Unit 15 Polynomial Rings

UNIT 15

POLYNOMIAL RINGS

Structure Page Nos.

15.1 Introduction 161

Objectives
15.2 Ring of Polynomials 162
15.3 Some Properties of Polynomial Rings 170
15.4 Divisibility in Polynomial Rings 175
15.5 Ideals in Polynomial Rings 185
15.6 Summary 188
15.7 Solutions / Answers 189

15.1 INTRODUCTION
So far you have studied about many rings, includings rings with special
properties. You have also studied about polynomials over R in some detail in
Block 1 of ‘Calculus’. In the previous units of this course, you studied several
examples related to various rings of polynomials. In this unit, we aim to put all
your earlier studies of polynomials together, and take them a little further.

In Sec.15.2, you will study about sets whose elements are polynomials of the
type a 0 + a1x + L+ a n xn , where a 0 , a 1 ,K, a n are elements of a ring R. You will
see that this set, denoted by R[ x ], is a ring also.

In Sec.15.3, you will see why we are discussing polynomial rings in a block on
domains and fields. You will study several properties of R[ x ] in this
connection. In particular, you will see that if R is an integral domain, so is
R[ x ].

Taking the discussion further, in Sec.15.4, you will see that the ring of
polynomials over a field behaves quite a bit like Z. It satisfies a division
algorithm, which is similar to the one satisfied by Z (see Unit 1). We will prove
this property, and some of its consequences, in this section.

In the next section, Sec.15.5, the focus will be on ideals of F[ x ], where F is a

field. You will find out why every ideal in F[ x ] is a principal ideal, just as for
Z. You will also see why this fact is so important.
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Block 4 Integral Domains
In the next unit, we will continue our discussion on polynomials. What you
study in this unit, and the next, is very basic for your study in any branch of
mathematics. So study this unit carefully. Do every exercise in it as you come
to the exercise. This will help you ensure that you have achieved the following
expected learning outcomes of studying this unit.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• Define, and give examples of, polynomials over a given ring;
• prove, and use, the result that the set of polynomials over a commutative
ring R is the ring (R[ x ], +, ⋅);

• relate certain properties of R[ x ] to those of R ;

• prove, and apply, the division algorithm for F [ x ], where F is a field;

• prove, and apply, the result that every ideal in F[ x ] is a principal ideal,
where F is a field.

15.2 RING OF POLYNOMIALS

You have seen several polynomials like 1 + x , 2 + 3x + 4 x 2 , x5 − 1, 0, and so
on. These are examples of polynomials over R, as their coefficients are in R.
But they are also polynomials over Z, as their coefficients lie in Z. Does this
brief discussion suggest to you what a polynomial over any ring R is? Let’s
define this object, and terms immediately related to it.

Definitions: Let R be a ring, and let x be an indeterminate.

An ‘indeterminate’ is a i) A polynomial over R, in x , is an expression of the form
formal symbol. It is not a
variable. a 0 x 0 + a 1x1 + a 2 x 2 + L + a n xn ,
where n is a non-negative integer and a 0 , a1 ,K, a n ∈ R.

ii) For i = 0, 1, K , n , a i x i is called a term of the polynomial in (i) above.

If a 0 ≠ 0, a 0 x 0 is called the constant term of this polynomial.

iii) a 0 , a 1 ,K, a n are called the coefficients of the polynomial in (i) above.
If a n ≠ 0, a n is called the leading coefficient of this polynomial, and n is
called the degree of the polynomial. We denote this fact by
deg (a 0 x 0 + L + a n x n ) = n.

iv) If a 0 ≠ 0, the polynomial a 0 x0 is called a constant polynomial.

v) If a i = 0 ∀ i = 0, 1, K , n , the polynomial obtained is 0, called the zero

polynomial. By definition, it has no leading coefficient.
Further, the degree of the zero polynomial is undefined.

For example, for any ring R and any r ∈ R , rx0 is a constant polynomial (if
r ≠ 0 ) or the zero polynomial (if r = 0 ).
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Note that in the matter of writing polynomials, we will observe the following
conventions.
i) We will not write x0 , so that we will only write a 0 for a 0 x0 .

ii) We will write x1 as x.

iii) We will write xm instead of 1⋅ xm (i.e., when a m = 1 ), and write − axm if

a m = (−a ) ∈ R.

iv) We will omit terms of the type 0 ⋅ x m .

Thus, the polynomial 2 x0 + 0 ⋅ x1 + 3x 2 + (−1) x3 over Z will be written as

2 + 3x 2 − x 3, with (−1) as its leading coefficient and 2 as its constant term.
As an example, 1 − πx5 + 2 x11 is a polynomial over R, where
2
a 0 = 1 , a 5 = −π, a 11 = 2 and a i = 0 for i = 1, K,10, i ≠ 5. Similarly,
2
− 1 + πx5 − 2 x11 is a polynomial over R.
2
⎡ 2 1⎤ ⎡ 3 0⎤
Also, Ax + Bx 4 , where A = ⎢ ⎥ , B=⎢ ⎥, is a polynomial of
⎣− 0.5 π⎦ ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
degree 4 over M 2 ( R), with B as its leading coefficient and with no constant
term.

Henceforth, whenever we will use the word ‘polynomial’, we will mean a

polynomial in the indeterminate x. We will also often use the shorter Recall that Σ is the capital
n Greek letter ‘sigma’, and
notation ∑a x
i =0
i
i
for the polynomial a 0 + a1x + L + a n x n . denotes ‘sum’.

Here is a remark to explain the use of the indeterminate.

Remark 1: As noted above, x is used here as a symbol, called an

indeterminate. The symbols x 0 , x1 , x 2 ,K are there as placeholders. So,
instead of writing the polynomial over R as a 0 + a1x + L + a n x n , we could as
well have written it as an infinite sequence with only finitely many non-zero
entries, as (a 0 , a1 ,K, a n , 0, 0,K) (recall your study of sequences from ‘Real
Analysis’). Similarly, a polynomial of degree m can be written as
(b 0 , b1 ,K, b m , 0, 0,K), bi ∈ R , or as b 0 + b1x + L + b m x m .
Note that (0, 0, 2, 1, 5, 7, 9, 11,K) is not a polynomial, as it does not have only
finitely many non-zero entries.

Let us consider some more examples of polynomials in x.

i) 5 + 4x + 3x 2 is a polynomial of degree 2, whose coefficients belong to

Z. Its leading coefficient is 3.

ii) 8 + 6 x + x 2 + 2 x 4 is a polynomial of degree 4, with coefficients in Z10 .

Its leading coefficient is 2.

Before giving more examples, we would like to set up some more notation.

Notation: R[x] will denote the set of all polynomials over a ring R.
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Block 4 Integral Domains
(Note the use of the square brackets [ ] here. Do not use any other kind of
brackets because R[ x ] and R( x ) denote different sets, as you will see a little
later.)
⎧ n
⎫
Thus, R[ x ] = ⎨
i =0 ⎩
∑a x
a i ∈ R ∀ i = 0, 1,K, n, where n ≥ 0, n ∈ Z ⎬ .
i
i

⎭
We will also often denote a polynomial a 0 + a1x + L + a n x by f ( x ), p( x ), q ( x ),
n

etc.
Thus, an example of an element from Z 4 [ x ] is f ( x ) = 1 + 3 x + 2 x 4 .
Here deg f ( x ) = 4, and the leading coefficient of f ( x ) is 2 .

Before going further, let us see when two polynomials are equal. (Recall, from
the course ‘Real Analysis’ the condition for two sequences to be equal.)

Definition: Let R be a ring, and let f ( x ) = a 0 + a 1x + L + a n x n and

g( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + bm x m be in R[ x ]. We say that f ( x ) and g( x ) are equal,
denoted by f(x) = g(x), if a i = b i ∀ i = 0, 1,K, n.

Thus, if two polynomials are equal they have the same leading coefficients,
and hence, the same degree. Is the converse true? No.
For example, 2x + 3x4 and 5 + 3x 4 are both of degree 4 in Z[ x ], though they
are not equal. This is because the coefficients corresponding to the places x 0
and x1 are different in both.

To check your understanding of what you have studied so far, you should
solve the following exercises now.

E1) Identify the polynomials from among the following expressions. Which of
these are elements of Z[ x ] ?

i) 1+ x + x2 + x4 + x6 , ii)
2 + 1 + x + x2,
x2 x

iii) 2 x + 3x 2 , iv) 1 + 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1 x 3 ,
2 3 4

v) x1 2 + x + x 2 , vi) − 5,
∞
vii) ∑ ix ,
i =0
i
viii) 0.

E2) If a 0 + 5x 2 + 3x3 =
1 + b x + b x 2 + b x3 + b x11 in R[ x ], find
2 1 2 3 4

a 0 , b1 , b 2 , b 3 , b 4 .

E3) Determine the degree and the leading coefficient of each of the following
polynomials in R[ x ].

i) 7 + 2x, ii) 1 + 3x − 7 x3, iii) 1 + x3 + x 4 + 0 ⋅ x5 ,

iv) 1 x + 1 x2 + 1 x3 , v) 0.
3 5 7
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Now, for any ring R , let us see how we can define addition and multiplication
in R[ x ] so that they are well-defined binary operations on R[ x ]. To start with,
consider the addition of polynomials.

Definition: Let f ( x ) = a 0 + a 1x + L + a n x n and g ( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m x m be

in R[ x ]. Let us assume that m ≥ n. (An analogous definition holds if n > m.)
Then we define addition in R[x] by
f ( x ) + g( x ) = (a 0 + b 0 ) + (a1 + b1 ) x + L + (a n + b n ) x n + b n +1x n +1 + L + b m x m
m
= ∑ (a i + bi )x i , where a i = 0 for i > n.
i=0

For example, consider the two polynomials p( x ), q ( x ) in Z[ x ], given by

p( x ) = 1 + 2 x + 3x 2, q( x ) = 4 + 5x + 7 x 3 . Then
p( x ) + q ( x ) = (1 + 4) + (2 + 5) x + (3 + 0) x 2 + (0 + 7) x 3 = 5 + 7 x + 3x 2 + 7 x 3 .
Note that p( x ) + q ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ], and that
deg (p( x ) + q( x )) = 3 = max (deg p( x ), deg q ( x )) in this case.

From the definition given above, it seems that

deg (f ( x ) + g( x )) = max (deg f ( x ), deg g( x )). Is this true? Let’s see.
Consider p( x ) = 1 + x 2 and q ( x ) = 2 + 3x − x 2 in Z[ x ].
Then p( x ) + q( x ) = (1 + 2) + (0 + 3) x + (1 − 1) x 2 = 3 + 3x.
Here deg (p( x ) + q( x )) = 1; but max(deg p( x ), deg q( x )) = max(2, 2) = 2.
Thus, deg (p( x ) + q( x )) < max(deg p( x ), deg q( x )) in this case.

So, what we can say is that

deg (f(x) + g (x)) ≤ max (deg f(x), deg g(x)) ∀ f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ R[ x ].

Now let us define multiplication in R[ x ].

Definition: Let R be a ring. For f ( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn and

g( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm in R[ x ], we define multiplication in R[x] by
f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + c m+n xm+n ,
where ci = a i b 0 + a i −1b1 + L + a 0 bi ∀ i = 0,1, K , m + n.
(Here note that a i = 0 for i > n and b i = 0 for i > m.)

As an illustration, let us multiply the following polynomials in Z[ x ] :

p( x ) = 1 − x + 2x 3, q( x ) = 2 + 5x + 7 x 2 .
Here m = 3, n = 2, so that m + n = 5. Now
a 0 = 1, a1 = −1, a 2 = 0, a 3 = 2, a 4 = 0 = a 5 ,
b0 = 2, b1 = 5, b 2 = 7, b3 = 0 = b 4 = b5 .
5
Thus, p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) = ∑ c x , where
i =0
i
i

c0 = a 0 b0 = 2,
c1 = a1b0 + a 0 b1 = 3,
c 2 = a 2 b 0 + a 1b1 + a 0 b 2 = 2,
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Block 4 Integral Domains
c3 = a 3b0 + a 2 b1 + a1b 2 + a 0 b3 = −3,
c4 = a 4 b0 + a 3b1 + a 2 b 2 + a1b3 + a 0 b 4 = 10,
c5 = a 5 b0 + a 4 b1 + a 3b 2 + a 2 b3 + a1b 4 + a 0 b5 = 14.
So p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) = 2 + 3x + 2 x 2 − 3x3 + 10 x 4 + 14 x 5.
Note that p( x ) ⋅ q( x ) ∈ Z[ x ], and deg (p( x ) ⋅ q ( x )) = 5 = (deg p( x ) + deg q ( x )).

As another example, consider

p( x ) = 1 + 2 x, q( x ) = 2 + 3 x 2 ∈ Z 6 [ x ].
Then, p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) = 2 + 4 x + 3 x 2 + 6 x 3 = 2 + 4 x + 3 x 2, since 6 = 0 .
Here, deg (p( x ) ⋅ q ( x )) = 2 < (deg p( x ) + deg q ( x )) (since deg p( x ) = 1,
deg q( x ) = 2).

So, what we can say is that

deg (f(x) ⋅ g(x)) ≤ deg f(x) + deg g(x).

We need to check that addition and multiplication in R[ x ], as defined, are

closed in R[ x ]. First, let us see if + is well-defined. If
n m r s
f ( x ) = ∑ a i xi , f ′( x ) = ∑ a′i xi , g( x ) = ∑ bi xi , g′( x ) = ∑ b′i xi are in R[ x ] s.t.
i =0 i=0 i=0 i =0
f ( x ) = f ′( x ) and g ( x ) = g′( x ), then
n = m, r = s, a i = a ′i , b j = b′j ∀ i = 0,K, n, j = 0,K, r.
max( n , r ) max( m, s )
So f ( x ) + g ( x ) = ∑ (a + b )x = ∑(a′ + b′ )x = f ′(x ) + g′(x ).
i=0
i i
i

i=0
i i
i

Thus, + is well-defined.

You should similarly show that multiplication is well-defined.

For the rest, do E4 below. Also solve the other exercises below. Doing this will
help you get used to these operations on polynomials.

E4) Explain why addition and multiplication are binary operations on R[ x ].

E5) Calculate the following:

i) (2 + 3x 2 + 4x3 ) + (5x + x3 ) in Z[ x ],

ii) (6 + 2x 2 ) + (1 − 2x + 5x3 ) in Z 7 [ x ],

iii) (1 + x ) ⋅ (1 + 2x + x 2 ) in Z[ x ],

iv) (1 + x ) ⋅ (1 + 2x + x 2 ) in Z 3 [ x ],

v) (2 + x + x 2 ) ⋅ (5x + x3 ) in Q[ x ].

A polynomial having E6) Explain why each term of the polynomial a 0 + a 1x + L + a n x n ∈ R[ x ], R a

only one term is called a n
monomial. ring, is also a polynomial over R. Thus, ∑a x
i =0
i
i
is the sum of n

polynomials over R .

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
By now you must have got used to the addition and multiplication of
polynomials. You have also seen that + and · are binary operations over
R[ x ]. The question now is whether or not (R[ x ], +, ⋅) is a ring. Let’s see.

Theorem 1: If R is a ring, then so is R[ x ], where x is an indeterminate.

Proof: We need to establish the axioms R1 - R 6 (of Unit 10) for (R[ x ], +, ⋅).

R1 (Addition is commutative): Let p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn and

q( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm be in R[ x ].
Then, p( x ) + q ( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + c t xt ,
where t = max(m, n ) and ci = a i + b i ∀ i = 0, 1, K , t.
Similarly,
q( x ) + p( x ) = d 0 + d1x + L + d s xs ,
where s = max(n , m) = t , and d i = b i + a i ∀ i = 0, 1, K , t.
Since addition is commutative in R , ci = d i ∀ i ≥ 0.
Hence, p( x ) + q ( x ) = q ( x ) + p( x ).

R2 (Addition is associative): By using the associativity of addition in R , you

should check that for p( x ), q ( x ), s( x ) ∈ R[ x ],
{p( x ) + q( x )} + s( x ) = p( x ) + {q ( x ) + s( x )}.

R3 (Additive identity): The zero polynomial is the additive identity in R[ x ].

This is because, for any p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ∈ R[ x ],
0 + p( x ) = (0 + a 0 ) + (0 + a1 ) x + L + (0 + a n ) xn
= a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn
= p( x ).

R4 (Additive inverse): For p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ∈ R[ x ], consider the

polynomial q ( x ) = −p( x ) = − a 0 − a 1x − L − a n xn ,−a i being the additive
inverse of a i in R. Then
p( x ) + q( x ) = (a 0 − a 0 ) + (a1 − a1 ) x + L + (a n − a n ) xn
= 0 + 0 ⋅ x + 0 ⋅ x2 + L + 0 ⋅ xn
= 0.
Therefore, q ( x )(= − p( x )) is the additive inverse of p( x ).

R5 (Multiplication is associative): Let p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ,

q( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm , and t ( x ) = d 0 + d1x + L + d r xr be in R[ x ].
Then
p( x ) ⋅ q( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + cs xs , where s = m + n and
c k = a k b 0 + a k −1b1 + L + a 0 b k ∀ k = 0, 1,..., s.
Therefore,
{p( x ) ⋅ q ( x )} ⋅ t ( x ) = e 0 + e1x + L + e t xt ,
where t = s + r = m + n + r, and
e k = c k d 0 + c k −1d1 + L + c 0 d k
= (a k b 0 + L + a 0 b k )d 0 + (a k −1b 0 + L + a 0 b k −1 )d1 + L + a 0 b 0 d k .
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Block 4 Integral Domains
Similarly, you should check that the coefficient of x (for any k ≥ 0 ) in
k

p( x ) ⋅ {q( x ) ⋅ t ( x )} is
a k b 0 d 0 + a k −1 (b1d 0 + b 0 d1 ) + L + a 0 (b k d 0 + b k −1d1 + L + b 0 d k )
= e k , by using the properties of + and · in R.
Hence, {p( x ) ⋅ q( x )} ⋅ t ( x ) = p( x ) ⋅{q( x ) ⋅ t ( x )}.

R6 (Multiplication distributes over addition): Let p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ,

q( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm and t ( x ) = d 0 + d1x + L + d r xr be in R[ x ]. For
any k ≥ 0, the coefficient of xk in p( x ) ⋅ (q ( x ) + t ( x )) is
c k = a k (b 0 + d 0 ) + a k −1 (b1 + d1 ) + L + a 0 (b k + d k ).
Also the coefficient of xk in p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) + p( x ) ⋅ t ( x ) is
(a k b 0 + a k −1b1 + L + a 0 b k ) + (a k d 0 + a k −1d1 + L + a 0d k )
= a k (b 0 + d 0 ) + a k −1 (b1 + d1 ) + L + a 0 (b k + d k )
= ck .
Hence, p( x ) ⋅ {q( x ) + t ( x )} = p( x ) ⋅ q( x ) + p( x ) ⋅ t ( x ).
Similarly, you can prove that
{q( x ) + t ( x )} ⋅ p( x ) = q( x ) ⋅ p( x ) + t ( x ) ⋅ p( x ).
Thus, R[ x ] is a ring.

What Theorem 1 tells us is that apart from the examples of polynomial rings
you have worked with earlier, C[0, 1][ x ], (3Z)[ x ], M n (Z)[ x ], H[ x ] are all
rings.

Also note that, since (R[ x ], +) is abelian, and using E6, we see that
a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn can be written as a n xn + a n −1xn −1 + L + a1 x + a 0 , or
a n xn + a 0 + a n −1xn −1+ a1x + L.
So, for example, − π + 5x + 5x3 ∈ R[ x ] is the same as 5x − π + 5x3 or
5x + 5x3 − π.

Let us consider an example of R[ x ] in detail.

Example 1: Is Z 6 [ x ] finite? Why?

Solution: Z 6 has 6 elements.

Z 6 [ x ] = { a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn a i ∈ Z 6 ∀ i = 0, 1,K, n, n ∈ N ∪ {0}}.
So, a 0 can take any of the values 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5 .
Similarly, each a i can take any one of 6 values.
So, 0 is the zero polynomial, and there are 5 constant polynomials. Now,
there are 6 × 5 = 30 polynomials of degree 1, as a 0 can take 6 values but
a1 ≠ 0 (as we have already counted 0 ) so that a 1 can take 5 values.
Similarly, there are 6 × 6 × 5 polynomials of degree 2 over Z 6 , and so on.
Since n can take infinitely many values, there are infinitely many polynomials
over Z 6 .

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Before going further, let us define some commonly used terms related to
polynomials. You may already be familiar with them from your earlier studies.

Definition: i) A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial.

ii) A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial.

iii) A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.

iv) A polynomial of degree 4 is called a bi-quadratic (or quartic)

polynomial.

v) A polynomial with leading coefficient 1 is called a monic polynomial.

So, for example 3 + 5x3 ∈ Z[ x ] is a cubic polynomial, and 3 + x3 is a cubic

5
monic polynomial over Q.

Try solving some exercises now.

E7) Which of the following statements are true? Give reasons for your
answers.
i) The product of two linear polynomials in R[ x ] can be a linear
polynomial, where R is a ring.
ii) The product of two quadratic polynomials in Q[ x ] is a quartic
polynomial.
iii) The sum of two quadratic polynomials in C[ x ] is a quadratic
polynomial.
iv) If p( x ) is a monic polynomial in R[ x ], where R is a ring with
unity, then p( x ) + q ( x ) is monic ∀ q ( x ) ∈ R[ x ].

E8) Give two distinct elements of positive degree in M 2(C)[ x ], with

justification.

E9) Check whether or not R is

i) a subring of R[ x ],

ii) an ideal of R[ x ].

E10) List all the quadratic polynomials in Z 4 [ x ].

E11) Let R be a ring and let ℘n = {f ( x ) ∈ R[ x ] deg f ( x ) ≤ n} ∪ {0}, for

n ∈ N. Check whether or not ℘n is a subring of R[ x ].

⎧n ⎫
E12) Let R be a ring and A = ⎨∑ a i x i ∈ R[ x ] a i = 0 if i is odd ⎬. Is A a
⎩ i =0 ⎭
subring of R[ x ] ? Why, or why not?

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Block 4 Integral Domains
Note that the definitions and theorem in this section are true for any ring. But,
the case that we are really interested in is when R is a domain. In the next
section, our discussion will progress towards this case.

15.3 SOME PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIAL

RINGS
While studying the previous section, you would have realised some properties
of R[ x ]. For instance, from Example 1, you may have realised that given any
finite non-trivial ring R , R[ x ] is an infinite ring. Have you also thought about
the intimate relationship between the operations on a ring R and the
operations on R[ x ] ? Of course, while proving Theorem 1, you have seen this
relationship. You will now see further evidence of the relationship pertaining to
the multiplications in R and in R[ x ].

Theorem 2: Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Then R[ x ] is also a

commutative ring with identity.

Proof: First we shall show that R[ x ] is commutative.

Let p( x ) = a 0 + a 1x + L + a n xn and q ( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + bm xm be in the ring
R[ x ].
Then p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + cs xs , where s = m + n , and
ck = a k b0 + a k −1b1 + L + a 0 b k
= b k a 0 + b k −1a1 + L + b1a k −1 + b0a k , since both addition and
multiplication are commutative in R.
= coefficient of x in q( x ) ⋅ p( x ).
k

Thus, for every i ≥ 0, the coefficient of xi in p( x ) ⋅ q ( x ) and q( x ) ⋅ p( x ) are

equal.
Hence, p( x ) ⋅ q( x ) = q( x ) ⋅ p( x ), i.e., R[ x ] is commutative.

Next, we know that R has identity 1. We will prove that the constant
polynomial 1 is the identity of R[ x ].
Take p( x ) = a 0 + a 1x + L + a n xn∈ R[ x ].
Then 1 ⋅ p( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + c n xn (since deg 1 = 0),
where c k = a k ⋅ 1 + a k −1 ⋅ 0 + a k −2 ⋅ 0 + L + a 0 ⋅ 0 = a k .
Thus, 1⋅ p( x ) = p( x ).
Hence, 1 is the identity of R[ x ].

From Theorem 2, we know that Z[ x ] is a commutative ring with identity.

Similarly, F[ x ] is a commutative ring with identity, for any field F.

What about the converse of Theorem 2? This is what the following exercises
are about.

E13) If R is a ring such that R[ x ] is commutative and has identity, then

i) must R be commutative?
ii) must R have identity?
170 Give reasons for your answers.
Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
E14) Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Show that U(R[ x ]) = U(R ).

Henceforth, we will assume that the rings are commutative and with
identity.

Now let us see if R and R[ x ] behave the same way regarding zero divisors.
For this, we shall first prove a result we had mentioned when we defined the
multiplication of polynomials. You also used this implicitly while solving E7(ii).

Theorem 3: Let R be a ring, and let f ( x ) and g ( x ) be two non-zero

elements of R[ x ]. Then
deg (f ( x )g( x )) ≤ deg f ( x ) + deg g ( x ),
with equality iff R is without zero divisors.

Proof: Let f ( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn , a n ≠ 0,

and g ( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm , b m ≠ 0.
Then deg f ( x ) = n, deg g ( x ) = m.
So, f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) = c 0 + c1x + L + c m+n xm+n , where
c k = a k b 0 + a k −1 b1 + L + a 0 b k , k = 0, 1, K , m + n.
Since a n +1 , a n +2 , K , a n +m and b m+1 , b m+2 , K , b m+n are all zero,
cm + n = a n bm .
Thus, deg (f ( x ) ⋅ g( x )) ≤ n + m = deg f ( x ) + deg g( x ).

Now, if R is without zero divisors, then a n b m ≠ 0, since a n ≠ 0 and b m ≠ 0.

Thus, in this case,
deg (f ( x )g( x )) = deg f ( x ) + deg g( x ).

Conversely, let deg (f ( x )g ( x )) = deg f ( x ) + deg g( x ) ∀ f ( x ), g( x ) ∈ R[ x ] \ {0}.

We shall prove, by contradiction, that R is without zero divisors.
Suppose, to the contrary, that R has zero divisors, say ab = 0, where
a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 in R.
Let f ( x ) = a 0 + ax and g ( x ) = b 0 + bx be in R[ x ].
Then f ( x )g ( x ) = a 0 b 0 + (ab0 + a 0 b) x + abx 2 = a 0 b 0 + (ab0 + a 0 b) x.
In this case, deg (f ( x )g ( x )) = 1 < 2 = deg f ( x ) + deg g ( x ), and we reach a
contradiction.
Thus, R is without zero divisors.

Theorems 2 and 3 lead us to the following important result.

Theorem 4: R[ x ] is an integral domain ⇔ R is an integral domain.

Proof: From Theorem 2 and E13, you know that R is a commutative ring with
identity iff R[ x ] is a commutative ring with identity. Thus, to prove this
theorem we need to prove that R is without zero divisors iff R[ x ] is without
zero divisors.

So let us first assume that R is without zero divisors.

Let p( x ) and q ( x ) be in R[ x ], of degree n and m, respectively.
Then, from Theorem 3, you know that deg (p( x )q ( x )) = m + n ≥ 0.
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Block 4 Integral Domains
Thus, p( x ) q ( x ) ≠ 0.
Thus, R[ x ] is without zero divisors.

Conversely, let us assume that R[ x ] is without zero divisors. Since R is a

subring of R[ x ], R is also without zero divisors.
So, we have proved the theorem.

In this section, so far, you have seen that many properties of the ring R carry
over to R[ x ], and vice-versa. Thus, if F is a field, you may expect F[ x ] to be
a field also. Let us see if this is so.

Example 2: Let F be a field. Show that F [ x ] is not a field.

Solution: Since F is a field, it is an integral domain. So F[ x ] is an integral

domain, by Theorem 4.
Suppose F[ x ] is a field. Then U(F [ x ]) = F [ x ]∗.
But, from E14 you know that U(F [ x ]) = U(F) = F∗ ≠ F [ x ]∗.
So we reach a contradiction.
Thus, F[ x ] is not a field.
***

Why don’t you solve the following exercises now? Doing so will help you
understand R[ x ] better, for some rings R .

E15) Which of the following polynomial rings are without zero divisors?

i) R[ x ] , where R = {a + b − 5 a , b ∈ Z},

ii) Z 7 [ x ],
iii) M 2 (Q)[ x ],
iv) R[ x ], where R = C[0, 1],
v) ℘(X)[ x ], where X is a set with at least two elements.

⎧ n
⎫
E16) If I is an ideal of a ring R , show that I[ x ] = ⎨ ∑a x
a i ∈ I, n ∈ N ∪ {0}⎬
i
i

⎩ i=0 ⎭
is an ideal of R[ x ]. Further, show that R
I
( )
[x] ~ − R[ x ]
I[ x ]
.

E17) Show that < x > is a proper ideal of R[ x ], where R is a non-trivial

commutative ring. Hence, show that not every ideal of R[ x ] is of the
form I[ x ], where I is an ideal of R.

E18) Let R be a domain. Show that char R = char R[ x ].

E19) Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Show that

φ : R[ x ] → S[ x ] : φ(a 0 + a 1x + L+ a n xn ) = f (a 0 ) + f (a1 ) x + L + f (a n ) xn is a
ring homomorphism.
Further, if f is an isomorphism, will φ be an isomorphism? Why, or why
not?
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
E20) Let R and S be rings. Define
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n n
⎞
φ : (R × S)[ x ] → R[ x ] × S[ x ] : φ⎜ ∑ (a i , bi ) xi ⎟ = ⎜ ∑ a i x i , ∑ bi xi ⎟. Check
⎝ i =0 ⎠ ⎝ i =0 i =0 ⎠
whether or not φ is a ring homomorphism. Is φ onto? Is φ 1 - 1?

You have seen that if R is a domain so is R[ x ]; but if F is a field, F[ x ] is not

a field. However, F[ x ] is a domain. So, the question arises if there is any
connection between F and the field of quotients of F[ x ]. To answer this, let
us consider the following definition first.

Definition: A rational function in an indeterminate x over a field F is a

quotient p( x ) q ( x ) , with p( x ), q ( x ) ∈ F [ x ], q ( x ) ≠ 0. F [ x ] ≠ F( x ). Note the use
The set of rational functions in x over F is denoted by F(x). (Note the use of of the different kinds of
the round brackets here.) brackets to denote the
different rings.

For example, Q( x ) = {f ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ Q[ x ], g ( x ) ≠ 0}.

Now, let us move towards answering the question we raised above.

Theorem 5: Let F be a field. Then F( x ) is the field of fractions of F[ x ].

Proof: From Unit 14, you know that the field of fractions of the integral domain
F[ x ] is {p( x )[q( x )] −1 p( x ), q( x ) ∈ F[ x ], q ( x ) ≠ 0} = F( x ), by definition.

Thus, for any field F, F(x) is a field, and is called the field of rational
functions, in one indeterminate, over F.

For example, Q( x ) is the field of rational functions in x over Q.

Now consider a domain R . You know that R[ x ] is a domain. If F is the

quotient field of R , will F( x ) be the quotient field of R[ x ] ? Let us try and find
an answer, through an example.

Example 3: Find the field of fractions of

i) Q[ x ], ii) Z[ x ].

Solution: i) By Theorem 5, Q( x ) is the field of quotients of Q[ x ].

ii) You know that the field of fractions of a domain is the smallest field
containing it. You also know that the field of quotients of Z is Q. We will
use these facts to find F, the field of fractions of Z[ x ].
Since F is a field containing Z[ x ], it contains Z.
So F ⊇ Q.
r0 r1 rn n
Also, for any f ( x ) =
s 0 + s1 x + L + s n x ∈ Q[ x ], s 0s1 Ks n f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ].
Thus, given any f ( x ) ∈ Q[ x ], ∃ m ∈ Z s.t. mf ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ].

Now, let
f (x) ∈ Q( x ), where f ( x ), g( x ) ∈ Q[ x ], with g ( x ) ≠ 0.
g(x)
173
Block 4 Integral Domains
f( x )
If f ( x ) = 0, then ∈ F.
g( x )
If f ( x ) ≠ 0, then mf ( x ) and ng ( x ) are in Z[ x ] for some m, n ∈ Z,
m, n ≠ 0.
So
f( x ) n ) mf ( x ) ∈ F, since Q ⊆ F and F is the field of
= (m
g( x ) ng ( x )
quotients of Z[ x ].
Hence, Q( x ) ⊆ F.
Also, for any p( x ) ∈ Z[ x ], p( x ) ∈ Q[ x ] ⊆ Q( x ).
Now Q( x ) is a field containing Z[ x ] and it is contained in F, the
quotient field of Z[ x ]. Therefore, Q( x ) = F.
Thus, the field of quotients of Z[ x ] is the same as the field of quotients
of Q[ x ]. Note that we have used the fact that Q is the field of quotients
of Z.
***

On the same lines as in the example above, let us answer the question raised
before Example 3.

Theorem 6: Let D be an integral domain, with F being its field of fractions.

Then the field of fractions of D[ x ] is F( x ), the field of rational functions over
F.

Proof: Firstly, D ⊆ F ⊆ F( x ). So D[ x ] ⊆ F [ x ] ⊆ F( x ).
Also, F( x ) is the smallest field containing F[ x ].
Let K be any field containing D[ x ].
Then K ⊇ D, and hence K ⊇ F.
a 0 a1 a
Also, any polynomial in F[ x ] is of the form f ( x ) = + x + L + n xn ,
b 0 b1 bn
a i , b j ∈ D, b j ≠ 0 for i, j = 1,K, n.
Then, as in Example 3(ii), ∃ d ∈ D∗ s.t. df ( x ) ∈ D[ x ].
∴ f ( x ) lies in K, since every polynomial in D[ x ] lies in K.
Thus, K ⊇ F [ x ].
Hence, K ⊇ F( x ).
Thus, F( x ) is the smallest field containing D[ x ], i.e., it is the field of fractions
of D[ x ].

Why don’t you solve some related exercises now?

E21) Find the field of fractions of the following domains:

i) Z[i][ x ], ii) Q[ 11][ x ], iii) Z p [ x ], p a prime.

E22) Give two distinct non-trivial elements of the field of quotients of C[ x ],

with justification.

E23) Find an infinite field of characteristic p, for each prime p.

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
In this section you have seen several ways in which the properties of R[ x ]
mirror the properties of R. You have also seen that there are some properties
that do not match. For example, F is a field, but F[ x ] is not. However, F[ x ] is
a very interesting algebraic object in its own right. It has several interesting
properties which are similar to those of Z. In the next section, we shall
discuss some such properties related to divisibility.

15.4 DIVISIBILITY IN POLYNOMIAL RINGS

In Unit 1, you studied various properties of divisibility in Z. In particular, you
studied the division algorithm for integers. We will now discuss divisibility, and
the division algorithm, for polynomials over a field F. Before going further, why
don’t you revise Theorem 4, Unit 1, and the related examples? This may help
you see the parallels between the properties satisfied by the integers and by
polynomials over F.

Let us begin with an example in Q[ x ]. Let us use long division to find out what
happens on dividing 3x3 + 4 by 2 x 2 + x.
3x− 3 quotient
2 4
2x 2 + x 3x 3 + 4

3x 3 + 3 x 2
2
− 3 x2 + 4
2

− 3 x2 − 3 x
2 4
3x+4 remainder
4

So, what did we do in the division above? We continued subtracting different

multiples of (2 x 2 + x ) till we reached 0 or a polynomial of degree less than

deg (2x2 + x ). This polynomial, 3 x + 4, is the remainder. The sum of the

4
multiples of (2 x 2 + x ), i.e., 3 x − 3 , is the quotient. This is essentially what is
2 4
done in the division algorithm, as you will now see.

Theorem 7 (Division Algorithm): Let F be a field. Let f ( x ) and g( x ) be

polynomials in F[ x ], with g ( x ) ≠ 0. Then

i) there exist polynomials q ( x ) and r ( x ) in F[ x ] such that

f ( x ) = q( x )g( x ) + r ( x ), where r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg g ( x ), and

ii) the polynomials q ( x ) and r ( x ) are unique.

Proof: i) If deg f ( x ) < deg g( x ), we can choose q ( x ) = 0.

Then f ( x ) = 0 ⋅ g ( x ) + f ( x ), where deg f( x ) < deg g( x ).
So, in this case, r ( x ) = f ( x ) and q ( x ) = 0.

Now, let us assume that deg f( x ) ≥ deg g( x ).

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Block 4 Integral Domains
Let f ( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n x , a n ≠ 0, and
n

g( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + bm xm , bm ≠ 0, with n ≥ m.
We shall apply the strong form of the principle of mathematical induction
(see Unit 1) on deg f ( x ), i.e., n.
If n = 0, then m = 0, since g ( x ) ≠ 0.
So, f ( x ) = a 0 and g( x ) = b 0 are in F.
Hence, f ( x ) = (a 0 b 0−1 )b 0 + 0 = q ( x )g( x ) + r ( x ), where q ( x ) = a 0 b 0−1 and
r ( x ) = 0.
So the algorithm is true when n = 0.
Let us assume that the algorithm holds for all polynomials of degree less
than n , and then see if it is true for f ( x ).
Consider the polynomial
f1( x ) = f ( x ) − a n b m−1xn −m g ( x )
= (a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ) − (a n b m−1b 0 xn −m + a n b−m1 b1xn −m+1 + L + a n b −m1b m xn ).
We have chosen to multiply the term a n b m−1xn −m with g ( x ) to make the
coefficient of xn in f1 ( x ) zero.
So deg f1 ( x ) ≤ n − 1.
By the induction hypothesis, there exist q1 ( x ) and r ( x ) in F[ x ] such that
f1 ( x ) = q1 ( x )g ( x ) + r ( x ), where r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg g( x ).
Substituting the value of f1 ( x ), we get
f ( x ) − a n b m−1xn −m g( x ) = q1 ( x )g( x ) + r ( x ),
i.e., f ( x ) = {a n b m−1xn −m + q1 ( x )}g ( x ) + r ( x )
= q( x )g( x ) + r ( x ), where q( x ) = a n b −m1xn −m + q1 ( x ) and
r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg g( x ).
Therefore, (i) is true for f ( x ).
Hence, by the principle of induction, (i) is true for all polynomials in F[ x ].

ii) Now let us show that q( x ) and r ( x ) are uniquely determined.

Let f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ F[ x ], g ( x ) ≠ 0.
If possible, let q1 ( x ), q 2 ( x ), r1 ( x ), r2 ( x ) be in F[ x ] such that
f ( x ) = q1 ( x )g ( x ) + r1 ( x ), where r1 ( x ) = 0 or deg r1 ( x ) < deg g ( x ), and
f ( x ) = q 2 ( x )g ( x ) + r2 ( x ), where r2 ( x ) = 0 or deg r2 ( x ) < deg g ( x ).
Then
q1 ( x )g ( x ) + r1 ( x ) = q 2 ( x ) g ( x ) + r2 ( x ), so that
{q1 ( x ) − q 2 ( x )}g ( x ) = r2 ( x ) − r1 ( x ). …(1)
If r1 ( x ) = r2 ( x ), then q1 ( x ) = q 2 ( x ), by (1), since g ( x ) ≠ 0.
So, assume r1 ( x ) − r2 ( x ) ≠ 0. Then q1 ( x ) ≠ q 2 ( x ).
So deg {q1 ( x ) − q 2 ( x )} ≥ 0, and hence,
deg [{q1 ( x ) − q 2 ( x )}g ( x )] ≥ deg g ( x ). …(2)
On the other hand,
deg {r2 ( x ) − r1 ( x )} < deg g ( x ), …(3)
since r1 ( x ) − r2 ( x ) ≠ 0, and hence, r1 ( x ) ≠ 0 or r2 ( x ) ≠ 0.
From (2) and (3), we get a contradiction to (1).
Hence, (1) will remain valid only if r2 ( x ) − r1 ( x ) = 0. And then,
q1 ( x ) − q 2 ( x ) = 0.
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
i.e., q1 ( x ) = q 2 ( x ) and r1 ( x ) = r2 ( x ).
Thus, we have proved the uniqueness of q( x ) and r ( x ) in the
expression f ( x ) = q ( x )g ( x ) + r ( x ).

The algorithm in Theorem 7 requires us to define some terms, just as in the

case of Z.

Definitions: i) The polynomial q ( x ) in Theorem 7 is called the quotient, and

r ( x ) is called the remainder, obtained on dividing f ( x ) by g( x ).

ii) If r ( x ) = 0, then f ( x ) = g ( x )q ( x ). In this case, we say that g ( x ) divides

f ( x ), or that g( x ) is a factor of f ( x ), or that f ( x ) is divisible by g( x ).
We write g(x) f(x) for ‘ g ( x ) divides f ( x ) ’, and g(x) f(x) for ' g ( x )
does not divide f ( x )'.

Let us apply the division algorithm in a few situations now.

Example 4: Find the quotient and remainder obtained on dividing

x4 + x3 + 5x2 − x by ( x2 + x + 1) in Q[ x ].

Solution: We will apply long division of polynomials to solve this problem.

Here f ( x ) = x4 + x3 + 5x2 − x and g ( x ) = x2 + x + 1.

x2 +4 ← quotient q(x)
( x + x + 1) x + x + 5x 2 − x
2 4 3

x4 + x3 + x2 ← x2g( x )
4x 2 − x ← (f( x ) − x2g ( x ))
4 x 2 + 4 x + 4 ← 4g( x )
− 5x − 4 ← (f( x ) − x2 g(x) − 4g(x))

Now, since deg (−5x − 4) = 1 < deg ( x2 + x + 1), we stop the process. So, the
remainder r ( x ) = −5x − 4. So, we get
x4 + x3 + 5x2 − x = ( x2 + x + 1) ( x2 + 4) − (5x + 4).
Here the quotient is x2 + 4 and the remainder is − (5x + 4).
***

Example 5: Check whether or not ( x2 + 2) divides (3x4 + 2 x2 + 2) in R[ x ],

and ( x2 + 2 ) divides ( 3 x4 + 2 x2 + 2 ) in Z 5 [ x ].

Solution: Let us first divide in R[ x ].

3x 2 − 4
( x 2 + 2) 3x 4 + 2 x 2 + 2
3x 4 + 6x 2
− 4x 2 + 2
− 4x 2 − 8
10
Thus, in R[ x ], 3x4 + 2 x2 + 2 = ( x2 + 2)(3x2 − 4) + 10. …(4)
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Block 4 Integral Domains
Since the remainder is not zero, ( x + 2) (3x + 2 x + 2) in R[ x ].
2 4 2

Now, let us look at the question for Z 5 [ x ]. Note that the polynomials are the
same as the earlier ones in R[ x ]. Also note that (4) is true in Z[ x ] too. So, if
we look at (4) in Z 5 [ x ], we get
3 x4 + 2 x2 + 2 = ( x2 + 2 )( 3 x2 + 1 ), since − 4 = 1 and 10 = 0 in Z 5 .
So ( x2 + 2 ) ( 3 x4 + 2 x2 + 2 ) in Z 5 [ x ].

***

Why don’t you apply the division algorithm for some cases now?

E24) Express f ( x ) as g( x )q ( x ) + r ( x ), where r ( x ) = 0 or

deg r ( x ) < deg g( x ), in each of the following cases.

i) f ( x ) = x4 + 1, g( x ) = 1 − x3 in Q[ x ],
7

ii) f ( x ) = x3 + 2 x 2 − x + 1, g ( x ) = 2 x + 1 in Z 3[ x ],

iii) f ( x ) = x3 − 3 3 , g( x ) = x − 3 in R[ x ].
In which of these cases does g ( x ) divide f ( x ) ?

Let us now prove some properties of the relation ‘divides’ in F[ x ]. (Keep

noting the similarity with Z, while you are studying them. While doing so, you
can replace ‘degree’ by ‘absolute value’ in the case of integers.)

Theorem 8: Let F be a field, and let f ( x ), g ( x ), h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ], with f ( x ) ≠ 0.

i) If f ( x ) g( x ), where g ( x ) ≠ 0, then deg f ( x ) ≤ deg g ( x ).

ii) f ( x ) f ( x ).

iii) If f ( x ) g ( x ) and a ∈ F∗, then af ( x ) ag( x ).

iv) If g( x ) ≠ 0 is s.t. f ( x ) g ( x ) and g ( x ) h ( x ), then f ( x ) h ( x ).

v) If g( x ) ≠ 0 is s.t. f ( x ) g ( x ) and g ( x ) f ( x ), then f ( x ) = ag( x ) for some

a ∈ F∗.

vi) If f ( x ) g( x ) and f ( x ) h ( x ), then f ( x ) (g ( x ) + h ( x )).

vii) If f( x ) g ( x ), then f ( x ) g ( x )h ( x ).

Proof: We will prove (i) and (v) here, and leave the rest for you to prove, as
an exercise (see E25).

i) If f ( x ) g ( x ), then ∃ q ( x ) ∈ F [ x ] s.t. f ( x )q( x ) = g( x ).

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
So deg f ( x ) + deg q ( x ) = deg g ( x ).
Since g( x ) ≠ 0, q ( x ) ≠ 0.
Hence, deg q( x ) ≥ 0.
Hence, deg f ( x ) ≤ deg g ( x ).

v) Let f ( x )q( x ) = g( x ) and g( x )r ( x ) = f ( x ) for some q( x ), r ( x ) ∈ F[ x ],

with q ( x ) ≠ 0, r ( x ) ≠ 0.
Then g ( x )r ( x )q ( x ) = g ( x ).
So, r ( x )q ( x ) = 1, since cancellation holds in F[ x ].
Thus, r ( x ) ∈ U(F[ x ]) = U(F) = F∗, as you have proved in E14.
Hence, r ( x ) = r0 ∈ F∗.
Thus, f ( x ) = r0 g ( x ), r0 ∈ F∗.

The proof of the theorem above will be complete once you do the following
exercise.

E25) Prove Theorem 8, except for (i) and (v).

Let us now see if, based on Theorem 8, we can define an equivalence relation
analogous to Example 3 of Unit 1.

Example 6: Let F be a field and let h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ], h ( x ) ≠ 0. Consider the

relation R = {(f ( x ), g ( x )) h ( x ) divides [f ( x ) − g ( x )], f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ F [ x ]}.
Check whether or not R is an equivalence relation on F [ x ]. If it is, find two
distinct elements in the equivalence class of 0. If it is not, define an
equivalence relation on F[ x ].

Solution: Note that R is the relation ~ given by

‘ f ( x ) ~ g ( x ) iff h ( x ) [f ( x ) − g ( x )] in F [ x ] ’.
R is reflexive: For any f ( x ) ∈ F[ x ], f ( x ) ~ f ( x ), since h ( x ) 0.
R is symmetric: Let f ( x ) ~ g( x ). Then ∃ r ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] s.t.
f ( x ) − g( x ) = h ( x )r ( x ).
So, g( x ) − f ( x ) = h ( x )[−r ( x )], and − r ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Hence, g ( x ) ~ f ( x ).
R is transitive: Let f ( x ) ~ g ( x ) and g( x ) ~ s( x ) in F[ x ].
Then h ( x ) [f ( x ) − g ( x )] and h ( x ) [g ( x ) − s( x )].
Thus, by Theorem 8(vi), h ( x ) [f ( x ) − g ( x ) + g ( x ) − s( x )], i.e.,
h ( x ) [f ( x ) − s( x )].
Hence, f ( x ) ~ s( x ).

So, we have proved that R is an equivalence relation. Hence, R partitions

F [ x ] into equivalence classes, as you know from Sec.1.3, Unit 1.
[0] = { f ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] h ( x ) divides [f ( x ) − 0]} = { f ( x ) ∈F[ x ] h ( x ) divides f ( x )}
= {h ( x )g ( x ) g ( x ) ∈ F[ x ]}
= < h(x) > .
179
Block 4 Integral Domains
Thus, two elements of [0] are h ( x ) and xh ( x ), for example. They are
distinct, as they have different degrees.
***

Why don’t you check your understanding of divisibility in F[ x ] now?

E26) In Theorem 8, if F[ x ] is replaced by R[ x ], where R is an integral

domain, which statements remain true, and why?

E27) Show that if R is a domain and f( x ), g( x ) ∈ R[ x ] are monic

polynomials such that f( x ) g ( x ) and g ( x ) f ( x ), then f ( x ) = g( x ).

E28) Let F be a field. Check whether or not the relation ~ in F[ x ], given by

' f ( x ) ~ g( x ) iff f ( x ) g ( x )' is an equivalence relation.

E29) Let F be a field and let f ( x ), g ( x ), h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] s.t. f ( x ) ≠ 0 and

f ( x ) g ( x ), f ( x ) h ( x ). Show that f ( x ) [g ( x )r ( x ) + h ( x )s( x )] for any
r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

Let us now move to another property of Z, and see if it holds true for F[ x ].
You have seen, in Unit 1, that any two non-zero integers a and b have a
greatest common divisor d, and d = an + bm for some n, m in Z. Can we
define the g.c.d of any two non-zero polynomials in F[ x ] similarly? Can the
concept of ‘relatively prime’ also be thought of in F[ x ] ? Let’s see.

Take any two polynomials, say x2 + 3x and x3 + 27 in Q[ x ]. Now,

x2 + 3x = x ( x + 3) and x3 + 27 = ( x + 3)( x2 − 3x + 9).
So x + 3 divides x2 + 3 as well as x3 + 27. Thus, x + 3 is a common divisor
of both these polynomials, according to the definitions given below.

Definitions: Let F be a field, and let f ( x ), g ( x ) be non-zero elements of

F[ x ].
i) h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] is called a common divisor of f ( x ) and g( x ) if h ( x ) f ( x )
and h ( x ) g ( x ).

ii) d( x ) ∈ F[ x ] is called the greatest common divisor (g.c.d, in short) of

f ( x ) and g( x ), and denoted by (f(x), g(x)), if
D1) d( x ) is a common divisor of f ( x ) and g ( x );
D2) whenever h ( x ) is a common divisor of f ( x ) and g ( x ), h ( x ) d ( x );
D3) d( x ) is a monic polynomial.

iii) f ( x ) and g( x ) are called coprime, or relatively prime, if

(f ( x ), g( x )) = 1.

For example, ( x2 + 3x , x3 + 27) = ( x + 3) in Q[ x ], by looking at their factors.

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Consider the following remark about the uniqueness of the g.c.d.

Remark 2: Suppose d ( x ) and d′( x ) are two [Link] of f ( x ) and g ( x ) in

F[ x ], F a field. Then, by D2, d ( x ) d′( x ) and d′( x ) d ( x ).
Hence, by Theorem 8, d ( x ) = ad′( x ) for some a ∈ F∗. So if we want d ( x ) to
be unique, we need a = 1. This is ensured, by E27, if the condition D3 is
satisfied. Hence, D3 is an essential condition for the g.c.d to be unique.

Now, in the case of Z, you know that any two non-zero integers have a g.c.d.
Do any two non-zero polynomials in F[ x ] have a g.c.d? Let’s see.

Theorem 9: Let F be a field. Any two non-zero polynomials over F have a

g.c.d. Further, for f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] \ {0},
(f ( x ), g( x )) = f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ), for some r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

Proof: Let f ( x ), g ( x ) be two non-zero polynomials in F[ x ]. Let S be the set

of all monic polynomials in F[ x ] of the form f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ), with
r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Let a n be the leading coefficient of f ( x ).
Then a n−1f ( x ) is monic, and a −n1f ( x ) = a n−1 ⋅ f ( x ) + 0 ⋅ g ( x ) ∈ S.
Thus, S ≠ «.
Now consider A = {n ∈ N ∪ {0} n = deg h ( x ) for some h ( x ) ∈ S}.
Then A ≠ «, since S ≠ «. So, by the well-ordering principle, that you studied
in Unit 1, A has a least element, say m.
Let d ( x ) ∈ S s.t. deg d ( x ) = m.
Since d( x ) ∈ S, d ( x ) is a monic polynomial and ∃ α( x ), β( x ) ∈ F[ x ] s.t.
d( x ) = f ( x )α( x ) + g( x ) β( x ). …(5)
Now, by the division algorithm applied to f ( x ) and d ( x ), ∃ q ( x ) and r ( x ) in
F[ x ] s.t.
f ( x ) = d( x )q ( x ) + r ( x ), …(6)
with r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg d ( x ).
Now, suppose r ( x ) ≠ 0. Then
r ( x ) = f ( x ) − d( x )q( x ), from (6).
= f ( x ) − [f ( x )α( x ) + g( x )β( x )]q( x ), from (5).
= f ( x )[1 − α( x )q( x )] + g( x )[−β( x )q( x )].
Let a be the leading coefficient of r ( x ). Then
a −1r ( x ) = f ( x )[a −1 − a −1α( x )q( x )] + g( x )[−a −1β( x )q ( x )].
Thus, a −1r ( x ) ∈ S and deg a −1r ( x ) = deg r ( x ) < deg d ( x ).
This is a contradiction to the way d ( x ) was chosen.
Therefore, our assumption that r ( x ) ≠ 0 must be wrong.
Thus, r ( x ) = 0.
Hence, from (6), d ( x ) f ( x ).
Similarly, you can show that d ( x ) g ( x ).
Thus, d ( x ) satisfies D1 and D3 of the definition of g.c.d.
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Block 4 Integral Domains
Now, let h ( x ) be a common divisor of f ( x ) and g ( x ). Then, by E29,
h ( x ) d ( x ). So d( x ) satisfies D2 of the definition also.
Hence, d ( x ) = (f ( x ), g ( x )).
Thus, by (5), (f ( x ), g( x )) = f ( x )α( x ) + g ( x )β( x ), for some α( x ), β( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

In this context, consider the following remark.

Remark 3: Theorem 9 says that (f ( x ), g ( x )) is that linear combination of

f ( x ) and g( x ) in F[ x ] which is monic and of least degree among all such
combinations.
Note that not every linear combination of f ( x ) and g ( x ) is (f ( x ), g ( x )). For
example, consider ( x3 − 1) and ( x2 + 2) in Q[ x ]. By the division algorithm,
x3 − 1 = ( x2 + 2) x + (−2x − 1).
So − 2 x − 1 = ( x3 − 1) − x ( x2 + 2), a linear combination of ( x3 − 1) and ( x2 + 2)
in Q[ x ]. But − 2 x − 1 is neither a divisor of ( x3− 1), nor of ( x2 + 2), in Q[ x ].

As in the case of Z, if f ( x ) and g( x ) are relatively prime, we have the

following corollary to Theorem 9.

Corollary 2: Let F be a field and let f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] \ {0}. Then f ( x ) and

g( x ) are relatively prime if and only if 1 = f ( x )r ( x ) + g ( x )s( x ) for some
r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

Proof: We leave the proof to you (see E30).

Theorem 9 tells us that any two non-zero polynomials have a g.c.d. Let us
consider an example.

Example 7: Find ( x − 5, 2 x + 1) in R[ x ].

Solution: Since 2( x − 5) − (2x + 1) = −11,

(−2)
1= ( x − 5) + 1 (2x + 1).
11 11
Hence, by Corollary 2, ( x − 5, 2 x + 1) = 1.
Thus, ( x − 5) and (2x + 1) are relatively prime in R[ x ].
***

Note that the definition of g.c.d can be extended to that of n polynomials.

Definition: Let F be a field and f1 ( x ), f 2 ( x ),K, f n ( x ) be non-zero elements

of F[ x ]. The monic polynomial g ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] is called the greatest common
divisor of f1 ( x ),K, f n ( x ) if

i) g ( x ) f i ( x ) ∀ i = 1, K , n , and

ii) whenever h ( x ) f i ( x ) ∀ i = 1,K, n , then h ( x ) g( x ).

Further, as in Theorem 9, the g.c.d of f1 (x),K , f n (x) exists and is of the

n
form ∑ f (x)h (x) for some h (x ) ∈ F[x ], i = 1,K, n.
i =1
i i i

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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
For example, the g.c.d of 2 x + x (2 3 + 2 ) + 6 , x + 3 3 and
2 3

7 x4 + 7 3x3 + 5x 2 + 5 3x ∈ R[ x ] is x + 3 , as x + 3 is a common divisor

which is monic, and the only other common divisors are elements of R∗.

Now, as in the case of Z, relatively prime polynomials have very useful

properties. Let us prove some of them.

Theorem 10: Let F be a field, and let f ( x ) ∈ F[ x ], f ( x ) ≠ 0. If

g( x ), h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] are relatively prime and both are divisors of f ( x ), then
g( x )h ( x ) divides f ( x ).

Proof: We know that 1 = g ( x )α( x ) + h ( x )β( x ) for some α( x ), β( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

So f ( x ) = f ( x )g ( x )α( x ) + f ( x )h ( x )β( x ). …(7)
Since g ( x ) f ( x ), and h ( x ) f ( x ), f ( x ) = g ( x )r ( x ) and f ( x ) = h ( x )s( x ) for
some r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Thus, substituting these values of f ( x ) in (7), we get
f ( x ) = h ( x )s( x )g( x )α( x ) + g( x )r ( x )h ( x )β( x )
= g( x )h ( x )[s( x )α( x ) + r ( x )β( x )].
Hence, g ( x )h ( x ) f ( x ) in F[ x ].

Why don’t you prove some related properties now?

E30) Prove Corollary 2.

E31) Prove that if F is a field with a , b ∈ F, a ≠ b, then x + a and x + b are

coprime in F[ x ].

E32) Give an example, with justification, of a cubic polynomial and a quartic

polynomial in Z13 [ x ] which are coprime.

E33) Let F be a field, and let f ( x ), g ( x ), h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ]. Prove that

i) if f ( x ) and g ( x ) are relatively prime, and f ( x ) and h ( x ) are

relatively prime, then f ( x ) and g ( x )h ( x ) are relatively prime.

ii) if f ( x ) ≠ 0, f ( x ) g ( x )h ( x ) and (f ( x ), g ( x )) = 1, then f ( x ) h ( x ).

(This is analogous to the property for Z given in Theorem 6,
Unit 1.)

Now, if you are asked to find the g.c.d of (3x5 −

1 x4 + 5x2 + x + 7 ) and
3 5
( 2 x3 − 3x2 + 1) in Q[ x ], how would you go about doing it? You may look for
7
common divisors, which won’t be easy at all. But, remember the Euclidean
Algorithm for Z in Unit 1? There is a similar algorithm for F[ x ] too, based on
applying the division algorithm multiple times. Let’s see what it is, through a
simple example, to give you an idea of the method.

Example 8: Find the g.c.d of ( x3 − 1) and ( x2 − x ) in Q[ x ].

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Block 4 Integral Domains
Solution: First, we apply the division algorithm to ( x − 1) and ( x2 − x ). We
3

get
x3 − 1 = ( x2 − x )( x + 1) + ( x − 1) . …(8)
Now we apply the division algorithm to ( x2 − x ) and the remainder in (8), i.e.,
( x − 1). We get
x2 − x = ( x − 1) x + 0. …(9)
We have reached a stage where the remainder is zero. Thus, the divisor
polynomial at this stage, i.e., ( x − 1) is the g.c.d. Note that this polynomial is
monic.
***

Note that if the divisor polynomial at the last step in Example 8 had not been
monic, we would have multiplied it by the inverse of its leading coefficient to
make it monic, and this polynomial would have been the g.c.d.

Now keep this example in mind while going through the following algorithm,
which we shall not prove in this course.

Euclidean Algorithm: Let F be a field, and let f ( x ) and g( x ) be two non-

zero elements of F[ x ]. Apply the division algorithm in F[ x ] to f ( x ) and g ( x ),
then to g( x ) and r1 ( x ), and then to r1 ( x ) and r2 ( x ), and so on, till a zero
remainder is obtained, as follows:
f ( x ) = g ( x )q1 ( x ) + r1 ( x ), with deg r1 ( x ) < deg g ( x );
g ( x ) = r1 ( x )q 2 ( x ) + r2 ( x ), with deg r2 ( x ) < deg r1 ( x );
r1 ( x ) = r2 ( x )q 3 ( x ) + r3 ( x ), with deg r3 ( x ) < deg r2 ( x );
M
rn − 2 ( x ) = rn −1 ( x )q n ( x ) + rn ( x ), with deg rn ( x ) < deg rn −1 ( x );
rn −1 ( x ) = rn ( x )q n +1 ( x ).
Then a −1rn ( x ) is the g.c.d of f ( x ) and g( x ), where a is the leading
coefficient of rn ( x ).

Now that you have some idea of what the Euclidean algorithm is, let us
consider some more examples of its application.

Example 9: Find (f ( x ), g ( x )), where f ( x ) = x4 + 2 x3 + x + 2 and

g( x ) = 2 x2 + 1 in Z 3[ x ].

Solution: First, x4 + 2 x3 + x + 2 = ( 2 x2 + 1 )( 2 x2 + x + 2 ) + 0 .
We have obtained 0 as the remainder right in the first step, and the quotient
is 2 x2 + 1 . So the g.c.d is 2 −1 ( 2 x2 + 1 ) in Z 3[ x ].
Since 2 −1 = 2, the g.c.d is 2 ( 2 x2 + 1 ), i.e., x2 + 2.
***

Example 10: Find the g.c.d of f ( x ) = 2 x5 − 3x + 1 and g ( x ) = 2x3 + 1 in Q[ x ].

Solution: We apply the division algorithm to f ( x ) and g ( x ), and get

2x5 − 3x + 1 = (2x3 + 1)( x 2 ) + (− x 2 − 3x + 1).
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Next, we apply the division algorithm to 2 x + 1 and (− x − 3x + 1). We get
3 2

2x3 + 1 = (− x2 − 3x + 1)(−2x + 6) + (20x + 7).

In this way, we continue applying the division algorithm, as follows.
⎛ ⎞
− x2 − 3x + 1 = (20x + 7) ⎜ − 1 x − 53 ⎟ + 771 ,
⎝ 20 400 ⎠ 400
⎛ ⎞
20 x + 7 = 771 ⎜ 8000 x + 2800 ⎟.
400 ⎝ 771 771 ⎠
−1
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
∴ The g.c.d is ⎜ 771 ⎟⎜ 771 ⎟ , as it has to be a monic.
⎝ 400 ⎠⎝ 400 ⎠
i.e., (f ( x ), g ( x )) = 1.
***

Why don’t you work out the g.c.d in some cases yourself now?

E34) Find the g.c.d of x10 − 3x 9 + 3x 8 − 11x 7 + 11x 6 − 11x 5 + 19x 4 − 13x 3 + 8x 2
− 9 x + 3 and x 6 − 3x 5 + 3x 4 − 9 x 3 + 5x 2 − 5x + 2 in Q[ x ].

E35) Find the g.c.d of 4 x 4 + 2 x 2 − 4 x + 2 and 2 x 2 + 2 x − 1 in Z 5[ x ].

Let us now discuss another property of F[ x ], akin to a property of Z.

15.5 IDEALS IN POLYNOMIAL RINGS

Let us now discuss the algebraic structure of ideals in F[ x ], where F is a
field. You know that any ideal in Z is a principal ideal. You also know that this
is true for any field. Is the same true for F[ x ], where F is a field? The answer
is yes, as you will now see.

Theorem 11: Every ideal of F[ x ] is a principal ideal, where F is a field.

Proof: Let I be an ideal of F[ x ]. If I = {0}, then I = < 0 >, a principal ideal.

So, let I ≠ {0}.
Let S = {n ∈ N ∪ {0} deg f ( x ) = n for some f ( x ) ∈ I}.
Since I ≠ {0}, S ≠ «. So, by the well-ordering principle, S has a least
element, say m, and deg g ( x ) = m for some g( x ) ∈ I.
So < g ( x ) > ⊆ I.

We will show that I = < g( x ) >.

For this, let f ( x ) ∈ I. Then, by the division algorithm, ∃ q ( x ), r ( x ) ∈ F[ x ] s.t.
f ( x ) = g( x )q ( x ) + r ( x ), where r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg g( x ).
Suppose, if possible, r ( x ) ≠ 0. Then
r ( x ) = f ( x ) − g( x )q( x ) ∈ I, since f ( x ), g( x ) ∈ I.
But deg r ( x ) < deg g ( x ), which contradicts the way g ( x ) has been chosen.
Hence, r ( x ) ≠ 0 is not possible.
Thus, r ( x ) = 0.
Hence, f ( x ) ∈ < g ( x ) >, i.e., I ⊆ < g ( x ) > .
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Block 4 Integral Domains
Thus, I = < g ( x ) > .

Regarding Theorem 11, you must note the important point brought out in it.

Remark 4: Any ideal I in F[ x ] is generated by a polynomial in it of least

degree.

Let us now consider some examples of ideals in F[ x ].

Example 11: Let S be the set of polynomials over R with zero constant
term. Check whether or not S is a maximal ideal of R[ x ].

Solution: Firstly, you should check that S ≠ «.

Next, you should check that S is a subring of R[ x ]. Here, note that for any
f ( x ) ∈ S, f ( x ) = a1x + a 2 x2 + L + a n xn = x (a1 + a 2 x + L + a n xn −1 ). Thus,
f ( x ) ∈< x > .
∴S ⊆ < x > .

Now, for any f ( x ) ∈ S and g( x ) ∈ R[ x ],

f ( x )g( x ) = x (a 1 + a 2 x + L a n xn −1 )g( x ) has no constant term.
Hence, f ( x )g ( x ) ∈ S.
Thus, S is an ideal of R[ x ].
Also, x ∈ S, so that < x > ⊆ S.

Thus, S = < x > .

⎛ n
⎞
Next, define φ : R[ x ] → R : φ⎜
⎝
∑ a x ⎟⎠ = a .
i =0
i
i
0

Then, you should check that φ is a well-defined ring homomorphism,

Im φ = R and Ker φ = < x > .
Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism, R[ x ] − R, which
~
<x>
is a field.
Hence, by Theorem 14 of Unit 14, < x > is a maximal ideal of R[ x ], i.e., S is
a maximal ideal of R[ x ].
***

Example 12: Give an example, with justification, of an ideal in F[ x ] (F a

field), which is
i) a prime ideal but not a maximal ideal;
ii) not a prime ideal.

Solution: i) Does < 0 > fit the bill? To answer this, check whether or not
F[ x ] < 0 > is a domain and/or a field. Here you need to recall, from Unit
13, that R < 0 > ~
− R for any ring R.

ii) Consider I = < x ( x + 1) > .

Suppose x ∈ I. Then x = x ( x + 1)f ( x ) for some f ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
So, by cancellation, ( x + 1)f ( x ) = 1.
Comparing degrees on both sides, we get
1 + deg f ( x ) = 0.
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
But deg f ( x ) ≥ 0. So we reach a contradiction. So x ∉ I.
Similarly, you should show that x + 1 ∉ I.
Thus, x ( x + 1) ∈ I but x ∉ I, x + 1 ∉ I.
Hence, I is not a prime ideal of F[ x ].
***

Now, you may wonder if Theorem 11 is true for polynomial rings over a
domain which is not a field. Consider an example.

Example 13: Show that the ideal < x , 2 > in Z[ x ] is not a principal ideal.

Solution: You know that Z[ x ] is a domain, since Z is a domain. We will Not every ideal in Z[ x ]
show that < 2, x > ≠ < f ( x ) > for any f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ], by contradiction. is a principal ideal.
So, suppose ∃ f ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ] such that < 2, x > = < f ( x ) > .
Since 2 ∈< f ( x ) >, f ( x ) ≠ 0.
Also, ∃ g ( x ), h ( x ) ∈ Z[ x ] such that
2 = f ( x )g ( x ) and x = f ( x )h ( x ).
Thus, deg f ( x ) + deg g( x ) = deg 2 = 0, and …(10)
deg f ( x ) + deg h ( x ) = deg x = 1. …(11)
(10) shows that deg f ( x ) = 0, i.e., f ( x ) ∈ Z ∗, say f ( x ) = n.
Then (11) shows that deg h ( x ) = 1. Let h ( x ) = ax + b, with a , b ∈ Z, a ≠ 0.
Then x = f ( x )h ( x ) = n (ax + b).
Comparing the coefficients on either side of this equation, we see that
na = 1 and nb = 0.
Thus, n is a unit in Z, that is, n = ±1.
Therefore, 1 ∈< f ( x ) > = < x , 2 > . Thus, we can write
1 = x (a 0 + a 1x + L + a r xr ) + 2(b 0 + b1x + L + b s xs ), where
a i , b j ∈ Z ∀ i = 0, 1, K , r and j = 0, 1, K , s.
Now, on comparing the constant term on either side we see that 1 = 2b 0 . This
is not possible, since 2 is not invertible in Z. So we reach a contradiction.
Thus, < x , 2 > is not a principal ideal.
***

Now let us consider another property that Z and F[ x ] have in common. This
is related to Theorem 11.

Theorem 12: Let F be a field and let f ( x ), g ( x ) be non-zero elements of

F[ x ]. Then < f ( x ), g( x ) > = < d( x ) >, where d( x ) = (f ( x ), g( x )).

Proof: By Theorem 11, you know that < f ( x ), g ( x ) > = < h ( x ) > for some
h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ]. So f ( x ) ∈< h ( x ) > and g( x ) ∈< h ( x ) >,
i.e., h ( x ) f ( x ) and h ( x ) g ( x ).
∴ h( x ) d ( x ). …(12)
Further, since d ( x ) f ( x ) and d ( x ) g ( x ), d ( x ) divides each element of
< f ( x ), g ( x ) >, by E29.
∴ d ( x ) h ( x ). …(13)
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Block 4 Integral Domains
∗
By (12) and (13), d ( x ) = ah ( x ), where a ∈ F , applying Theorem 8.
∴ < f ( x ), g( x ) > = < a −1d( x ) > = < d( x ) > .

Theorem 12 is very useful. For instance, from Example 8, you now know that
< x3 − 1, x 2 − x > = < x − 1 > in Q[ x ].
Similarly, from Example 9, you know that
< x4 + 2 x3 + x + 2, 2 x2 + 1 > = < x2 + 2 > in Z 3 [ x ].

You should solve some exercises now.

E36) Check whether or not < x2 + 1 > is a maximal ideal of C[ x ].

E37) Find a generator of < 3x + x 2 + 2, − 1 x3 + x5 + 1 > in Q[ x ]. Is this ideal a

2
prime ideal of Q[ x ] ? Why, or why not?

E38) Show that < x , x 2 , x3 ,K, xn −1 , x n − 1 > = F[ x ], where n ≥ 2 and F is a

field.

E39) Find f ( x ) and g ( x ) in Z11[ x ], each of degree ≥ 2, s.t.

< f ( x ), g ( x ) > = Z11[ x ].

With this we come to the end of our introductory discussion on polynomial

rings. In the next unit, you shall go a little deeper into this area. You will study
about roots and factors of polynomials over a field.

Let us now take a pointwise overview of what has been discussed in this unit.

15.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the following points.

1) The definition, and examples, of polynomials over a ring.

2) The ring structure of R[ x ], the set of polynomials over a ring R.

3) R is a commutative ring with identity iff R[ x ] is a commutative ring with

identity.

4) R is an integral domain iff R[ x ] is an integral domain.

5) Let F be a field. Then

i) F[ x ] is not a field,
ii) F( x ) is the field of fractions of F[ x ].

6) Let D be an integral domain, with F being its field of fractions. Then the
field of fractions of D[ x ] is F( x ), the field of rational functions over F.
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
7) The division algorithm in F [ x ], where F is a field. This states that if
f ( x ), g( x ) ∈ F [ x ], g ( x ) ≠ 0, then there exist unique q( x ), r ( x ) ∈ F [ x ]
with f ( x ) = q ( x )g( x ) + r ( x ), where r ( x ) = 0 or deg r ( x ) < deg g( x ).

8) A polynomial f ( x ) divides a polynomial g ( x ) in F[ x ] iff f ( x )h ( x ) = g ( x )

for some h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

9) Let F be a field. Any two non-zero polynomials over F have a unique

g.c.d. Further, for f ( x ), g( x ) ∈ F[ x ] \ {0},
(f ( x ), g( x )) = f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ), for some r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

10) The Euclidean algorithm to find the g.c.d of two non-zero polynomials in
F [ x ], F a field.

11) Every ideal in F[ x ] is a principal ideal, where F is a field. This is not true
for D[ x ], where D is a domain but not a field.

12) Let F be a field and let f ( x ), g ( x ) be non-zero elements of F[ x ]. Then

< f ( x ), g( x ) > = < d( x ) >, where d( x ) = (f ( x ), g( x )).

15.7 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

E1) The polynomials are (i), (iii), (iv), (vi), (viii).
(ii) and (v) are not polynomials since they involve negative and fractional
powers of x; (vii) is not a polynomial since it has infinitely many non-
zero terms.
(i), (vi) and (viii) are in Z[ x ] .

E2) a 0 = 1 , b 2 = 5, b 3 = 3 , b1 = 0 = b 4 .
2

E3) The degrees are 1, 3, 4, 3, undefined, respectively.

The leading coefficients of the first four are 2 , − 7, 1, 1 , respectively.

7
0 has no leading coefficient.

E4) You have seen that addition in R[ x ] is well-defined. Further, If

n m m ax ( n , m )
f ( x ) = ∑ a i x i , g( x ) = ∑ bi x i , then f ( x ) + g( x ) = ∑(a i + b i ) xi ,
i =0 i=0 i =0
a finite sum.
Since a i , b i ∈ R , a i + b i ∈ R ∀ i = 0, 1,K, max(n , m).
∴ f ( x ) + g( x ) ∈ R[ x ].

As for addition, if f ( x ) = f ′( x ) and g ( x ) = g ′( x ) in R[ x ], show why

f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) = f ′( x ) ⋅ g′( x ), i.e., multiplication is well-defined.

Then, explain why f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) ∈ R[ x ] if f ( x ), g ( x ) ∈ R[ x ].

E5) i) 2 + 5x + 3x2 + (4 + 1) x3 = 2 + 5x + 3x2 + 5x3.

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Block 4 Integral Domains

ii) ( 6 + 1 ) − 2 x + 2 x2 + 5 x3 = −2 x + 2 x2 + 5 x 3 , since 7 = 0 .
= 5 x + 2 x2 + 5 x3 , since − 2 = 5 .

iii) (1 ⋅ 1) + (1 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 1) x + (1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 2 + 0 ⋅ 1) x2 = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3.

iv) 1 + x3 , since 3 = 0 .

v) 10x + 5x2 + 7 x3 + x4 + x 5.

E6) Each term, a i x i , is a finite sum, and a i ∈ R. Thus, a i x i ∈ R[ x ].

E7) i) True; for instance, ( 2 x )( 3 x + 1) = 0 ⋅ x2 + 2 x = 2 x in Z 6 [ x ].

ii) True. Let f ( x ) = a + bx + cx2 and g ( x ) = p + qx + rx2 be in Q[ x ],

where c ≠ 0, r ≠ 0. As Q is a field, cr ≠ 0.
Also, the highest degree term is crx4.
Thus, f ( x )g ( x ) is a quartic polynomial.

iii) False; for example, if f ( x ) = a + bx + cx2 ∈ C[ x ], then

f ( x ) + (−f ( x )) = 0, not a quadratic polynomial.

iv) False; for example, if p( x ) = x and q ( x ) = 2 x 2 in Z[ x ], then p( x )

is a monic polynomial but p( x ) + q( x ) has leading coefficient 2.

⎡1 0⎤
E8) There are infinitely many such pairs. One is f ( x ) = ⎢ ⎥ x and
⎣0 0 ⎦
⎡1 2⎤
g( x ) = ⎢ ⎥ x over M 2 (C).
⎣3 4⎦
Since both f ( x ) and g ( x ) are linear, with different leading coefficients,
they are distinct.

E9) i) R can be thought of as the set of constant polynomials and 0 in

R[ x ]. So, R ⊂ R[ x ].
Also, both R and R[ x ] are rings w.r.t. the same operations.
Thus, R is a subring of R[ x ].

ii) This is not true.

For example, let R = Z and take x ∈ Z[ x ].
Then rx ∉ Z for any r ∈ Z ∗ .
Hence, Z is not an ideal of Z[ x ].

E10) Z 4 = {0, 1 , 2, 3}.

Any quadratic polynomial over Z 4 is of the form a 0 + a 1x + a 2 x2 , where
a 0 , a1 , a 2 ∈ Z 4 .
Thus, there are 4 × 4 × 3 = 48 possibilities.
You should list them all for practice in working with such polynomials.
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
E11) No. For example, let R = Q and n = 1.
Then 1 + x ∈℘1 , but (1 + x ) 2 ∉℘1. Hence, ℘1 is not a ring, and hence,
not a subring of Q[ x ].
n
E12) Note that if f ( x ) ∈ A, then f ( x ) = ∑a x
i=0
i
2i
, since the coefficient of x 2i −1 is

0 ∀ i ∈ N.
Also, f ( x ) ∈ A ⇒ −f ( x ) ∈ A. (Why?)
n m
Now, let f ( x ) = ∑ a i x2i , g(x) = ∑ bi x2i .
i =0 i =0
Then you should check that the odd power coefficients of f ( x ) − g ( x )
and f ( x )g ( x ) will also be zero.
Hence, f ( x ) − g ( x ) ∈ A and f ( x )g( x ) ∈ A.
Thus, A is a subring of R[ x ].

E13) i) R is a subring of R[ x ]. Therefore, multiplication in R is also

commutative.

ii) The identity of R[ x ] is an element of R , and hence, is the identity

of R.

E14) Let f ( x ) ∈ R[ x ] be a unit. Then ∃ g ( x ) ∈ R[ x ] s.t. f ( x )g ( x ) = 1. So

deg f ( x ) + deg g( x ) = deg 1 = 0.
Since deg f ( x ) ≥ 0, deg g ( x ) ≥ 0, we get deg f ( x ) = 0, deg g( x ) = 0.
So f ( x ) ∈ R and is a unit. Thus, U (R[ x ]) ⊆ U (R ).
Of course, since R is a subring of R[ x ], U(R ) ⊆ U(R[ x ]).
Thus, U (R ) = U (R[ x ]).

E15) (i) and (ii), as Z[ − 5 ] and Z 7 are domains.

In Unit 14, you have seen that M 2 (Q), C[0, 1] and ℘(X ) have zero
divisors. Hence, the rings in (iii), (iv) and (v) have zero divisors.

n m t
E16) Let f ( x ) = ∑ a x , g( x ) = ∑ b x
i=0
i
i

i=0
i
i
∈ I[ x ] and h ( x ) = ∑ c j x j ∈ R[ x ].
j= 0
max( m , n )
Then f ( x ) − g ( x ) = f ( x ) + ( −g ( x )) = ∑ (a
i =0
i − bi ) x i ∈ I[ x ], and
n+t
f ( x )h ( x ) = ∑ (a i c 0 + a i−1c1 + L + a 0 c i ) x i ∈ I[ x ],
i =0
since I is an ideal of R.
Similarly, h ( x )f ( x ) ∈ I[ x ].
Hence, I[ x ] is an ideal of R[ x ].

⎛ n
i⎞
n
Let us define φ : R[ x ] → (R I)[ x ] : φ⎜ ∑
⎝ i =0
a i x ⎟ = ∑
⎠ i =0
a i x i, where

a = a (mod I) ∀ a ∈ R.
n m
φ is well-defined: Let ∑ a i x i = ∑ bi x i in R[x]. Then n = m and
i =0 i=0

a i = bi ∀ i = 0, 1,K, n.
191
Block 4 Integral Domains
So a i = bi ∀ i = 0,K, n.
n m
∴ ∑ a i x i = ∑ bi x i in (R I) [ x ].
i=0 i =0
n m
φ is a ring homomorphism: Let f ( x ) = ∑ a i x i , g( x ) = ∑ bi x i .
i=0 i=0

⎛ t
⎞
Then φ(f ( x ) + g ( x )) = φ⎜
⎝
∑ (ai =0
i + bi ) x i ⎟, where t = max(m, n ).
⎠
t
= ∑ (a i + bi )x i
i =0

⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
= ⎜ ∑ a i x i ⎟ + ⎜ ∑ bi x i ⎟
⎝ i=0 ⎠ ⎝ i=0 ⎠
= φ(f ( x )) + φ(g( x )), and
⎛ r ⎞ k
φ(f ( x )g ( x )) = φ⎜ ∑ ci x i ⎟, where r = m + n and c k = ∑ a i b k − i .
⎝ i=0 ⎠ i=0
r
= ∑ ci x i
i=0
r
= ∑ (a i b0 + a i−1b1 + L + a 0 bi ) xi
i =0

⎛ n ⎞⎛ m ⎞
= ⎜ ∑ a i x i ⎟ ⎜ ∑ bi x i ⎟
⎝ i =0 ⎠ ⎝ i =0 ⎠
= φ(f ( x ))φ(g( x )).
n
φ is onto: For any h ( x ) = ∑ a i x i ∈ (R I) [ x ],
i=0
n
∃ f ( x ) = ∑ a i x i ∈ R[ x ] s.t. φ(f ( x )) = h ( x ).
i=0

Thus, Im φ = ( R I) [ x ].

⎧n n
⎫
Ker φ = ⎨∑ a i x i ∈ R[ x ] ∑ a i x i = 0 ⎬
⎩ i=0 i =0 ⎭
⎧n ⎫
= ⎨∑ a i x i ∈ R[ x ] a i = 0 ∀ i = 0,K, n ⎬
⎩ i=0 ⎭
⎧ n
⎫
= ⎨∑ a i x i ∈ R[ x ] a i ∈ I ∀ i = 0,K, n ⎬
⎩ i=0 ⎭
= I[ x ].
Now apply FTH to get the result.

E17) Let r ∈ R∗ . Suppose r ∈< x > . Then r = xf ( x ) for some f ( x ) ∈ R[ x ].

∴ 0 = deg r = deg x + deg f ( x ) ≥ 1, a contradiction. Hence, < x > ≠ R[ x ].

Suppose < x > = I[ x ], for some proper ideal I of R.

Let a ∈ R \ I. Then ax ∈ < x > = I[ x ], a contradiction.
Thus, < x > ≠ I[ x ].
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
E18) Let char R = n. By Theorem 3 of Unit 14, you know that n is the least
positive integer such that n ⋅ 1 = 0. Since 1 is also the identity of R[ x ] ,
the same theorem of Unit 14 tells you that char R[ x ] = n = char R.

E19) Let p( x ) = a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn , q ( x ) = b 0 + b1x + L + b m xm ∈ R[ x ].

⎛ t
⎞
Then φ(p( x ) + q ( x )) = φ ⎜
⎝
∑ (a + b ) x ⎟⎠ , where t = max (m, n).
i=0
i i
i

t
= ∑ f (a i + bi ) xi
i=0
t
= ∑ [f (a i ) + f (bi )] xi
i=0
t t
= ∑ f (a i ) x i + ∑ f (bi ) xi
i=0 i=0

= φ(p( x )) + φ(q( x )), since f (a i ) = 0 = f (b j )

whenever a i = 0, b j = 0.

⎛ m+n ⎞
Also, φ(p( x ) ⋅ q ( x )) = φ ⎜
⎝
∑ c x ⎟⎠ , where c = a b
i =0
i
i
i i 0 + a i −1b1 + L +a 0 bi .

m+ n
= ∑ f (c ) x
i =0
i
i

m+n
= ∑ [f (a ) f ( b ) + f (a
i=0
i 0 i −1 ) f (b1 ) + ... + f (a 0 ) f (bi )] x i ,
since f is a ring homomorphism.
= φ (p( x )) φ (q( x )).
Thus, φ is a homomorphism.

n
Now, if f is an isomorphism, then for any h ( x ) = ∑ a x ∈ S[x],
i=0
i
i

n
h ( x ) = ∑ f (bi ) xi , where a i = f (bi ) ∀ i as f is onto.
i=0

⎛ n ⎞
= φ ⎜ ∑ bi xi ⎟.
⎝ i =0 ⎠
Thus, Im φ = S[ x ].

Show that Ker φ = (Ker f ) [ x ] = {0}, as f is 1 - 1.

Thus, φ is an isomorphism.

E20) First, show that φ is well-defined.

n m
Next, if f ( x ) = ∑ (a i , ri )xi and g(x) = ∑ (bi , si )xi in (R × S)[x], then
i =0 i=0

⎛ t
⎞
φ(f ( x ) + g ( x )) = φ ⎜ ∑ [(a i , ri ) + (bi , s i )] xi ⎟, t = max(m, n )
⎝ i =0 ⎠
⎛ t
⎞
= φ ⎜ ∑ (a i + bi , ri + si ) xi ⎟
⎝ i=0 ⎠
193
Block 4 Integral Domains
⎛ t t
⎞
= ⎜ ∑ (a i + bi ) xi , ∑ (ri + si ) xi ⎟
⎝ i =0 i=0 ⎠
⎛ t t
⎞ ⎛ t t
⎞
= ⎜ ∑ a i xi , ∑ ri xi ⎟ + ⎜ ∑ bi xi , ∑ s i xi ⎟
⎝ i =0 i =0 ⎠ ⎝ i =0 i =0 ⎠
= φ(f ( x )) + φ(g( x )).
Similarly, show that φ(f ( x )g( x )) = φ(f ( x ))φ(g( x )).

Next, let (f ( x ), g ( x )) ∈ R[ x ] × S[ x ], where deg f ( x ) = n and

deg g( x ) = m. Suppose m ≥ n.
m m
Then, f ( x ) = ∑ a i xi , g(x) = ∑ bi xi , where a i = 0 for i > n.
i =0 i=0

⎛ m
⎞
Then φ ⎜
⎝
∑ (a , b ) x ⎟⎠ = (f (x ), g(x )).
i =0
i i
i

Thus, φ is onto.

⎧n ⎫
Ker φ = ⎨∑ (a i , bi ) xi ∈ (R × S) [ x ] a i = 0 = bi ∀ i = 0, K , n ⎬
⎩ i=0 ⎭
= {0}.

Thus, φ is an isomorphism.
∴ (R × S) [ x ] ~
− R[ x ] × S[ x ].

⎧ ⎫
E21) i) The quotient field of Z[i] is ⎨a + ib a , b, c, d ∈ Z, c + id ≠ 0⎬.
⎩c + id ⎭
(a + ib)(c − id )
Now a + ib = = p + iq, for some p, q ∈ Q.
c + id
2 2
c +d
Thus, the quotient field of Z[i] is Q[i].
∴ The quotient field of Z[i][ x ] is Q[i] ( x ).

ii) Q[ 11] is a field, as you have shown in Unit 14.

∴ Q[ 11] ( x ) is the required field.

iii) Z p ( x ).

E22) Any element α of C[ x ] is also in C( x ). Apart from these elements,

there are the elements like
m
(a 0 + a1x + L + a n xn ) (b0 + b1x + L + b m xm ) −1 , where ∑b x
i =0
i
i
≠ 0,

a i , b j ∈ C ∀ i = 1,K n; j = 1,K, m.
Pick any two, and show why they are distinct.

E23) In E18 you have proved that char Z p [ x ] = char Z p = p.

Now consider Z p ( x ). The identity is 1 , where p ⋅ 1 = 0 .
Thus, char Z p ( x ) = p.
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
Also, Z p ( x ) is infinite, as Z p [ x ] is infinite.

−x
E24) i) 1
− x + x4 + 1
3
7

x4 − 1 x
7
1 x +1
7
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
We stop here since deg ⎜ 1 x + 1⎟ < deg ⎜ − x3 + 1 ⎟.
⎝7 ⎠ ⎝ 7⎠
⎛ ⎞
So f ( x ) = (− x )g ( x ) + ⎜ 1 x + 1⎟.
⎝7 ⎠
Here q ( x ) = − x and r ( x ) = 1 x + 1.
7

2x2 +1
ii) 2x + 1 x + 2x − x + 1
3 2

x3 + 2x 2 (since 4 = 1 here)
−x+1
2x + 1
0 (since − 1 = 2 here)
Thus, f ( x ) = ( 2 x2 + 1 ) g ( x ).
∴ g( x ) f ( x ).

iii) f ( x ) = ( x2 + 3x + 3) g ( x ).
∴ g ( x ) f ( x ).

E25) ii) Since f ( x ) = 1 ⋅ f ( x ) and 1∈ F[ x ], f ( x ) f ( x ).

iii) f ( x ) g ( x ) ⇒ ∃ p( x ) ∈ F[ x ] s.t. g( x ) = f ( x )p( x )

⇒ ag( x ) = af ( x )p( x ), for any a ∈ F∗.
⇒ af ( x ) ag( x ).

iv) g( x ) = f ( x )p( x ) and h ( x ) = g( x )q( x ) for some p( x ), q( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

∴ h ( x ) = f ( x )p( x )q( x ), and p( x )q ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Thus, f ( x ) h ( x ).

vi) g( x ) = f ( x )p( x ) and h ( x ) = f ( x )q( x ) for some p( x ), q( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

So g ( x ) + h ( x ) = f ( x ) (p( x ) + q ( x )), and p( x ) + q ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
∴ f ( x ) (g( x ) + h ( x )).

vii) g( x ) = f ( x )p( x ) for some p( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

∴ g ( x )h ( x ) = f ( x )p( x )h ( x ), and p( x )h ( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
∴ f ( x ) g( x )h ( x ).
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Block 4 Integral Domains
E26) The difference between F [ x ] and R[ x ] lies in their units. But nowhere
in the proofs have we applied the fact that every element of F∗ is a unit,
except in ( v). This can be written as:
‘If g ( x ) is s.t. g ( x ) ≠ 0, f ( x ) g ( x ) and g ( x ) f ( x ), then f ( x ) = ag( x ) , for
some a ∈ U(R ). ’

E27) By E26, f ( x ) = ag( x ) for some a ∈ U (R ).

Thus, deg f ( x ) = deg g ( x ).
Since the leading coefficients of f ( x ) and g( x ) are 1, a = 1.
Thus, f ( x ) = g ( x ).

E28) ~ is not symmetric. For example, ( x − 2) ( x2 − 4) in Q[ x ], but

( x2 − 4) ( x − 2). (Why?)

E29) Use (vi) and (vii) of Theorem 8 to prove this.

E30) If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are relatively prime, (f ( x ), g ( x )) = 1. So

1 = f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ), for some r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].

Conversely, we know that 1 is a linear combination of f ( x ) and g ( x ).

Let d( x ) = (f ( x ), g( x )).
Since d ( x ) f ( x ) and d ( x ) g ( x ),
d ( x ) (f ( x )r ( x ) + g ( x )s( x )), i.e., d ( x ) 1, by E29.
∴ deg d( x ) = 0.
Also, d ( x ) is monic.
Hence, d ( x ) = 1.

1 1
E31) 1 = (x + a ) − ( x + b). Hence, by Corollary 2, they are
(a − b) (a − b)
coprime.

E32) e.g., f ( x ) = x3 , g ( x ) = x 4 + 1.
Since (− x )f ( x ) + g ( x ) = 1 , (f ( x ), g ( x )) = 1.
There can be several other examples. Look for some more.

E33) i) 1 = f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ) …(14)

1 = f ( x ) p( x ) + h ( x )q ( x ) …(15)
for some r ( x ), s( x ), p( x ), q( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
From (15), we get
g( x ) = f ( x )g( x )p( x ) + g( x )h ( x )q( x ).
So, putting this in (14), we get
1 = f ( x )[r ( x ) + g ( x )p( x )s( x )] + g( x )h ( x )q( x )s( x )
∴ (f ( x ), g( x )h ( x )) = 1.

ii) 1 = f ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )s( x ) …(16)

for some r ( x ), s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Also g ( x )h ( x ) = f ( x )p( x ) …(17)
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Unit 15 Polynomial Rings
for some p( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
Now, from (16), we get
h ( x ) = f ( x )h ( x )r ( x ) + g( x )h ( x )s( x )
= f ( x )h ( x )r ( x ) + f ( x )p( x )s( x ), from (17).
= f ( x )α( x ), where α( x ) = h ( x )r ( x ) + p( x )s( x ) ∈ F[ x ].
∴ f ( x ) h ( x ).

E34) x10 − 3x9 + 3x8 − 11x7 + 11x6 − 11x5 + 19 x 4 − 13x3 + 8x 2 − 9 x + 3

= ( x 6 − 3x5 + 3x 4 − 9x3 + 5x 2 − 5x + 2) ( x 4 − 2x ) + (− x 4 − 3x3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 3) .
Then, x6 − 3x5 + 3x 4 − 9x3 + 5x 2 − 5x + 2
= (− x 4 − 3x3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 3) (− x 2 + 6 x − 19) + (− 59 x3 − 118x + 59).
⎛ ⎞
Next, − x 4 − 3x3 − 2 x 2 − 5x + 3 = (−59 x3 − 118x + 59) ⎜ 1 x + 3 ⎟ .
⎝ 59 59 ⎠

∴ the required g.c.d is − 1 (−59x3 − 118x + 59), since the g.c.d has to
59
be monic.
Thus, the g.c.d is ( x3 + 2 x − 1).

E35) f ( x ) = 4 x 4 + 2 x 2 + x + 2, g ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 4, since − 1 = 4 .
4 x 4 + 2 x 2 + x + 2 = ( 2 x2 + 2 x + 4 ) ( 2 x2 + 3 x + 4 ) + ( x + 3),
2 x 2 + 2 x + 4 = ( x + 3) ( 2 x + 1 ) + 1,
( x + 3 ) = 1 ( x + 3).
∴ (f ( x ), g( x )) = 1 .

E36) x 2 + 1 = ( x + i) ( x − i) in C[ x ].
So x 2 + 1 ∈< x + i > ⊆
/
C[ x ], since 1 ∉< x + i >.
Suppose x + i ∈< x 2 + 1 >.
Then ( x + i) = ( x 2 + 1)f( x ) , for some f ( x ) ∈ C[ x ].
So 1 = deg ( x + i) = deg ( x 2 + 1) + deg f ( x ) ≥ 2, which is a contradiction.
Thus, x + i ∉< x 2 + 1 >.
∴ < x 2 + 1 > ≠ < x + i >.
∴ < x 2 + 1 > ⊆/ < x + i > ⊆/ C[ x ].
∴ < x 2 + 1 > is not a maximal ideal of C[ x ].

E37) You should check that x2 + 3x + 2 and x5 − 1 x3 + 1 are coprime.

2
∴ < 3x + x2 + 2, − 1 x3 + x5 + 1 > = < 1 > = Q[ x ].
2
Thus, the given ideal is not a proper ideal, and hence, it is not a prime
ideal.

E38) The g.c.d of x , x2 , K , xn −1 is x.

∴ the g.c.d of x , x2 ,K, xn −1 , xn − 1 is the g.c.d of x , xn − 1, which is 1
(because x ⋅ xn −1 − ( xn − 1) = 1).
∴ < x , x2 , K, xn −1 , xn − 1 > = < 1 > = F[ x ].
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Block 4 Integral Domains
E39) There can be several answers. Ours is x + 10, and x .
2 2

Here 1 = (10) −1 ( x2 + 10 − x2 ).
Hence, x2 + 10 and x2 are co-prime.
∴ < x2 + 10, x2 > = < 1 > = Z11[ x ].

198