitive. You can also look up
the domain name and see who it is registered to using a service like WhoIs.
Importantly, general commonsense also applies. Sites like The Onion and The
Daily Currant may look real but they are 100% satire. The [Link] Urban
Legends page and Snopes are great tools for identifying Internet fakes and
rumors.

 Identify Advertisements: It is equally important to focus on academic

resources and avoid the ads that inevitably pop up in searchengines. A site
with too many pop-ups can signal that the purpose of the site is to promote the
ads, and little attention has thus been paid tothe fairness or dependability of
the content.

105 | P a g e
  Do Not be Too Dependent on Social Media: If you are taking most of your
information from social media sites, there is a high possibility that some of
the content may be biased or untrue. Please remember that social media
platforms encourage people to let their voices be heard, which expand the
chances of subjectivity and biasness. People belonging to certain communities
or holding specific political affiliations will always contribute content that
accedes to theirviews.

Chapter 7. Organizing your Research

Keeping your research organized can be challenging, but it is extremely essential.

All your hard work will go to waste if you fail to find certain quotes or statistical data
that can add extra value to your research paper. Simultaneously, it is important to
track where you find your information in case you need to re-check your facts or cite
the source later.

Luckily, there are several research tools that can help you organize and catalog your
information. The tool(s) that you choose will depend on your personal preference as
well as the project’s complexity. Let’s have a look at afew different types of tools
and some examples of each.

Organizing Information: First and foremost, include the link with all Internet
information that you gather. You can also keep track of links using your browser’s
bookmarking tools. For more advanced note taking and citation options, you may
want to look at specialized software. Let’s look at a few of the most common programs
and services:

106 | P a g e
  Micrsoft OneNote: This Microsoft Office program comes in a desktop
version and also offers free mobile versions. Using this tool, you can create
a notebook and organize your notes into sections andsection groups, which
will provide you with a lot of organizational flexibility. Furthermore, it
allows you to capture screenshots, send text directly from a web page to
your notes, tag notes, insert files, and much more. It automatically captures
links when text is copied from a web page. As well, you can insert images
and make the text searchable.

 CiteULike: CiteULike is an online service that particularly caters to the

needs of academic researchers. It gathers all citation information in one
place, hence making it more convenient for the researchers to create a
reference page or bibliography later.

 Evernote: Evernote shares many similarities with Microsoft OneNote,

offering mobile apps, a desktop version, and cloud syncing (although some
features are limited to the paid version). It also supports multiple notebooks,
tagging, and searching. However,the types of information that you can add
to a note are more limitedthan those offered by Microsoft OneNote.

107 | P a g e
  EasyBib: EasyBib is like CiteULike in that it is an online service, but it
also offers mobile apps. It provides better support for web searches as well
as support for multiple style guides.

 Zotero: Zotero is a handy desktop application that has been specifically

designed for Internet research. As well as being a desktop application, you
can also install browser add-ons to send information and links to the
program. (Third-party mobile applications are also available.)

It is vital to take an organized approach right from the start as that will enable you to
keep track of your work and never lose track. Moreover, you will not be
overburdened with the need to organize everything in the later stages as your start
organizing the tools, sources, and information as they materialize in each phase of
the research process. Most importantly, your time management will become
commendable as organized researchers will never have to spend time looking for
small bits of information. They will know exactly where the content has been stored.

Chapter 8. Starting with Your Writing

Draft Outline

In one of the previous chapters, we asked you to perform your own small research
on using reforestation and cutting down on plastic waste as solutions for managing
108 | P a g e
 the issue of climate change. First, write your draft outline out on paper. Make any
necessary tweaks, add sub-headings, and place your headings in sequence to create
your final outline. In this section, we will explore a more detailed breakdown of the
draft outline, by referring to the same example. You can use your previous draft
outline and see if you can organize it further into the following structure.

Topic: Which of these climate change policies should the government prioritize:
reforestation, or cutting down on plastic waste?

I. Introduction (why is this topic important?)

II. Understanding Reforestation
A. Why is it needed?
B. What are the benefits?
C. What are some of the limitations?
D. How to optimize this strategy?

III. Understanding the Reduction of Plastic Waste

E. Why is it needed?
F. What are the benefits?
G. What are some of the limitations?
H. How to optimize this strategy?

IV. Outline of Similarities

I. Similarities in benefits
J. Similarities in outcomes
K. Similarities in expenditure
L. Similarities in resources required

V. Outline of Similarities
M. Similarities in benefits
N. Similarities in outcomes
O. Similarities in expenditure
P. Similarities in resources required
109 | P a g e
 VI. Conclusion (Which policy should the government prioritize andwhy?)

Now, take several colored markers and assign each heading or sub-heading
a color, depending on the amount of information that you have. (You can also
use symbols if desired, but we find that colors are easier to read.) In addition,
use your highlighter to mark the important keywords and phrases in your
draft outline. Consider why those keywords are important and see if you can
gather more information using those keywords in a search engine. Try
checking the credibility of the sites using the tips mentioned in the previous
chapters.

Writing Basics

Once you have your research completed, it's time to put pen to paper and start
writing. Writing on its own can be another challenge, if you do not have a lot of
academic writing experience. It is worth noting that when working on your research
paper, you cannot write the way you talk. Instead, you will have to use formal,
academic English.
 Conversational English: John went to the store and bought a few things like
bread, milk, and peanut butter. Didn’t have enough. Wanna let me borrow a
dollar?

 Academic English: John proceeded to the grocery store where he purchased

a few necessary items. However, he did not have enough money.

You will notice that in the first example, the writer makes sense, but the tone of
110 | P a g e
 language is very casual. On the other hand, the academic counterpart appears a lot
more structured and formal. When you are preparing a research paper, you would
certainly not want to sound like the writing in the first example. As it happens, it
takes a lot more time and effort to learn academic English because while it is easy
for students to watch movies and listen to podcasts to grasp conversational language
but for academic English, they are required to mostly read other academic articles
and reports to hone their academic writing abilities. For students who are already
familiar with the English language, they need to spend more time on acquiring new
vocabulary and reading formal texts tobe better academic writers. But students who
are still in the early stages of learning the English language, academic English can
appear rather stressful to learn. Here are a few important things that you must
remember when writing academic English.

Do not use contractions, slangs, or jargons: It is likely that we are accustomed to

using contractions and slangs in our everyday conversations. For example, using
words such as ‘can’t’, ‘don’t’ are common practice, so is using short forms such as
‘brb’, ‘thanx’, ‘idk’. While it is okay to employ them in your normal interactions,
please avoid using these in your research paper. They can make your writing sound
too informal, and jargons can be difficult for laypeople to understand. In case you are
using jargons, define them first so that the readers know what it means. Usually,
when analyzing a source’s credibility, weassess the extent to which formal language
has been used. Hence, if you use contractions and slangs, your paper will also fail to
appear attested.

111 | P a g e
  Your writing must be direct and precise: You must make it a point to
eliminate unnecessary words and phrases and use clear and simple language.
We often misinterpret academic English for fancy writing. Please note that
using a variety of showy vocabulary will not make your work appear better.
In fact, the clarity of your language can get clouded. Hence, use formal, but
simple language. Although it is advisable to keep your sentences short and
simple, do not make them too short. If you do that, the writing will appear
fragmented, and the flow of the writing will be fractured.

 The correct verb tense must be used: When you are describing work that
either you have already completed or that other researchers have previously
conducted, use the past tense (e.g., ‘Smith and Jane discovered that…’).
Alternatively, if you are referring to work that you will carry out in the future,
use the future tense (e.g., ‘In this study, ourteam will assess…’).

 Only proper nouns should be capitalized: Sometimes you may feel tempted
to capitalize the name of a theory or other important terms in your paper.
However, please remember that only proper nouns (i.e., the names of people,
specific places or things, such as the names of newspapers, schools, movies
or companies) are capitalized when writing academic English. Common
nouns, such as things that refer to a general idea, concept or things, are not
capitalized.

112 | P a g e
  Avoid using ‘first language’: Apart from the times when you are writing a
reflective journal or assignment, avoid using first language terms such as ‘I’
or ‘we’. Instead, maintain a neutral stand and write from the lenses of a third
person. For example, “I think it is a good ideato...” can be written as “It might
be a good idea to...”. Sometimes, usingthe first language terms may imply that
you are sharing your opinions,and the writing may then appear subjective.

 Do not use assertive language: This is often defined as ‘hedging’, and can
be best explained through an example. Instead of writing “this is the
solution...”, it would be better to write “this might/could be a solution...” By
adding the terms ‘might’ or ‘could’, you are not making an affirmative
assertion that this is the solution but are only suggesting that this can be a
potential solution. Not only does this make your writing more formal, but it
also keeps your paper from being biased.

 Structure your sentences and paragraphs properly: All your sentences

must be complete with a subject and a predicate. Whilst the subject refers to
what or whom the sentence is about, the predicate helps explain what the
subject is doing or having been done to them, etc. Without both parts, a
sentence is incomplete, and your readers can’t determine the meaning you are
trying to convey. At the same time, you should also avoid using run-on
sentences that are loaded with too many subjects and predicates. If you do this,
then the actual meaning might get distorted.

Now that you have figured out what academic writing looks like, you need to get into
the structure of your writing. Show your readers where you will go in your
introduction. Then, using your outline as a guide, take your readers through your
arguments and evidence. Finally, bring it must all culminate into a sound and fair
conclusion.

113 | P a g e
 Let us look at some key points of good writing. When writing and reviewing,keep
the four C's in mind:

 Clear: Your work must carry enough clarity so that it can be fully
understood at first reading.
 Concise: All information is down to an intelligent and intelligible
minimum. When it comes to writing, ‘the more the merrier’ ideologydoes
not work. Burdening your readers with loads of sentences repeating the
same point serves no good purpose. Do not beataround the bush.
 Complete: The challenge is to ensure that all the essential bits of
information have been clubbed into a concise piece of writing.
 Correct: The information presented must be both accurate and verifiable.

As well as these, the structure of your writing also needs to be standardized. For
example, if you were writing a report, there is a particular sequence that needs to be
followed. Let us look at how reports are structured.

 Title Section: This includes the name of the author(s) and the date ofreport
preparation.

 Summary: It is vital to include a summary of the major points,

conclusions, and recommendations that have been covered in your

114 | P a g e
 paper. Basically, this section will lend a glimpse of what the report consists
of. However, it must be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some
people will read the summary and only skim the report, so make sure you
include all the relevant information. It would be bestto write this last so you
will include everything, even the points that might be added at the last minute.

 Introduction: The first page of the report needs to carry an introduction. In

this section, you need to explain the problem and demonstrate the purpose of
the report to the readers. Likewise, you need to define key terms if you did not
include these in the title sectionand explain how the details of the report are
arranged.

 Body: This is the main section of the report. There needs to be severalsections,
with each having a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of
importance with the most important information coming first.

 Conclusion: This is where everything comes together. Keep thissection free

of jargon as most people will read the Summary andConclusion.

 Recommendations: This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain

your recommendations, putting them in order of priority.

 Appendices: This includes information that the experts in the fieldwill

read. It has all the technical details that support your conclusions.

115 | P a g e
Ways to Review Your Presentation

After you are done with your writing, you need to review your presentation and
ensure that you have adhered to the guidelines proposed in your subject’s assignment
guide.

 Check the Facts: It can be embarrassing and potentially fatal to your

reputation if you develop an entire case and analysis by referring to inaccurate
facts and misleading conclusions that you have derived from inauthentic
sources. Please do not perceive an assumption as a fact, and only deal with
facts that have been tested and proven.

 Check the Length of your Final Work: This is another key variable to
consider when reviewing your final presentation. Usually, you will be
assigned a particular word limit in your assignment guide so that you can base
your writing around that. However, if no word limit has been specified, you
can check other similar research papers to determine how long your paper
should be. Sometimes, applying common sense will also help. If you can see
that your writing is too short and hardly covers all the points in adequate detail,
you must reconsider its depth. Make sure you've given your readers the details
and examples they need to see your point and accept it. Remember thatreaders
are often inundated with too much to read, so do not make the frequently
committed mistake of assuming that readers are interested

116 | P a g e
 in a blow-by-blow account. By doing this, you can smother the important
points beneath too many details. Not every bit of information uncovered in
your research needs to be included.

 Verify the Structure of Your Presentation: If you are writing a report then
ensure that you have stuck to the typical report writing format that was
recommended in the previous section. As you must have noticed, your report
ought to have a beginning, middle, and an end, and each part should do its job
effectively. The beginning should clearly communicate what the research is
about. Similarly, the middle should develop and support the main idea with
specifics: details, figures, examples, quotations. Finally, the ending should
summarize, reinforce the point, and even make recommendations.
Check each paragraph for unity and coherence. Unity means that only one idea
is developed in each paragraph. Coherence means that each sentence in the
paragraph logically hooks onto the preceding sentence and leads into the
following one. Look at your paragraphs: can you identify a topic sentence in
each (a sentence that states the main idea which the rest of the paragraph
develops)? If not, the paragraph may be considered for deletion
or rewriting. Your goal is to make clear that each paragraph relates to the
main idea (your thesis), that each grows out of the preceding paragraph, and
that each leads into the following one. A paragraph should begin with
something that links it to the one before it. The linking word may be a key
word repeated, a pronoun whose antecedent is in the previous paragraph, or a
transitional word bridging a gap in thought. Coupled with these, your ideas
must also flow together. This can be done usingconnecting words.

When trying to connect ideas on the same side of the argument, you can use
the following terms:

 Moreover,
 In addition,
 Additionally,

117 | P a g e
  Besides,
 As well as these,
 Coupled with these,
 What is more,
 Likewise,

Now, when starting off sentences that are in contrast with your current
argument, you can utilize the following connectors:

 However,
 Despite,
 In spite of,
 In contrast,
 Nevertheless,
 Nonetheless,
 On the contrary,
 Contrarily,
 Alternatively,

Please note that these connectors can be used both at the beginning and the
middle of sentences. For example: “However, driving at night can be scary
sometimes.” OR “Driving at night, however, can be scary sometimes.” The
terms ‘while’ and ‘whereas’ can also be used for contrasting sentences in the
following ways: “While/whilst visiting the beach is Jake’s preference for the
holidays, Jill usually likes to visit her grandmother.” OR “Most of his friends
enjoy sports, whereas he likes reading. In these examples, it is evident that
contrasting sentences have been clubbed together with these connectors.

 Check the Writing and Presentation Style: In general, be on the lookout for
lengthy, obscure sentences; wordiness; pretentiousness; overuse of the passive
voice; and imprecise language. Read your work aloud, noting the parts where
you stumble or misread and the parts that sound dull and boring, even to you.
Pump more energy into those

118 | P a g e
 parts by substituting action verbs and concrete nouns.
Then, use this three-step process to tighten up the style:
o Cut.
o Rearrange.
o Rewrite.

When you cut down on the number of words, it is likely that you will have to
rearrange the sentences and the paragraphs to ensure that the flow of ideas
remains stable. Apply these remedies to every swollen section or infected
sentence. All you need is a red pen. Cross out wordsand phrases that don't say
anything. Draw arrows to rearrange words or sentences, and prioritize cutting
out sections that contain irrelevant information. If you need to get it off your
computer screen to really seeit, print it off. Then you can literally use scissors
to cut out whole paragraphs and use tape to put them in a different order.
Rewrite onlywhen editing or rearranging are not effective.

 Revise the Spelling, Grammar, and Punctuation: Look up the spelling of

the words you habitually misspell and check if you are doubtful. The last thing
you would want is a properly structured and credibly presented facts to be
disturbed by silly grammatical errors andspelling mistakes. Be alert to possible
problems in agreement or the placement of modifiers; be sure every pronoun
has a clear reference. Ensure that your punctuation is both correct and
appropriate. Even native speakers often make unforeseen grammatical errors.
Thus, using software such as Grammarly can be of great help. Remember that
you can spoil an otherwise good piece of writing with a blatant, distracting
error. Since it is very difficult to see your own errors, it is always a good idea
to have someone else read the piece over, and askingthem to specifically spot
for errors in spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

119 | P a g e
  Do NOT Plagiarize: Using someone else's ideas without giving credit is
plagiarism and is unethical. Even if you paraphrase and put the information
in your own words, the ideas must be documented, and you must cite the work
of the author that you referred to. When citing sources, you should use direct
quotations sparingly. Good writers use the exact words of another writer to
emphasize opinions because of the author's status as an expert; duplicate the
exact wording before criticizing; or repeat identical phrasing because of its
precision, clarity, or aptness. Moreover, citing sources strengthens your
argument as a writer and shields you from charges of plagiarism.

Documentation Styles

A documentation style can be described as a standard approach to the citation of

sources that the author has abstracted or quoted information from. There are four
popular styles of documentation.

 MLA (Modern Language Association) is used in literature and most of the

humanities.
 APA (American Psychological Association), which is generally used in
the social sciences.
 CBE (Council of Biology Editors) is used in biology and many other
sciences.
 The Chicago Manual of Style which has two styles it favors.
 Harvard referencing is another common style that is widely used across
universities, and is mostly used for business, management, and social
science research. For your MBA programs, you might have to use this style
of referencing.

120 | P a g e
 If your organization or university does not recommend a particular style, choose one
and stick to it. It is important to consistently use the same style throughout your final
work.

Most styles ask that references be listed on a page by themselves, alphabetically by

author, and include all the references you used to produce your report. This list is
called References, Works Cited, or Cited References, depending on the style you
have used. (The Chicago Manual of Style uses the titles Bibliography, Selected
Bibliography, and Works Cited.) Usually, students have to carry out two layers of
citations:

 In-text citation: These are included in the beginning or end ofsentences and
are embedded within the texts. E.g., “Thomas and Joy (2010) states that...”

 References List: This appears at the end of the paper and comprises a list of
all the references that have been used. The format followed is very different
from the in-text citations. While you can use the same in-text citation more
than once in different paragraphs, you will include only one reference for that
in-text citation in the references list.

The list for any given paper or report may include a variety of sources. A source is
anything you draw information from. In your report, you should listevery source you
use.

Citing Sources

121 | P a g e
 In this section, we will consider how the bibliographies or reference style foreach of
the aforementioned documentation style looks like. Every bibliography entry is
created from several standard components. The most basic three are author, title, and
publication information. As with all writing, it is important to be consistent within
your document and demonstrate yourattention to those details.

As you can see from the examples here, the differences between the formats are
significant to look at, although the details are the same within each record. That said,
you should not use different formats for each source. This can affect your final
grades.

One author, in Chicago Manual style:

Lynne Truss. Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation,
New York, Gotham Books, 1993

One author, in American Psychological Association (APA) style:

Truss, Lynne (1993). Eats, shoots & leaves: The zero tolerance approach to
punctuation. New York, Gotham Books, 1993

One author, in British Broadcasting Corporation News Style Guidelines:

Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation, Lynne
Truss, Gotham Books, New York, 1993

122 | P a g e
Components of a Bibliography

Here is a list of each element you might find in a bibliography entry for a book or
part of a book. Usually, the same components are used for the different
documentation styles.

 The author's or authors' names (or the editor or editors' names if you are
referring to a collection). This part of the entry comes first, since a
bibliography is in most cases an alphabetical listing by author of material
used in writing a book or report.
 The title of the work.
 The name of the collection you found the work in.
 The editor's or editors' names (if the work appears in a collection), or
translator or compiler, if one is used.
 The edition number for works other than a first edition.
 The number(s) of the volume(s) used.
 Publication data: the place of publication, followed by the
publisher's name, and in MLA, the date of the publication.
 The page numbers of the work, if the work is part of a collection.

_________________________________________________________________

123 | P a g e
 124

124 | P a g e