CHAPTER 1:

General Concepts and

Historical Developments

COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES Department of Languages & Literature

 LESSON 1:
Historical Antecedents in
which Social Considerations
changed the course of S&T

COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES Department of Languages & Literature

 Intended Learning Outcomes
1. explain the interactions between S&T and society throughout
history;
2. construct a historical timeline of the paradigm shifts in history;
3. synthesize the effect of scientific and technological
developments on society and the environment; and,
4. articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology.

COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES

TEACHER EDUCATION Department
Secondary of Languages
Education Department& Literature
I. ANCIENT TIMES

COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES

TEACHER EDUCATION Department
Secondary of Languages
Education Department& Literature
Problems encountered during ancient times
During the ancient times, several problems were encountered by the people
as their population was increasing. These problems arose due to individual needs
and the concerns of the people as a whole. As the ancient people tried to
innovate in order to address these issues, the advancement of science and
technology has begun.
• TRANSPORTATION
• COMMUNICATION
• SECURITY AND PROTECTION
• HEALTH
• ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING
• MASS PRODUCTION
• AESTHETICS
• RECORD KEEPING
 TRANSPORTATION
• TRANSPORTATION is significant during those times because people
were trying to discover new horizons. As the people tried to widen their
community, there was a need to transport materials. The people also
needed to travel to search for food and to find better locations to settle.
This problem enabled the invention of carriages and sailboats as the
earliest modes of transportation.

• NAVIGATION assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange

places. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new places or
completed important trades with other groups of people. The problem on
navigation gave birth to the field of astronomy, as the people started
studying the patterns of the sky.
 COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION was essential in the ancient peoples’ endeavors
to discover and occupy new places. They needed a way to
communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to facilitate
trade and prevent possible conflicts.

There were no common language before. Only signals were used

for communication. Pigeons were used to deliver messages. Smoke
signals and the use of horns to alarm the people were utilized.
Eventually, the use of pictures and letters etched on clay tablets and
written on papyrus were invented.
RECORD-KEEPING
• Record-keeping was important since they needed to remember
places they had been to and document the trades they made with
each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and
culture so they could establish their identities as they tried to
relate with other cultures and civilizations.

• This resulted to the inventions of mathematics and the different

systems of writing.
 MASS PRODUCTION
The increase in size and number of nations meant increased
demand for food and other basic necessities. This condition
implied that people must be able to produce food at a given time and
space. People needed a form of technology that would enable them
to increase food supplies and other survival needs without them
traveling more or working harder.

This problem paved the way for agriculture to be developed.

 SAFETY AND PROTECTION
Weapons and armors were important in the discovery of new
places or the establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At the
time, there was always a risk of conflict when people met others with
different culture. Stronger nations tended to invade weaker ones so
they could take much needed resources.

As such, the development of weapons for security and

protection was considered a major achievement. From the use of crude
stone tools, the discovery of metals introduced more sophisticated
weapons.
 HEALTH CONCERNS
Conservation of life is a major concern since there were no
equipment yet to discover disease-causing bacteria and viruses.
Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered
the full potential of a human being.

This problem paved the way for the discovery of natural

remedies to illnesses, such as herbal medicines and the use of
acupuncture. However, this problem also contributed to the belief of
ancient people to the supernatural as causes of such illnesses.
ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING
• ARCHITECTURE. During the ancient times, elaborate
architectural designs were signs of technological advancement of a
particular civilization. The people built massive temples to honor
their gods.
• ENGINEERING. In order to have better transportation, more
resilient structures for protection from human attacks and natural
disasters, and bigger and stronger infrastructures, people developed
the field of engineering. This development allowed humans to build
structures that would address their specific needs and wants.
 AESTHETICS
• AESTHETICS. The people were not only contented on
beautifying their infrastructures and surroundings but also aimed to
appear more presentable and appealing by adding some features and
decorations in their body.
Let’s Reflect 2!
• Discuss one problem that you encountered that led you or
prompted you to create a solution on your own. How did you come
up with such solution?
Major Technological Advancements of
Ancient Civilizations
• Sumerians
• Babylonians
• Egyptians
• Greeks
• Romans
 SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
• Sumer was the first urban civilization in ancient Mesopotamia. The
Sumerians flourished thousands of years ago between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in what today is southern Iraq, from the 27th-20th
century BCE.
• Sumerians invented new technologies and perfected the large-scale use
of existing ones. In the process, they transformed how humans
cultivated food, built dwellings, communicated and kept track of
information and time.
• The Sumerian civilization flourished for thousands of years before it
lost its identity after being conquered by the Amorites.
 Cuneiform
• The Sumerians were the first to develop a
writing system, which they used to keep
track of the goods that they were making
and selling.
• Word pictures (pictographs) and
triangular symbols were used
• This style of writing was wedge-shaped.
A stylus was used to produce different
figures and pictorials by making cuts into [Link]
[Link]

soft clay.
Uruk City
• Considered as the first true city in the world, Uruk lies about
241 km to the south of Baghdad, the present capital of Iraq.
In ancient times, Uruk was situated on the eastern banks of a
channel of the Euphrates River.
• It was built using mud or clay on the river mixed with sun
baked bricks. The bricks were used to make houses that
protected them from harsh weather.
• This prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders from
entering.
 [Link]
[Link]
 • A general view of the Uruk archaeological site at Warka in Iraq.

[Link] [Link]
 Sexagesimal System
• The Sumerians used a
base-60 system.
• It is still used today in the
measurement of both the
hour and the minute and
the angles.
• An elementary abacus
was also invented by the
Sumerians between 2700
and 2300 BC.
[Link]
[Link]
 The Great Ziggurat of Ur
• Ziggurats are huge stepped structures with
a temple on top.
• The Ziggurat of Ur was also called “The
Mountain of God”, since it was believed
to be the dwelling places for the gods.
• Only priests were permitted inside the
ziggurat and it was their responsibility to
care for the gods and attend to their needs.
As a result, the priests were very powerful
members of Sumerian society.
Irrigation and Dikes
• Dikes and irrigation canals were created to bring water to farmlands
and to control the flooding of the rivers
• The Sumerians figured out how to collect and channel the overflow
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers—and the rich silt that it
contained—and then use it to water and fertilize their farm fields.
They designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed of
reeds, palm trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or closed
to regulate the flow of water.
• Dikes and canals enabled the Sumerians to enjoy year-long farming
and harvesting, which increased food production. They grew barley
and dates. They also raised goats and sheep.
[Link]
 The Plow

• The Sumerians invented the

plow, a vital technology in
farming. They even
produced a manual that
gave farmers detailed
instructions on how to use [Link]

various types of plows. TY1ODkzNDI1MDcyMjUyMjk4/[Link]

 The lion-headed eagle made of copper, gold, and lapis lazuli by
Sumerian civilization.
Metallurgy
• The Sumerians were the earliest
people to use copper to make
useful items, ranging from
spearheads to arrowheads.
• Sumerian metallurgists used
furnaces heated by reeds and
controlled the temperature with
a bellows that could be worked
with their hands or feet. [Link]
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 Sailboats
• Since wheel was not yet
invented, the main mode of
transportation was through
waterways.
• Sailboats were essential in
transportation and trading.
• Wood and papyrus were
used to make lightweight
sailboats so that it was easy
for them to move on water. [Link]

The sails were given a

square shape and were
made of linen.
 Wheel
• The first wheels were not made for
transportation but for farm work,
pottery, and food processes.
• With the use of wheel and axle, mass
production was made easier. Farmers
were able to mill grains with less
effort in less time.
• The Sumerians didn’t invent wheeled
vehicles, but did likely develop the
first two-wheeled chariot by drilling a
hole through the frame of the cart to [Link]
[Link]

create an axle.
 Astronomy
• The Sumerians were the first astronomers to map the stars into
separate constellations. They were also responsible for identifying the five
planets visible to the naked eye.
• They documented the movements of stars and planets to predict future
battles and the fortunes of city-states, and also charted their month from
the first crescent of the new moon. Phases of the moon were used to
create a lunar calendar.
• Their year consisted of two seasons, the first was the summer which
started with the vernal equinox, and the other was winter which began
with the autumnal equinox.
This cuneiform stone is a
star map of Nineveh. It
recorded an asteroid impact,
with a diameter of more
than a kilometer, on 3123
BC.

[Link]
• The Sumerians
seemed to be
aware that the
solar system was
Heliocentric. On
some tablets, 11
celestial bodies or
planets can be
found.

[Link]
Let’s Reflect 3!

• Mesopotamia is called the Fertile Crescent because it is

established along the rivers of Tigris and Euphrates. In
your town, at what particular area did the early settlers
build their communities? Why did they choose that area?
Discuss at least two reasons. Ask your grandparents or the
elders in your barangay for more context.
BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION
• Babylon is from the Akkadian word “babilani” which
means “the gate of gods”.
• Ancient Babylon was an influential city that served as a
center of Mesopotamian civilization from roughly 2000
B.C. to 540 B.C. It was located near the Euphrates River,
about 100 kilometers south of Baghdad.
• The Babylonian civilization was later conquered by the
Persian empire around 539 BC.
Depiction of Ancient Babylonia

• [Link]
Hanging Gardens
• The Hanging Gardens were an ascending
series of tiered gardens containing a wide
variety of trees, shrubs, and vines
constructed during the reign of King
Nebuchadnezzar II (605 – 562 BC).
• They are described as a marvelous feat of
engineering. Since Babylon received little rain,
engineers devised hydraulic pumps that
brought water from the nearby Euphrates
River to irrigate the gardens. The gardens
were a lush mountain of foliage in the middle
of a flat, dry desert. [Link]

• Its exact location is unknown. There are

no known Babylonian records of the site.
 Mathematics
• The Babylonians developed the first ever positional number
system, in which the value of the digit depends on the digit and its
position.
• However, the Babylonians had no concept of zero or a digit for it.
They instead used a space.
• Babylonians constructed tables to aid calculation. Babylonian
mathematicians also developed algebraic methods of solving
equations.
• The first ever evidence of the solution of quadratic equations is
from Babylonia. Also, Babylonian tablets used for calculating cubes
and cube roots have been found.
1 × 603 + 57 × 602 + 46 × 60 + 40 = 424 000

[Link]
 Code of Hammurabi
• The code is well known for its "eye for an eye" style of
lawmaking. It was harsh and made liberal use of death sentences
and allowed for the hacking off of body parts.
• The Code of Hammurabi contains as many as 300 laws that
discuss a wide range of subjects, including homicide, assault,
divorce, debt, adoption, tradesman’s fees, agricultural practices
and even disputes regarding the brewing of beer. It was among
the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence, the
principle that one is considered innocent unless proven guilty.
 The Ishtar Gate
• Built by Nebuchadnezzar II
around 575 BC and named after
Ishtar, the goddess of love and
war, the Ishtar Gate is the lower
part of the monumental eighth
gate to the inner city of Babylon.
It served as the ceremonial
entrance to the inner wall of
Babylon.
• Glazed bricks were used to
decorate the gate. [Link]
[Link]
 The Ziggurat of Etemenanki

• The ziggurat of Etemenanki ("Temple of the Foundation of

Heaven and Earth") towered over the city of Babylon. It had
7 terraces and a height of 91 meters.
• The ziggurat was dedicated to their patron god, Marduk. It
is said to have inspired the Biblical story of the Tower of
Babel.
[Link]
 Astronomy and Astrology
• The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical
phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their
predictions.
• Babylonia is the first known civilization to possess a functional
theory on the motion of the planets.
• Astrology was one of the primary means of Babylonian priests to
ascertain the will of the Gods. Babylonia thus laid the foundations
of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Zodiac
and its twelve signs can also be traced to Babylonian astrology.
 Zodiacal Sign Normal Babylonian Name
Aries The Hired Man
Taurus The Stars (Pleiades)
Gemini The Twin
Cancer The Crab
Leo The Lion
Virgo The Barleystalk
Libra The Balance
Scorpio The Scorpion
Sagittarius Pabilsag
Capricorn The Goat-fish
Aquarius The Great One
Pisces The Tails
[Link]
Let’s Reflect 4!

• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is considered as one of

the seven wonders of the ancient world. It is considered as
an architectural and engineering marvel. Describe an
infrastructure in the Philippines that is also considered an
architectural and engineering marvel. Discuss why.
EGYPTIAN
CIVILIZATION

[Link]
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Egyptians’ Contributions
• PAPYRUS
• WIG
• WATER CLOCK/CLEPSYDRA
• HIEROGLYPHICS
• INK
• COSMETICS
• PYRAMIDS
• MUMMIFICATION
 Papyrus
• Egypt was not the first to develop a system of writing but
they were able to make writing easier.
• Papyrus was a plant that grew abundantly in Egypt. Papers
made from this plant was a major accomplishment in
Egyptian record-keeping and communication.
• It was easier to keep them away from raiders who often
destroyed records of the nations they invaded.
[Link]
/media/2018/05/15/PalmSprings/PalmSprings/[Link]
Pen and Ink
• When the Egyptians invented the papyrus, engraving
was the method of writing. To make writing easier, the
Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with
different chemicals to produce inks of different colors.

• They used pens made of reeds.

[Link]
 Hieroglyphs
• The word hieroglyph comes from the
Greek words hiero (holy) and glypho
(writing). Egyptians believed that this
writing system was provided to them by
the gods.

• The Egyptians discovered a system of

writing using symbols
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
jpg/640px-Ancient_Egypt_Papyrus_Scroll_of_the_Dead_%2828131210084%[Link]
 Cosmetics
• The ancient Egyptians were very aware
of their self-image. Personal hygiene and
appearance have an important value.
They believed that beauty was a sign of
holiness and purity. They used many
natural ingredients like henna, kohl, and
clay to create their cosmetics.
• The Egyptians invented the cosmetics
not only for aesthetics but also for their
health.
• Egyptians lined their eyes with black
kohl to protect their eyes from the
bright sunlight. The eye makeup was also [Link]

believed to protect against conjunctivitis

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[Link]

and other eye infections.

[Link]
 Wig
• Predominantly worn by the elite of
Egyptian society, wigs served a dual
purpose: they signaled high rank in
Egypt's strict social hierarchy and
helped protect shaven scalps (a sign
of nobility) from the sun.
• Wigs also helped maintain hygiene
levels by reducing the incidence of
head lice. [Link]
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 Clocks
• The Egyptians used obelisks as sun
clocks by noting how its shadow moved
around its surface throughout the day.
From the use of obelisks, they identified
the longest and shortest days of the year.
• They also invented the water clock or
clepsydra, a device that utilizes gravity. It
is a stone vessel with a tiny hole at the
bottom which allowed water to drip at a
constant rate. The passage of hours
could be measured from marks spaced at
[Link]

different levels. The amount of water

remaining in the device determines how
much time has elapsed since it was full.
[Link]
 Mummification
• The process of
mummification is the
embalming and wrapping
by which a body was
preserved and prepared
for burial.
• The ancient Egyptians
mummified their dead
because they believed that
the physical body would
be important in the next
life. [Link]
Construction and Engineering

• Water power was theorized to

have been used to construct the
large structures of the Egyptians.
Water could have been harnessed
and pressure exerted via a pump
helped raise the stones up a ramp
to their intended positions. [Link]
 Mathematics and Astronomy
• Astronomy was important to the ancient Egyptians on two
levels: the spiritual and the practical. For example, the stars
told the stories of the gods' accomplishments and trials but also
indicated the passage of time and the seasons. The stars could
tell one when it was going to rain, when it was nearing time to
plant or harvest crops.
• Mathematics was used in record keeping, in developing the
schematics for machines such as the water pump, in calculating
tax rates, and in drawing up designs and citing locations for
building projects.
 Calendar
• Egyptian calendar is the first calendar
known to use a year of 365 days,
approximately equal to the solar year.
This civil calendar was split into twelve
months of 30 days with an additional
five epagomenal days attached at the
end of the year. These additional five days
were considered to be unlucky.
• They also maintained a second calendar
based upon the phases of the moon, the
lunar calendar, which consisted of 29 or
30 days.
Epagomenal days

[Link]
[Link]
Medicine
• Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. Spells
were used in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a
significant degree of medical knowledge.
• There are three known medical scrolls written by the Egyptians:
• The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as trauma,
cancer, heart disease, depression, dermatology, gastrointestinal distress, and
many others.
• The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical techniques.
This work shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and physiology.
• The London Medical Papyrus combines practical medical skill with magical
spells for the treatment of conditions ranging from eye problems to
miscarriages.
The London Medical Papyrus

[Link]
Agriculture
• Ox – drawn plough. Using the power of oxen to pull the
plough revolutionized agriculture and modified versions of
this Egyptian invention are still used by farmers in
developing countries around the world.
• Sickle. The sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and
harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley.
• Irrigation. The Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation
ditches to harness Nile river’s yearly flood and bring water
to distant fields.
 Let’s Reflect 5!
• Write your first and last
name using the ancient
Egyptian alphabet.

[Link]
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 GREEK CIVILIZATION

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
• Ancient Greece can be credited with many inventions and
discoveries.

• The ancient Greeks’ findings in the areas of astronomy,

geography, and mathematics made them pioneers in the
fields of science. The Greeks’ interest in the scientific
specification of the physical world can be seen as far back
as the sixth century BC, and they have often been hailed as
the fathers of science, medicine, zoology, and many other
areas.
 The Water Mill
• Water mills were a revolutionary
invention and have been used all over
the world for the purpose of metal
shaping, agriculture and, most
importantly, milling. To mill means to
grind, and that invariably means to grind
grain. This in turn led to the production
of edible food staples like rice, cereals,
pulses, flour, and so on.
• It was most likely invented by the Greek [Link]

engineer Philo of Byzantium.

 Alarm Clock
• Ctesibius (285–222 BC) fitted his
clepsydras or water clock with a dial
and pointer to indicate the time, and
added an elaborate alarm system
which involved pebbles dropping
on to a gong, or the blowing of a
trumpet by forcing bell jars down
into water and taking the
compressed air through a beating
reed at pre-set times.
[Link]
Cartography

• Cartography is the study

and practice of making
maps.
• Anaximander was one of
the first pioneer
cartographers to create a
map of the world.
[Link]
 Medicine
• Hippocrates of Cos started to collect data and conduct experiments to
show that disease was a natural process; that the signs and symptoms of a
disease were caused by the natural reactions of the body to the disease
process.
• He was referred to as the father of Western medicine in recognition of his
lasting contributions to the field and was the founder of the Hippocratic
School of Medicine.
• The most famous of his contributions is the Hippocratic Oath, which
bears his name. It was this document that first proposed an ethical
standard among doctors. It covers many important concepts which are
still used today, such as doctor–patient confidentiality.
[Link]
GALEN
• Galen was a physician, writer, and philosopher who
became the most famous doctor in the Roman Empire and
whose theories dominated European medicine for 1,500
years.
• He pioneered the concepts of anatomy, physiology and
therapeutics. He is credited as being the first to discover
that arteries carry blood, not air, as was previously believed.
He developed medical tools for surgery and dissection and
wrote many volumes of his discoveries and observations.
 Concepts in Modern Science
• Aristotle introduced the idea of the earth as a globe. He also
classified animals and is often referred to as the father of
zoology.
• Archimedes discovered that submerging a solid object in water
would displace the same amount of liquid as the object’s volume.
• The Pythagoreans not only made the earliest advances in
philosophy and geometry, but they also proposed the heliocentric
hypothesis of the earth revolving around the sun.
• Eratosthenes accurately measured the size/circumference of the
earth just by using 2 sticks
 Modern Philosophy
• Before the age of ancient Greece, philosophy was shrouded in
superstition and magic. For instance, the Egyptians believed that
if the Nile rose and flooded, making the soil dark and fertile, their
pharaoh had commanded it.

• The Greeks developed philosophy as a way of understanding the

world around them, without resorting to religion, myth, or magic.
Early Greek philosophers were also scientists who observed and
studied the known world, the earth, seas, mountains, solar system,
planetary motion, and astral phenomena.
Thales of Miletus (624 – 546 BC)
• In the 7th century, he was
dubbed as “The Father of
Science”
• He was the first to posit
non-supernatural
explanations for
earthquakes, lightnings, and
other phenomena.
• He predicted solar eclipses,
droughts, and made fortune
doing so.
 ANAXIMANDER (610-546 BC)

• He believed that life came from

water and mud.
• He proposed that humans
evolved from lower life forms, a
concept later vindicated by
Charles Darwin, 2400 years later.
 EMPEDOCLES (490-430 BC)
• He proposed that matter is composed of four elements:
earth, water, fire, and air.
• He also concluded that the moon does not have its own
light.
PYTHAGORAS (570-495 BC)
• He started a school dedicated to
Mathematics and its application
to nature.
• He was credited to be the first
to propose that the earth is a
sphere.
DEMOCRITUS (460 – 370 BC)
• He was the first to theorize that matter is made up of atoms.
HERACLITUS & PARMENIDES
• They have opposing views on nature:
HERACLITUS: “It is not possible to step into the same
river twice.”
PARMENIDES: “Whatever is is, and what is not cannot
be.”

•Started major debate on what justifies reason: knowledge or

experience.
Let’s Reflect 6!

• Reflect on the question, “What justifies reason: knowledge

or experience?”. Is it more important to have knowledge
than experience? Is an educated person more intelligent
than someone who did not finish his studies but has more
experience? Give sample scenarios to justify your point of
view.
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION
• The Romans were prodigious builders and expert civil
engineers, and their thriving civilization produced advances in
technology, culture and architecture that remained unequaled
for centuries.

[Link]
[Link]
Julian Calendar
• Julius Caesar proposed the use of the Julian Calendar from 46 BC onwards. This
calendar added one extra day in every four years ('leap year') because it had been
calculated that the earth takes 365¼ days to complete its circuit around the sun, not a
straight 365 days.
• However, the sun's circuit is 11 minutes less than 365¼ days. As a result, it emerged
that the Julian Calendar was over-correcting by around 8 days each millennium.
• In the 16th century, a solution was proposed whereby centennial years would not be
leap years unless they were divisible by 400. Using this calculation meant that there
would only be an over-correction of 23 seconds, and that it would take 3,700 years
before the over-correction amounted to a full day.
• In 1582, Pope Gregory ruled that a new calendar - the Gregorian Calendar - should
be used. By that time, the Julian Calendar had added ten days too many to the calendar,
so Pope Gregory decreed that the day after the 4th of October 1582 should be the 15th
of October 1582, thus correcting the error.
[Link]
 Aqueduct
• Aqueducts were pipelines that brought fresh
water from the mountains to areas without
water. These aqueducts provided fresh water to
urban areas in the Roman Empire.
• The Romans had public toilets, underground
sewage systems, fountains, and public baths.
These aquatic innovations were made possible
by the Roman aqueduct. First developed around
312 B.C., the aqueducts used gravity to transport [Link]
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water along stone, lead and concrete pipelines Signature=73d49fa670604360a05ec6d208ccce81d524e8a923f3aab20016d0d944339444

and into city centers. This promoted public

health and sanitation.
• The Romans did not invent the aqueduct but
they used their mastery of civil engineering to
perfect the process.
 Medical Tools
• Romans developed
precision medical
instruments that
influenced many modern-
day surgical tools.
• Romans also used tools
such as forceps, syringes,
scalpels, and bone saws
made by specialist
manufacturers that
resemble their 21st-century [Link]

equivalents.
 Concrete
• The Romans first began building with concrete over 2,100 years
ago and used it throughout the Mediterranean basin in
everything from aqueducts and buildings to bridges and
monuments.
• Roman concrete was considerably weaker than its modern
counterpart, but it has proved remarkably durable thanks to its
unique recipe, which used slaked lime and volcanic ash known as
pozzolana to create a sticky paste. Combined with volcanic
rocks called tuff, this ancient cement formed concrete that could
effectively endure chemical decay.
 Roads and Highways
• The Romans built the most
sophisticated system of roads the
ancient world had ever seen. These
Roman roads—many of which are
still in use today—were constructed
with a combination of dirt, gravel
and bricks made from granite or
hardened volcanic lava.
• Roman engineers adhered to strict
standards when designing their
highways, creating arrow-straight
roads that curved to allow for [Link]
water drainage.
[Link]
Let’s Reflect 7!

• What can you say about the line, “All roads lead to
Rome.”? What do you think does it imply? Explain by
relating it to your daily life.
Get in Touch
With Us
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Philippines
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