2.

OSI Model :
Unit 1
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual
Q1) Explain TCP/IP Protocol Suit framework for describing how data is transmitted between computers on
a network. It is a seven-layer model, which means that it divides the
Ans:- 1. TCP/IP Protocol Suite : The Transmission Control
process of data transmission into seven distinct layers.
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of networking protocols
The OSI model is a theoretical model, and it is not directly
that is used to communicate between devices on the internet. It is the
implemented in any networking protocol. However, it is a useful tool
most widely used protocol suite in the world, and it is responsible for
for understanding how data is transmitted over a network.
the smooth and efficient operation of the
The seven layers of the OSI model are:
internet.
 Physical layer: This layer is responsible for the physical
The TCP/IP protocol suite consists of four layers:
connection between devices on a network. It defines the
 Physical layer: This layer is responsible for the physical
electrical and mechanical specifications for how devices
connection between devices on a network. It defines the
connect to each other.
electrical and mechanical specifications for how devices connect
 Data link layer: This layer is responsible for error
to each other.
detection and correction. It ensures that data is
 Data link layer: This layer is responsible for error detection
transmitted between devices without errors.
and correction. It ensures that data is transmitted between
 Network layer: This layer is responsible for routing data between
devices without errors.
devices on a network. It determines the best path for data to travel
 Network layer: This layer is responsible for routing data between
between two devices.
devices on a network. It determines the best path for data to travel
 Transport layer: This layer is responsible for providing a reliable
between two devices.
connection between devices. It ensures that data is delivered in
 Transport layer: This layer is responsible for providing a reliable
the correct order and without errors.
connection between devices. It ensures that data is delivered in the
 Session layer: This layer is responsible for managing
correct order and without errors.
communication between two devices. It establishes and maintains
 The TCP/IP protocol suite is a hierarchical model, which means
a connection between two devices, and it manages the flow of data
that each layer builds on top of the layer below it. This allows
between them.
for a modular approach to networking, where each layer can be
 Presentation layer: This layer is responsible for formatting data so that
implemented independently.
it can be understood by the
receiving device. It converts data from one format to another, and it
ensures that data is presented in a way that is understandable to the
user.
 Application layer: This layer is responsible for providing services
to the user. It provides access to network resources, such as file
sharing and printing.
The OSI model is a useful tool for understanding how data is transmitted
over a network. It can be used to troubleshoot network problems, and it
can be used to design new network protocols.

2) Packet-Switched Network
Q . What do you mean by Switching? Explain: • In data communications, we need to send messages from one
1. Circuit Switching. end system to another. If the message is going to pass through a
2. Packet Switching. packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed
or variable size. The size of the packet is determined by the network
and the governing protocol.
Switching

• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a

 A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we

packet. This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links,

have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication

and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. Resources

possible.

are allocated on demand.

 One solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a

• The allocation is done on a firstcome, first-served basis. When a

mesh topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology).

switch receives a packet, no matter what the source or destination is,

These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large

the packet must wait if there are other packets being processed.
networks.
 The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be
costefficient and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time. • As other systems in our daily life, this lack of reservation may
 A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of interlinked create delay. For example, if we do not have a reservation at a
nodes, called switches. restaurant, we might have to wait.
These following are the two popular approaches to packet switching.
two popular approaches to packet switching.
a) Datagram Networks
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of
all others. Even if a packet is part of a multi-packet transmission, the
1) Circuit-Switched Networks network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this approach
Circuit switching is a methodology of implementing a are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at
telecommunications network in which two network nodes the network layer.


establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) in the

network before the nodes may communicate. It takes place at the a) Virtual-Circuit Networks
physical layer.  A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched
The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of
remains connected for the duration of the communication session.

both.
The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early 1) As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and
analog telephone network.

teardown phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
When a call is made from one telephone to another, switches 2) Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a
within the telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit

circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram
between the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts. network.
In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a connection,
as the channel is reserved for entire session. No circuit can be


degraded by competing users because it is protected from use by ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

other callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is
set up.
 Q . . How do Network losses and delays occurs? What are the
different types of Network delays? Explain.
Network-Layer Performance
o The upper-layer protocols that use the service of
the network layer expect to receive an ideal
service, but the network layer is not perfect. The
performance of a network can be measured in
terms of delay, throughput, and packet loss.
Congestion control is an issue that can improve
the performance.
2) Network Delay
All of us expect instantaneous response from a
network, but a packet, from its source to its


destination, encounters delays. The delays in a

network can be divided into four types:
transmission delay, propagation delay, processing
delay, and queuing delay.
 Transmission Delay
A source host or a router cannot send a packet
instantaneously. A sender needs to put the bits in a packet
on the line one by one. If the first bit of the packet is put
on the line at time t1 and the last bit is put on the line at
time t2, transmission delay of the packet is (t2 − t1).
3) Processing Delay
The processing delay is the time required for a
router or a destination host to receive a packet


from its input port, remove the header, perform an

error detection procedure, and deliver the packet
to the output port (in the case of a router) or
deliver the packet to the upper-layer.
4) Packet Loss
Another issue that severely affects the
performance of communication is the number of


packets lost during transmission. When a router

receives a packet while processing another packet,
the received packet needs to be stored in the input
buffer waiting for its turn. A router, however, has
an input buffer with a limited size. A time may
come when the buffer is full and the next packet
needs to be dropped.
Network losses occur when data packets don't
reach their destination. This can happen due to


various reasons:
o Physical Issues: Damaged cables, faulty
hardware in routers or switches can cause
signal interference and packet loss.
o Congestion: When a network is overloaded,
routers might discard packets due to buffer
overflow.
o Collisions: In shared media (like older
Ethernet), data collisions can corrupt packets
leading to loss.
.