PED 101: The Child and Adolescent Learner and Learning - Expanded Reviewer

I. Introduction to Child and Adolescent Development

 Concepts of Growth, Development, and Maturation:

o Growth: Refers to quantitative increases in size, weight, and measurable physical characteristics. It's
often seen as a measurable product of biological processes. Example: A child growing 2 inches taller in a
year.

o Development: Encompasses qualitative changes in complexity, function, and organization. It's an

unfolding process that leads to greater competence and adaptation. Development is lifelong. Example:
A child's progression from babbling to forming complex sentences.

o Maturation: Primarily refers to the unfolding of genetically pre-determined sequences of behavior and
physical changes regardless of environmental input (though environment can influence the timing). It's
largely biological. Example: The predictable sequence of crawling, then walking, then running; the onset
of puberty.

 Basic Principles of Development:

o Development is Orderly and Sequential: It follows predictable patterns.

 Cephalocaudal: Development proceeds from head to foot (e.g., control of head before legs).

 Proximodistal: Development proceeds from the center of the body outwards (e.g., control of
arms before fingers).

o Development proceeds from General to Specific: Large muscle movements before fine motor skills.

o Development is Continuous but not always Uniform: It's a lifelong process, but the pace can vary. There
are periods of rapid change (e.g., infancy, adolescence) and slower change.

o Development Involves Change: It's dynamic and adaptive.

o Development is Differentiated and Integrated: Skills become more specialized (differentiated) but also
work together (integrated). Example: Learning to walk involves differentiating leg movements and then
integrating them into a coordinated act.

o There are Individual Differences in Development: While patterns exist, each child develops at their own
pace.

o Development is Influenced by Heredity (Nature) and Environment (Nurture): This is the nature vs.
nurture debate. Both interact to shape development. Epigenetics is a newer field showing how
environmental factors can influence gene expression.

o Development Involves Critical and Sensitive Periods:

 Critical Period: A specific time frame during which an event must occur for normal development
to proceed. If it doesn't happen, it might never happen or be severely impaired (e.g., imprinting
in some animals).

 Sensitive Period: A broader time frame during which development is most susceptible to
environmental influences. Learning is most efficient during this time, though it can still occur
later (e.g., language acquisition).

 Periods of Development:

o Prenatal Period (Conception to Birth): Rapid physical growth, brain development, formation of organs.
Teratogens (environmental agents causing birth defects) are a key concern.

o Infancy (Birth to 2 years): Attachment, sensory exploration, first words, object permanence, rapid motor
skill development (crawling, walking).

o Early Childhood (2 to 6 years - Preschool/Kindergarten): Pre-operational thinking, rapid language

explosion, symbolic play, development of initiative.

o Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years - Elementary School Years): Concrete operational thinking,
peer group importance, development of industry, increased logical reasoning.
 o Adolescence (12 to 18-21 years): Puberty, formal operational thinking, identity formation, increased
independence, abstract thought.

o Brief understanding of the entire lifespan continuum (Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, Late
Adulthood) emphasizes development as a lifelong process, though the course focuses on the younger
stages.

II. Theories of Human Development

 Cognitive Development Theories:

o Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development:

 Key Concepts:

 Schema: Mental frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information
(e.g., a schema for "dog").

 Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas. Example: A child

seeing a cat and calling it a "dog" because it fits their existing schema for four-legged
animals.

 Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new

information. Example: The child learns the difference between "dog" and "cat" and
creates a new schema for "cat."

 Equilibration: The process of maintaining a balance between assimilation and

accommodation. Disequilibrium occurs when new information doesn't fit existing
schemas, leading to a need for accommodation.

 Stages (focus on what defines thinking at each stage):

 Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and motor activities. Object
Permanence (understanding objects exist even when out of sight) is a key achievement.
Develops cause-and-effect.

 Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thought (using words/images to represent things).

Marked by:

 Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing things from another's perspective.

 Animism: Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects.

 Centration: Focusing on only one aspect of a situation and ignoring others.

 Irreversibility: Inability to mentally reverse an action.

 Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Can think logically about concrete (tangible) objects
and events. Masters:

 Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes

in appearance (e.g., water in different shaped glasses).

 Reversibility: Mentally reversing actions.

 Classification: Grouping objects by multiple characteristics.

 Seriation: Arranging objects in a logical sequence (e.g., by height).

 Formal Operational (11+ years): Capable of abstract thinking, hypothetical-deductive

reasoning (forming hypotheses and systematically testing them), and metacognition
(thinking about thinking). Can understand analogies, metaphors, and complex moral
issues.

o Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory:

 Key Concepts:
  Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a learner can do
independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO). It's the "sweet spot" for learning.

 Scaffolding: The temporary, adjustable support given by an MKO to a learner that allows
them to complete a task they couldn't do alone. Gradually removed as the learner gains
competence. Example: A teacher breaking down a complex math problem, providing
hints, or giving a partial solution.

 Social Interaction: The primary driver of cognitive development. Learning is first

interpsychological (between people) and then intrapsychological (within the individual).

 Language: Seen as the most important psychological tool. Private speech (self-talk,
thinking out loud) helps regulate behavior and thought, eventually becoming inner
speech.

 Cultural Tools: Include language, symbols, artifacts, and social institutions that mediate
thinking and learning.

 Psychosocial Development Theory:

o Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis or conflict
that needs to be resolved. Successful resolution leads to a virtue or strength.

 Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Developing a sense of security and trust in caregivers. Virtue:
Hope.

 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Developing independence and self-control. Virtue:
Will.

 Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Exploring the world, taking initiative, planning activities. Virtue:
Purpose.

 Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Mastering academic and social skills, developing
competence. Virtue: Competence.

 Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Exploring personal values, beliefs, and goals to form
a sense of self. Virtue: Fidelity (loyalty to oneself and values).

 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood): Forming close, meaningful relationships. Virtue: Love.

 (Briefly note Generativity vs. Stagnation in Middle Adulthood, and Integrity vs. Despair in Late
Adulthood to show the lifespan perspective).

 Moral Development Theories:

o Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development: Focused on moral reasoning (how one decides
what is right), not moral behavior. Used hypothetical dilemmas (e.g., Heinz Dilemma).

 Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality (Common in Childhood): Morality is based on external

consequences.

 Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Right is obeying rules to avoid

punishment. "If I get punished, it's wrong."

 Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Right is what serves one's own needs; "you
scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." Reciprocity for self-interest.

 Level 2: Conventional Morality (Common in Adolescence and Adulthood): Morality is based on

societal rules and expectations.

 Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: "Good boy/Good girl" orientation. Right is

what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. Focus on maintaining social
relationships.

 Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order: Right is upholding laws and duties to maintain
social order. "Law and order" morality.
  Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality (Rare, usually in Adulthood): Morality is based on abstract
principles and universal human rights.

 Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Laws are seen as social contracts that
can be changed if they don't serve the common good. Emphasis on individual rights.

 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Right is defined by self-chosen ethical principles,

even if they conflict with laws. Deep respect for universal principles like justice, dignity,
and equality.

o Carol Gilligan's Critique of Kohlberg: Argued that Kohlberg's theory was male-biased, focusing too much
on justice-based morality (rights, rules, abstract principles) and overlooking an ethics of care
(relationships, responsibility to others, interconnectedness). She proposed that females often prioritize
care and compassion in moral dilemmas.

 Behavioral and Social Learning Theories:

o Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with a natural reflex or
response. Example: A school bell (neutral) paired with dismissal (natural release) leads to students
associating the bell with excitement/freedom.

 Key terms: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), Unconditioned Response (UCR), Conditioned Stimulus
(CS), Conditioned Response (CR).

o Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Learning based on the consequences of voluntary behavior.
Behavior is strengthened or weakened by its outcomes.

 Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.

 Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., praise, reward) after a

behavior.

 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., nagging, loud noise) after
a behavior. (NOT punishment; it encourages behavior).

 Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

 Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding, extra chores) after a
behavior.

 Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges,

timeout) after a behavior.

 Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

 Extinction: Disappearance of a learned response when reinforcement is withheld.

 Schedules of Reinforcement: Influence how quickly behavior is learned and how resistant it is to
extinction (e.g., continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval – variable
schedules are most resistant to extinction).

o Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) / Social Cognitive Theory (later name): Emphasizes learning
through observation and imitation.

 Observational Learning/Modeling: Learning by watching and imitating a model (teacher, peer,

parent). Bobo Doll Experiment is a classic example.

 Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning from observing the consequences of others'

actions.

 Self-Efficacy: A person's belief in their capability to execute behaviors necessary to produce

specific performance attainments. High self-efficacy leads to greater persistence.

 Reciprocal Determinism: A dynamic interaction among behavior, personal factors (cognition,

emotions), and environmental influences.

 Ecological Systems Theory:

 o Urie Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Views development as a complex system of relationships
affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment.

 Microsystem: The immediate environment (e.g., family, school, peers, neighborhood, church).
Direct interactions.

 Mesosystem: The interconnections between different microsystems (e.g., how parents interact
with teachers; how home life affects school performance).

 Exosystem: External settings that indirectly affect the individual (e.g., parent's workplace,
community health services, mass media, school board). The child isn't directly involved but is
impacted.

 Macrosystem: The broader cultural context, societal values, laws, customs, and political
ideologies.

 Chronosystem: Environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-
historical circumstances (e.g., divorce, war, technological changes, economic recession).

III. Stages of Development and Their Educational Implications

 Infancy (0-2 years):

o Characteristics: Rapid physical growth, sensory exploration (oral fixation, tactile exploration),
development of attachment (secure, insecure), first words/babbling, basic motor milestones (sitting,
crawling, walking), building trust.

o Educational Implications: Importance of responsive and consistent caregiving, sensory-rich

environment, tummy time, safe spaces for exploration, early language stimulation (talking, reading to
them), establishing routines for predictability and security.

 Early Childhood (2-6 years - Preschool/Kindergarten):

o Physical: Continued refinement of gross (running, jumping) and fine (drawing, cutting) motor skills.
Toilet training.

o Cognitive: Pre-operational thought (as detailed above). Language explosion (rapid vocabulary growth,
forming sentences). Developing theory of mind (understanding others have different thoughts/feelings).

o Socio-emotional: Development of self-concept (who they are), gender identity. Increased social play
(parallel play, associative play, cooperative play). Initiative vs. Guilt (exploring new activities, feeling bad
if criticized).

o Educational Implications: Play-based learning, hands-on activities, clear routines and simple rules,
opportunities for social interaction and cooperative play, encouraging imaginative play, fostering
language development through storytelling and conversations, providing positive reinforcement for
initiative.

 Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years - Elementary Grades):

o Physical: Steady, slower physical growth. Improved coordination for sports and complex motor tasks.

o Cognitive: Concrete operational thought (conservation, logical reasoning about concrete events, less
egocentric). Development of memory strategies (rehearsal, organization). Increased attention span.

o Socio-emotional: Industry vs. Inferiority (mastering academic/social skills, feeling competent). Peer
group becomes highly influential. Developing self-esteem and self-concept based on social comparisons.
Understanding rules and fairness.

o Educational Implications: Provide concrete examples and manipulatives for abstract concepts,
encourage cooperative learning, teach problem-solving skills, foster a sense of accomplishment, provide
opportunities for leadership, address bullying, use group activities to enhance social skills, incorporate
physical activity.

 Adolescence (12-21 years - Junior and Senior High School):

 o Physical: Puberty (rapid physical changes, hormonal shifts, development of secondary sexual
characteristics). Concerns about body image.

o Cognitive: Formal operational thinking (abstract reasoning, hypothesis testing, metacognition).

Development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Can lead to adolescent egocentrism
(imaginary audience, personal fable).

o Socio-emotional: Identity vs. Role Confusion (exploring values, beliefs, sexual identity, career paths).
Increased independence from parents, strong peer group influence, formation of cliques and crowds.
Risk-taking behavior. Mood swings. Development of moral reasoning.

o Educational Implications: Foster critical thinking through debates, discussions, and complex problem-
solving. Provide opportunities for self-expression and identity exploration (e.g., choice in projects, career
guidance). Create a safe space for open discussion of sensitive topics. Encourage peer collaboration and
leadership roles. Provide clear expectations and boundaries. Offer guidance on responsible decision-
making and digital citizenship. Recognize the emotional volatility and provide support.

IV. Individual Differences in Learning

 Intelligence:

o General Intelligence (g factor - Spearman): A single underlying intelligence that influences performance
on all mental tasks.

o Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner): People possess different strengths/intelligences:

 Linguistic: Word smart (writers, poets)

 Logical-Mathematical: Number/logic smart (scientists, mathematicians)

 Spatial: Picture smart (artists, architects)

 Bodily-Kinesthetic: Body smart (dancers, athletes)

 Musical: Music smart (musicians, composers)

 Interpersonal: People smart (leaders, counselors)

 Intrapersonal: Self smart (philosophers, self-aware individuals)

 Naturalistic: Nature smart (biologists, environmentalists)

 (Sometimes an Existential or Moral intelligence is added).

 Implications for Teaching: Design diverse activities and assessments that appeal to different
intelligences (e.g., using music to teach history, hands-on projects for kinesthetic learners).

o Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg): Three components:

 Analytical (Componential): Problem-solving, academic intelligence.

 Creative (Experiential): Dealing with novelty, generating new ideas.

 Practical (Contextual): Adapting to real-world situations, "street smarts."

 Implications for Teaching: Design tasks that require students to analyze, create, and apply
knowledge in practical contexts.

o Emotional Intelligence (Daniel Goleman): The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use
emotions.

 Components: Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, social skills.

 Implications for Teaching: Integrate social-emotional learning (SEL) into the curriculum, teach
conflict resolution, foster empathy, provide opportunities for emotional expression.

 Learning Styles:

o VARK Model (Visual, Aural, Read/Write, Kinesthetic): A popular model describing how individuals
prefer to take in and process information.
  Visual: Learn best through seeing (diagrams, maps, videos).

 Aural: Learn best through hearing (lectures, discussions, audio recordings).

 Read/Write: Learn best through text (reading books, taking notes).

 Kinesthetic: Learn best through doing, hands-on experience, movement.

o Implications for Teaching: Employ a variety of teaching methods (visual aids, discussions, reading
materials, hands-on activities) to cater to diverse learning styles.

 Temperament: Refers to an individual's innate behavioral style and characteristic way of responding to stimuli.
It's largely biological and present from infancy.

o Dimensions: Activity level, adaptability, mood, persistence, intensity of reaction, etc.

o Thomas and Chess's Temperament Categories:

 Easy Child: Generally positive mood, adapts easily to new situations.

 Difficult Child: Tends to react negatively, irregular routines, slow to adapt.

 Slow-to-Warm-Up Child: Low activity level, somewhat negative, low adaptability, needs time to
adjust.

o Implications for Teaching: Understand that not all behaviors are defiance; some are temperament-
driven. Adapt classroom management and expectations accordingly.

 Students with Special Needs:

o Inclusive Education: The philosophy and practice of educating all students, including those with
disabilities, in general education classrooms to the greatest extent possible, with appropriate supports.

o Individualized Education Programs (IEPs): Legally mandated documents in many countries (or similar
local plans) outlining specific educational goals, services, and accommodations for students with
disabilities.

o Learners with Disabilities:

 ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder): Challenges with attention, hyperactivity,

impulsivity. Strategies: Structured environment, frequent breaks, clear instructions, fidget tools.

 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Challenges in social interaction, communication, repetitive

behaviors. Strategies: Visual schedules, clear routines, social stories, sensory considerations.

 Intellectual Disability: Significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

Strategies: Concrete examples, simplified instructions, repetition, life skills training.

 Learning Disabilities (e.g., Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Dysgraphia): Specific difficulties in learning

despite average intelligence. Strategies: Multi-sensory approaches, explicit instruction, assistive
technology, patience.

 Emotional Behavioral Disorders: Difficulties with emotional regulation and appropriate

behavior. Strategies: Behavior management plans, positive reinforcement, counseling, anger
management techniques.

 Sensory Impairments (Visual, Hearing): Strategies: Preferential seating, assistive listening

devices, large print, braille, sign language interpreter, tactile materials.

o Gifted and Talented Learners: Displaying high ability or potential in one or more areas (intellectual,
creative, artistic, leadership, academic). Strategies: Enrichment activities, acceleration, differentiated
curriculum, challenging tasks, opportunities for independent research.

o Implications for Teaching: Differentiated instruction, collaborative teaching (with special education
teachers), accommodations (changes in how students learn), modifications (changes in what students
learn), creating an accessible and accepting classroom.

 Socio-Cultural Factors:
 o Socio-Economic Status (SES): Greatly influences access to resources (books, technology, healthcare,
nutrition), quality of schooling, parental involvement, and home learning environment. Achievement
gaps often correlate with SES.

o Culture and Ethnicity: Shapes values, communication styles (e.g., direct vs. indirect), learning
approaches (e.g., cooperative vs. competitive), worldviews.

o Language: For English as a Second Language (ESL)/English Language Learners (ELL) in the Philippines
(especially in the context of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education - MTB-MLE), understanding
the process of L1 and L2 acquisition is critical. Code-switching and language transfer are common
phenomena.

o Gender: Understanding social constructs of gender roles and stereotypes. Awareness of subtle biases in
the classroom (e.g., favoring boys in math, girls in reading).

o Implications for Teaching: Implement culturally responsive pedagogy (using students' cultural
backgrounds as a resource for learning), recognize and value linguistic diversity, address implicit biases,
provide equitable opportunities, and design curriculum that reflects diverse perspectives.

V. Learning Theories (Deeper Dive)

 Behavioral Learning Theories:

o Strengths: Clear, measurable outcomes; effective for basic skills and managing behavior.

o Limitations: May not foster deep understanding or critical thinking; can lead to dependence on external
rewards.

o Classroom Applications: Point systems, behavior charts, positive praise, time-outs, structured drills,
direct instruction for specific skills (e.g., phonics).

 Cognitive Learning Theories:

o Information Processing Theory: Metaphor of the mind as a computer. Focus on mental processes.

 Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information (iconic, echoic).

 Short-Term Memory (Working Memory): Limited capacity (7 +/- 2 items), holds information for
brief periods (15-30 seconds) while actively processing it. Crucial for complex tasks.

 Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity and duration.

 Declarative Memory: Facts and events (episodic: personal experiences; semantic:

general knowledge).

 Procedural Memory: How to do things (skills, habits).

 Strategies for Encoding & Retrieval:

 Rehearsal: Repeating information.

 Elaboration: Connecting new info to existing knowledge.

 Organization: Structuring information (e.g., outlines, concept maps).

 Chunking: Grouping items into meaningful units.

 Mnemonics: Memory aids (e.g., acronyms).

 Implications: Teach students memory strategies, provide opportunities for active processing,
connect new learning to prior knowledge, avoid cognitive overload.

o Gestalt Psychology: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Learning involves insight –
suddenly grasping relationships. Perception is key.

 Laws of Perceptual Organization: Proximity, similarity, closure, continuity.

 Implications: Present material in meaningful, organized wholes; encourage problem-solving and

discovery learning.
 o Constructivism (Piaget and Vygotsky revisited):

 Cognitive Constructivism (Piagetian): Individual learners build their own understanding through
interaction with the environment and self-reflection. Discovery learning.

 Social Constructivism (Vygotskian): Knowledge is constructed collaboratively through social

interaction and language within a cultural context. Cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching.

 Implications: Student-centered learning, inquiry-based projects, problem-based learning,

collaborative group work, authentic tasks, critical thinking, scaffolding, opportunities for
discussion and debate.

 Humanistic Learning Theories:

o Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposing that basic needs must be met
before higher-level needs can be addressed.

1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter, sleep.

2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love/Belonging Needs: Friendship, family, intimacy, sense of connection.

4. Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect from others.

5. Self-Actualization: Fulfilling one's full potential, becoming the best one can be (growth needs).

6. Implications for Teachers: Ensure students' basic needs (food, safety, belonging) are met to
enable learning. Create a classroom where students feel safe, valued, and respected.

o Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Approach: Emphasizes the importance of the student's self-concept and
the role of the teacher in providing a supportive environment.

1. Key elements: Unconditional Positive Regard (acceptance and respect regardless of behavior),
Empathy (understanding students' feelings), Congruence (genuineness and honesty).

2. Implications: Foster a non-judgmental, accepting, and warm classroom climate; encourage

student autonomy and self-direction; listen actively to students.

VI. Motivation in Learning

 Types of Motivation:

o Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity for its inherent enjoyment, satisfaction, interest, or
challenge. Example: A student reads a book because they genuinely love reading.

o Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. Example: A student
reads a book to get a good grade or avoid failing.

 Theories of Motivation:

o Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner): Focuses on how individuals explain their successes and failures.
These attributions influence future motivation.

 Locus of Causality: Internal (due to self, e.g., effort, ability) vs. External (due to environment,
e.g., luck, task difficulty).

 Stability: Stable (unchanging, e.g., ability) vs. Unstable (changeable, e.g., effort, luck).

 Controllability: Controllable (e.g., effort, strategy) vs. Uncontrollable (e.g., luck, innate ability).

 Adaptive attributions: Success due to internal, stable, controllable factors (ability, effort).
Failure due to internal, unstable, controllable factors (lack of effort, poor strategy).

 Implications: Teach students to attribute success to their effort and strategies (controllable
factors) and to see failure as an opportunity to change strategies or increase effort.

o Self-Efficacy Theory (Albert Bandura): Belief in one's capability to successfully perform a task or achieve
a goal. High self-efficacy leads to greater effort, persistence, and resilience in the face of setbacks.
  Sources of Self-Efficacy: Mastery experiences, vicarious experiences (observing others), social
persuasion, physiological and affective states.

 Implications: Provide mastery experiences, show successful models, give positive

encouragement, help students manage anxiety.

o Goal Orientation Theory: Students pursue different types of goals that influence their learning
approach.

 Mastery Goals (Learning Goals): Focus on understanding the material, developing competence,
and improving skills. Associated with deeper learning strategies, persistence.

 Performance Goals (Ego-Involvement Goals): Focus on demonstrating competence relative to

others, getting good grades, or avoiding appearing incompetent.

 Approach vs. Avoidance: Students can either approach mastery/performance or avoid

demonstrating lack of mastery/performance.

 Implications: Encourage mastery goals over performance goals. Emphasize learning and
improvement rather than just grades or comparison to peers.

o Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles & Wigfield): Motivation is a product of two factors:

 Expectancy: How much an individual expects to succeed at a task.

 Value: How much an individual values the task (e.g., intrinsic interest, utility, importance, cost).

 Motivation = Expectancy x Value. If either is zero, motivation is zero.

 Implications: Help students believe they can succeed (increase expectancy) and make tasks
relevant and interesting (increase value).

 Strategies to Enhance Motivation:

o Make learning relevant and meaningful to students' lives.

o Set clear, challenging, but achievable goals.

o Provide choice and autonomy within limits.

o Give specific, timely, and constructive feedback that focuses on effort and process.

o Create a supportive, respectful, and emotionally safe classroom environment.

o Use appropriate rewards and praise (emphasize effort over outcome for praise).

o Foster a sense of belonging and competence.

o Vary instructional strategies to maintain interest.

VII. Teaching and Learning Process

 Classroom Management: Creating a well-organized, positive, and productive learning environment that
promotes student engagement and minimizes disruptions. Involves proactive strategies, clear rules, consistent
consequences, and building positive relationships.

 Instructional Strategies: Adapting teaching methods to developmental stages, individual differences, and
learning objectives. Examples: differentiated instruction, cooperative learning, inquiry-based learning, direct
instruction, project-based learning, reciprocal teaching.

 Assessment of Learning:

o Formative Assessment: Ongoing assessment for learning, providing feedback to guide instruction and
learning (e.g., quizzes, observations, exit tickets).

o Summative Assessment: Assessment of learning, evaluating overall achievement at the end of a

unit/course (e.g., final exams, major projects).
 o Authentic Assessment: Tasks that require students to demonstrate skills and knowledge in real-world
contexts.

o Developmentally Appropriate Assessment: Using assessment methods that are fair and suitable for the
child's age and developmental level.

 Role of Play: Essential for holistic child development.

o Cognitive: Develops problem-solving, creativity, symbolic thought.

o Social: Fosters cooperation, negotiation, sharing, conflict resolution.

o Emotional: Provides a safe space for expression, coping with feelings, building self-esteem.

o Physical: Enhances gross and fine motor skills.

 Parental Involvement: Crucial for student success. Teachers should foster open communication, involve parents
in school activities, and collaborate on student support.

 Research in Child and Adolescent Development:

o Research Methods:

 Longitudinal Studies: Track the same individuals over a long period.

 Cross-Sectional Studies: Compare different age groups at one point in time.

 Sequential Studies: Combine longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.

 Correlational Studies: Examine relationships between variables (cannot establish cause and
effect).

 Experimental Studies: Manipulate variables to establish cause and effect.

o Ethical Considerations: Informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, debriefing.