Analysis of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is non-numerical data gathered through interviews, questionnaires (with
open-ended questions), case studies and observations. Qualitative data can be converted into
quantitative data by counting instances of an event occurring.
Thematic Analysis
This is a form of qualitative analysis, which allows for larger amounts of data to be reduced to
general patterns, trends and themes. It is achieved through reviewing and identifying themes in
the qualitative data.
There are two methods that can be used to create themes: an inductive approach or a
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deductive approach.
An inductive approach involves the researcher reading the data to look for possible emerging
themes without the influence of the researcher’s ideas or expectations. Whereas deductive
reasoning involves the researcher specifying the themes beforehand.
Thematic analysis involves subjective interpretation and careful reading of the text of the text.
Once themes have been discovered, the research will develop these into codes to represent the
categories of themes found. In other words, codes are themes that have been grouped together
based on similarity.
When writing up the results, a table of themes is often created with a list of codes, themes, and
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examples (quotations). Some researchers may label them as main themes, sub-themes, and
examples.
Evaluation
Strengths
1) Flexible
One strength of thematic analysis as a type of qualitative data analysis is that it is considered
flexible. Thematic analysis can be used in different ways (inductive and deductive) based on the
researcher’s goals. For example, if the researcher is seeking out themes, then an inductive
approach can be used when analysing patterns in the data.
2) In-depth Information
Another strength of thematic analysis as a type of qualitative data analysis is that in-depth
information is collected. The use of thematic analysis ensures that meaningful data is collected
from the participant and is reflected in the themes and subthemes. Therefore, the study may be
a source of preliminary research to assess variables that could potentially influence or affect a
particular phenomenon.
Weaknesses
1) Lacks Credibility
One weakness of thematic analysis as a type of qualitative data analysis is that it lacks
credibility. Thematic analyses are considered to be unscientific as the themes are highly
dependent on the subjective perspective of the researcher, which leads to researcher bias. This
would therefore affect the credibility and validity of the research as a researcher’s subjective
view is based on their own culture, social values and beliefs as well as their experiences.
2) Lacks Generalisability
Another limitation of thematic analysis as a type of qualitative data analysis is that it lacks
generalisability. As more in-depth data is collected from each participant, researchers often use
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a smaller sample in comparison to quantitative data. Therefore, this may cause concerns
regarding generalisability as the sample may not reflect the wider population.
3) Time-consuming
Another disadvantage of thematic analysis as a type of qualitative data analysis is that it is
considered time-consuming. The process of conducting a thematic analysis is much longer than
a quantitative analysis as the researcher is expected to conduct an interview, transcribe the
data, analyse the data, and then move onto the next participant. After all interviews have been
completed, the researcher has to find emergent themes and patterns. This indicates that
conducting a thematic analysis can be a tedious process.
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Content Analysis
What is a content analysis?
A content analysis is a type of analysis that is used to quantify qualitative data (themes). A
content analysis focuses on words, images or audio material illustrated in different sources of
information. There are three types of content analysis:
1. Conventional content analysis - Coding of categories that have emerged from a review
and analysis of raw data
2. Directive content analysis- This type enables the extension and development of
knowledge about an existing topic. In this type of content analysis, the initial coding
categories used have been taken from previous theory or research, which suggest that
they are predetermined.
3. Summative content analysis- This is when the frequency of key words or content are
counted in the data. The key words and content are predetermined by the researcher
prior to the study.
Content analysis can be done using primary or secondary data. Primary data may be collected
using observations or interviews, especially if a novel idea is being studied.
In the case of secondary data, researchers may use data collected in other studies, especially in
cases where psychological harm is imminent. However, it could be considered outdated as it
represents the attitude at one given point in time. However, historical sources may suggest
trends and patterns on how an attitude has developed or changed over time. Typically, if the
secondary data is collected online, an internet search for sources has to be conducted using a
standard search engine.
Evaluation
Strengths
1) Inter-rater reliability
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One strength of a content analysis is that there is inter-rater reliability. When a content analysis
is conducted, researchers often utilise other researchers to ensure that the data collection
process is reliable. Thus, to ensure this, the researchers are expected to be in agreement with
each other about the behaviour that has been observed in the primary or secondary data used.
2) High Ecological Validity
Another strength of a content analysis is that it has high ecological validity. This is because the
articles that have been used are actual reports that have been published. Therefore, this
provides an accurate picture as to how a particular phenomenon is measured/recorded.
3) Objectivity
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Another advantage of a content analysis is that there is some degree of objectivity. Qualitative
and interpretative data is quantified, which suggests that the data is objective, which would
thereby improve credibility of the study.
4) Ethically Sound
One strength of a content analysis is that it is considered ethically sound, especially if
secondary data is used. The research would not cause psychological harm or distress to others.
Furthermore, the researchers do not have to be concerned about allowing a participant to
withdraw, which suggests that the use of a content analysis may be far more beneficial than
expected.
Weaknesses
1) Bias
Another limitation of a content analysis is that there is room for bias. There may be some extent
of subjectivity with tallying and recording data, which could be detrimental in terms of credibility.
Moreover, in the case of secondary data, the researcher may select studies that fit with the main
objective of the research, are published or have some level of significance, which means that
there could potentially be publication bias.
2) Ethical Issues
Another weakness of a content analysis with regard to the practical is that it has ethical issues.
Permission from the news website and magazines was not sought after prior to using the data,
which suggests that it breaches confidentiality. Furthermore, the content of the articles may be
based on several people, which could further imply that the study breaches confidentiality of
specific people.
3) Methodological Flaws
Another disadvantage of content analysis with regard to the practical is that it has
methodological flaws, especially with use of secondary data. The use of secondary data can be
difficult as the purpose of the data may not actually be in line with the aim of the study.
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Additionally, the sources could be answering a completely different research question, which
would have negative implications on the validity of the study.
Further to that, operationalising the key words and content can be difficult. Any element of
ambiguity could result in poor validity of the study. Therefore, the researchers have to ensure
that the key words/content that has been selected really represent and measure what is
intended to be measured.
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