What is air pollution?

Any change or modification in

the physical, chemical and
biological properties of air
that will have a detrimental
consequence on living things
is air pollution.
 Air pollution…..
• Air pollution (say: po-loo-shun) occurs when
gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or
odour are introduced into the atmosphere in
a way that makes it harmful to humans,
animals and plant.
• This is because the air becomes dirty
(contaminated or unclean).
 Air pollution……..

The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air (made up of

various gases) called the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere helps protect the Earth and allow life to
exist.
• Without it, we would be burned by the intense heat of the
sun during the day or frozen by the very low temperatures
at night.
• Any additional gas, particles or odours that are introduced
into the air (either by nature or human activity) to distort
this natural balance and cause harm to living things can be
called air pollution.
 Sources of Air pollution
There are various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere.

These sources can be classified into two major categories

Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions.
• Natural events that pollute the air include forest fires, volcanic
eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic
compounds and natural radioactivity.
• Pollution from natural occurrences are not very often.
Human activities that result in air pollution include:
 Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:
• These are mostly related to the burning of multiple
types of fuel.
• Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power
plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of
fuel-burning heating devices.
• In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass
burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional
biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.
• Mobile Sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels,
and aircraft.
 Anthropogenic (man-made)
sources…….
• Chemicals', dust and controlled burn practices in
agriculture and forest management'.
• Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique
sometimes used in forest management, farming,
prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement.
Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland
ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for
foresters.
• Controlled burning stimulates the germination of
some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the
forest.
 Anthropogenic (man-made)
sources………
• Fumes from paint, hair spray, aerosol sprays and other
solvents
• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.
Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive
mixtures with air.
• Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace
oxygen in an enclosed space.
• Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by
displacement.
• Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic
gases, germ warfare and rocketry
 Natural Sources
• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with
few or no vegetation
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for
example cattle
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust.
• Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring,
radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of
radium.
• It is considered to be a health hazard.
• Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
buildings, especially in confined areas such as the
basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung
cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Natural Sources……
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires
• Vegetation, in some regions, emits
environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on
warmer days.
• These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic
pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and
anthropogenic organic carbon compounds—to
produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.
• Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine,
and ash particulates
Causes of air pollution…..
• Emissions from industries and
manufacturing activities
* there are long tubes (called chimneys)
erected high into the air, with lots of
smoke and fumes coming out of it.
• Waste incinerators, manufacturing
industries and power plants emit high
levels of carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, and chemicals into the air.
• This happens almost everywhere that
people live.
• petroleum refineries also release lots of
hydrocarbons into the air.
 Causes of air pollution…..
• After the industrial age, transportation has
become a key part of our lives.
• Cars and heavy duty trucks, trains, shipping
vessels and airplanes all burn lots of fossil
fuels to work.
• Emissions from automobile engines contain
both primary and secondary pollutants.
 Burning Fossil Fuels
This is a major cause of pollution, and one that is very
difficult to manage.
• This is because humans rely heavily on vehicles and
engines for transporting people, good and services.
Fumes from car exhausts contain dangerous gases such
as carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons
and particulates.
• On their own, they cause great harm to people who
breath them.
• Additionally, they react with environmental gases to
create further toxic gases.
Household and Farming Chemicals

Crop dusting, fumigating homes,

household cleaning products or
painting supplies, over the counter
insect/pest killers, fertilizer dust emit
harmful chemicals into the air and
cause pollution.
In many case, when we use these
chemicals at home or offices with no
or little ventilation, we may fall ill if
we breathe them.
 Air Pollutants:

• An air pollutant is a substance in the air that

can have adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem.
• The substance can be solid particles, liquid
droplets, or gases.
• A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-
made.
• Pollutants are classified as primary or
secondary.
 Air Pollutants……....
• Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such
as ash from a volcanic eruption.
• Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor
vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories.
• Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly.
• Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or
interact.
• Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary
pollutant.
• Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are
both emitted directly and formed from other primary
pollutants.
 Major primary pollutants produced by human
activity
• Sulphur oxides (SOx)
• SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial
processes.
• Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds,
and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
• Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a
catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.
• This is one of the causes for concern over the
environmental impact of the use of these fuels as
power sources.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides,
particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from
high temperature combustion, and are also
produced during thunderstorms by electric
discharge.
• They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or
a plume downwind of cities.
• It is one of several nitrogen oxides.
• One of the most prominent air pollutants, this
reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic
sharp, biting odor.
Major primary pollutants……

• Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Fuel combustion from
vehicles and engines.
• Reduces the amount of
oxygen reaching the
body’s organs and tissues;
aggravates heart disease,
resulting in chest pain
and other symptoms.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are a well-
known outdoor air pollutant.
• They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or
non-methane (NMVOCs).
• Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse
gas which contributes to enhanced global
warming.
• Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant
greenhouse gases because of their role in
creating ozone and prolonging the life of
methane in the atmosphere.
 Major primary pollutants……
• This effect varies depending on local air
quality.
• The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and
xylene are suspected carcinogens and may
lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure.
• 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous
compound often associated with industrial
use.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Ground-level Ozone (O3)
Secondary pollutant formed by chemical
reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and NOx in the presence of sunlight.
Decreases lung function and causes
respiratory symptoms, such as coughing and
shortness of breath, and also makes asthma
and other lung diseases get worse.
 Air Pollutants………….

• Lead (Pb)
Smelters (metal refineries) and other metal
industries; combustion of leaded gasoline in piston
engine aircraft; waste incinerators (waste burners),
and battery manufacturing.
• Damages the developing nervous system, resulting in
IQ loss and impacts on learning, memory, and
behavior in children.
• Cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and early
effects related to anaemia.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter
(PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are
tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas.
• In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas.
• Some particulates occur naturally, originating from
volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living
vegetation, and sea spray.
• Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in
vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also
generate significant amounts of aerosols.
• Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to
health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function
and lung cancer.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine
particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.
• Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially
their compounds.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to
the ozone layer; emitted from products currently
banned from use.
• These are gases which are released from air
conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc.
 Major primary pollutants……
• CFC's on being released into the air rises
to stratosphere. Here they come in contact
with other gases and damage the ozone layer.
• This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach
the earth's surface.
• This can lead to skin cancer, disease to eye
and can even cause damage to plants.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural
processes.
• It is normally encountered as a gas with a
characteristic pungent odor.
• Ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and
fertilizers.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a
building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals.
• Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic
and hazardous.
• In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with
oxides of nitrogen and sulphur to form
secondary particles.
 Major primary pollutants……
• Odors — such as from garbage,
sewage, and industrial
processes
• Radioactive pollutants -
produced by nuclear
explosions, nuclear events,
war explosives, and natural
processes such as
the radioactive decay of radon.
 Secondary Air pollutants……..
• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants
and compounds in photochemical smog.
• Smog is a kind of air pollution.
• Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and
sulfur dioxide.
• Modern smog does not usually come from coal but
from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted
on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun
to form secondary pollutants that also combine with
the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
 Secondary Air pollutants……..
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs.
• Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere.
• It is also an important constituent of certain regions of
the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer.
• Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive
many of the chemical processes that occur in the
atmosphere by day and by night.
• At abnormally high concentrations brought about by
human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel),
it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
 Secondary Air pollutants……..

• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are
regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air
Framework Directive
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to
particulates
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are
resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological,
and photolytic processes.
• Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the
environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in
human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.
 Impacts of air pollution
Acidification:

Chemical reactions involving air pollutants can create

acidic compounds which can cause harm to
vegetation and buildings.
• Sometimes, when an air pollutant, such as sulfuric
acid combines with the water droplets that make up
clouds, the water droplets become acidic, forming
acid rain.
• When acid rain falls over an area, it can kill trees and
harm animals, fish, and other wildlife.
 Impacts of air pollution….
• Eutrophication:
Rain can carry and deposit the Nitrogen in
some pollutants on rivers and soils.
• This will adversely affect the nutrients in the
soil and water bodies.
• This can result in algae growth in lakes and
water bodies, and make conditions for other
living organism harmful.
 Impacts of air pollution…………..
• Acid rain destroys the leaves of plants.
• When acid rain infiltrates into soils, it changes
the chemistry of the soil making it unfit for
many living things that rely on soil as a habitat
or for nutrition.
• Acid rain also changes the chemistry of the
lakes and streams that the rainwater flows
into, harming fish and other aquatic life.
 Impacts of air pollution…..
• Ground-level ozone:
Chemical reactions involving air pollutants
create a poisonous gas ozone (O3).
• Gas Ozone can affect people’s health and can
damage vegetation types and some animal life
too.
 Impacts of air pollution…..
• Particulate matter:
Air pollutants can be in the form of particulate
matter which can be very harmful to our health.
• The level of effect usually depends on the length of
time of exposure, as well the kind and concentration
of chemicals and particles exposed to.
 Impacts of air pollution…..
• Short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose
and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as
bronchitis and pneumonia.
• Others include headaches, nausea, and allergic
reactions.
• Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical
conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema.
• Long-term health effects can include chronic
respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and
even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys.
• Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of
growing children and may aggravate or complicate
medical conditions in the elderly.
 Acid Rain
• Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are
unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution -
most notably the excessive amounts of sulfur and
nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes.
• Acid rain is also called acid deposition because this
term includes other forms of acidic precipitation such
as snow.
• Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry.
• Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that
removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them
on the Earth’s surface.
 Acid Rain……….
• Dry deposition polluting particles and gases
stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the
absence of precipitation.
• This form of deposition is dangerous however
because precipitation can eventually wash
pollutants into streams, lakes, and rivers.
 Acid Rain……….
• Acidity itself is determined based on the pH
level of the water droplets.
• pH is the scale measuring the amount of acid
in the water and liquid.
• Normal rain water is slightly acidic and has a
pH range of 5.3-6.0.
• Acid deposition is anything below that scale.
 Causes of Acid Rain

• Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like

volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel
combustion.
• When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere
they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases
already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium
nitrate, and nitric acid.
• These acids then disperse over large areas because of
wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain
or other forms of precipitation.
 Causes of Acid Rain…..

• The gases responsible for acid deposition are

normally a byproduct of electric power
generation and the burning of coal.
• As such, it began entering the atmosphere in
large amounts during the Industrial
Revolution
 Effects of Acid Rain

• there are several important impacts of acid

deposition on both natural and man-made
environments.
• Aquatic settings are the most clearly impacted
by acid deposition though because acidic
precipitation falls directly into them.
• Both dry and wet deposition also runs off of
forests, fields, and roads and flows into lakes,
rivers, and streams.
 Effects of Acid Rain…….

• As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of

water, it is diluted but over time, acids can
accumulate and lower the overall pH of the
body.
• Acid deposition also causes clay soils to
release aluminum and magnesium further
lowering the pH in some areas.
 Effects of Acid Rain………

• Aside from aquatic bodies, acid deposition can

significantly impact forests.
• As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them
lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt
their growth.
• By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes
them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather,
and insects.
 Effects of Acid Rain………

• Acid falling on a forest’s soil is also harmful

because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills
microorganisms in the soil, and can
sometimes cause a calcium deficiency.

• Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to

problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the
moisture in the clouds blankets them.
 Effects of Acid Rain……

• Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on

architecture and art because of its ability to
corrode certain materials.
• As acid lands on buildings (especially those
constructed with limestone) it reacts with
minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to
disintegrate and wash away.
• Acid deposition can also corrode modern
buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel
bridges, and pipes above and below ground
 Ozone Layer
• Ozone is a colorless gas found in the upper atmosphere
of the Earth.
• It is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet
photons, and undergo a chemical reaction known as
photo dissociation or photolysis.
• In this process, a single molecule of oxygen breaks
down into two oxygen atoms.
• The free oxygen atom (O), then combines with an
oxygen molecule (O2), and forms a molecule of ozone
(O3).
• The ozone molecules, in turn absorb ultraviolet rays
between 310 to 200 nm (nanometers) wavelength, and
thereby prevent these harmful radiations from
entering the Earth's atmosphere.
 Ozone Layer depletion
• Ultraviolet radiations (UVR), are high energy
electromagnetic waves emitted from the Sun. UV radiation
includes UV-A, the least dangerous form of UV radiation,
UV-B, and UV-C, which is the most dangerous.
• UV-C is unable to reach the Earth's surface due to
stratospheric ozone's ability to absorb it.
• The real threat comes from UV-B, which can enter the
Earth's atmosphere, and has adverse effects.
• Ozone layer depletion first captured the attention of the
whole world in the latter half of 1970, and since then, a lot
of research has been done to find its possible effects and
causes.
 Ozone layer
• The process of absorption of harmful radiation
occurs when ozone molecules split up into a
molecule of oxygen, and an oxygen atom.
• The oxygen atom (O), again combines with the
oxygen molecule (O2) to regenerate an ozone
(O3) molecule.
• Thus, the total amount of ozone is maintained by
this continuous process of destruction, and
regeneration
 Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen (O3), found in the

Earth's atmosphere.
• A combination of low temperatures, elevated
chlorine and bromine concentrations in the upper
stratosphere are responsible for the destruction of
ozone.
• The production and emission of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), is the leading cause of ozone layer depletion.
• CFC's accounts for almost 80% of the total depletion
of ozone.
 Causes of Ozone Depletion……….
• Other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), include hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• These are often found in vehicle emissions, byproducts of industrial
processes, refrigerants, and aerosols.
• ODS are relatively stable in the lower atmosphere of the Earth, but in the
stratosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation and thus, they break
down to release a free chlorine atom.
This free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3), and forms
chlorine monoxide (ClO), and a molecule of oxygen.
• Now, ClO reacts with an ozone molecule to form a chlorine atom, and two
molecules of oxygen.
• The free chlorine molecule again reacts with ozone to form chlorine
monoxide.
• The process continues, and this results in the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Effects of Ozone Depletion
• As ozone depletes in the stratosphere, it forms
a 'hole' in the layer.
• This hole enables harmful ultraviolet rays to
enter the Earth's atmosphere.
• Ultraviolet rays of the Sun are associated with
a number of health-related, and
environmental issues.
 Effects of Ozone Depletion………..
• Impact on Humans
Skin cancer: Exposure to ultraviolet rays poses an increased risk of developing
several types of skin cancers, including malignant melanoma, basal and
squamous cell carcinoma.
•
Eye damage: Direct exposure to UV radiations can result in photokeratitis
(snow blindness), and cataracts.
Immune system damage: Effects of UV rays include impairment of the immune
system.
• Increased exposure to UV rays weakens the response of the immune system.

• Accelerated aging of skin: Constant exposure to UV radiation can cause photo

allergy, which results in the outbreak of rash in fair-skinned people.

• Other effects: Ozone chemicals can cause difficulty in breathing, chest pain,
throat irritation, and hamper lung functioning.
 Effects on Amphibians
• Ozone depletion is listed as one of the causes for the
declining numbers of amphibian species.
• Ozone depletion affects many species of amphibians at
every stage of their life cycle.
• Some of the effects are :
• Hampers growth and development in larvae
Changes behavior and habits .
• Causes deformities in some species
Decreases immunity.
• Some species have become more vulnerable to diseases
and death
Retinal damage and blindness in some species
 Effects on Marine Ecosystems
• In particular, plankton (phytoplankton and
bacterioplankton) are threatened by increased UV
radiation.
• Marine phytoplankton play a fundamental role in both
the food chain as well as the oceanic carbon cycle.
• Plankton play an important role in converting atmospheric
carbon dioxide into oxygen.
• Ultraviolet rays can influence the survival rates of these
microscopic organisms, by affecting their orientation and
mobility.
• This eventually disturbs and affects the entire ecosystem.
 Impact on Plants
In some species of plants, UV radiation can alter
the time of flowering, as well as the number of
flowers.
Plant growth can be directly affected by UV-B
radiation.
• Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these
effects, physiological and developmental
processes of plants are affected.
• Another observation is an increase in the ozone
present in the lower atmosphere due to the
decrease in the ozone in the stratosphere.
 Impact on Plants………..
• Ozone present in the lower atmosphere is mainly
regarded as a pollutant and a greenhouse gas, that can
contribute to global warming and climate change.
• However, studies have pointed out that the lifespan of
lower atmospheric ozone is quite less, compared to
stratospheric ozone.
• At the same time, increase in the level of ozone in the
lower atmosphere can enhance the ability of sunlight
to synthesize vitamin D, which can be regarded as an
important beneficial effect of ozone layer depletion.
 Impact on Plants……..
• Growing concern for ozone depletion led to the adoption of
the Montreal Protocol in 1987, in order to reduce and
control industrial emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• Such international agreements have succeeded to a great
extent in reducing the emission of these compounds.
• However, more cooperation and understanding among all
the countries of the world is required to mitigate the
problem. You too can do your bit to save the ozone.
• Use/buy more recycled products, save energy, take public
transport, and, most importantly, spread awareness.
• Our individual efforts can go a long way in saving the
Earth's blanket.
 Air Quality Monitoring
• Air quality measurement instruments and methods
• Instruments for measurements of air quality may vary in complexity and
price from the simplest passive sampler to the most advanced and most
often expensive automatic remote sampling system based upon light
absorption spectroscopy of various kinds.
• Air monitoring methodologies can be divided into four main generic types,
covering a wide range of costs and performance levels: continuous
analyzers, active manual samplers, passive samplers and remote sensing
devices.
• Each of these methodology types have advantages and disadvantages.
• Each type can be particularly useful in achieving certain monitoring
objectives.
• Therefore it is important to consider each type of monitoring method in
optimizing a monitoring network design.
 Air quality measurement instruments and
methods

• Relatively simple equipment is usually adequate to

determine background levels (for some pollutants),
to check Air Quality Guideline values or to observe
trends.
• Also for undertaking simple screening studies,
passive samplers may be adequate.
• However, for complete determination of regional air
pollution distributions, relative source impacts, hot
spot identification and operation of warning systems
more complex and advanced monitoring systems are
needed.
 Passive Samplers
• Simple passive samplers have been developed for observation
of time integrated gas concentrations.

• These types of samplers are usually inexpensive in use, simple

to handle and have an adequate overall precision and accuracy
dependent upon the air pollution concentration level.

• This method has been used in industrial areas, in urban areas

and for studies of indoor/outdoor exposures for variety of
pollutant like as ammonia (NH3), benzene-toluene-xylenes
(BTX), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3),
hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), aldehydes,
and volatile organic compounds (VOC).
.
 Passive Samplers…….

• Passive samplers include items such as diffusion tubes and

badges.
• They tend to be simple and low cost, and can be install in
large numbers with no reliance on access to electrical
connections.
• This type of sampler is useful for screening studies, for
mapping, and for baseline studies.
• While the samplers are often used for monitoring O3, NOx
and SO2, the technology is unproven for some pollutants.
• Passive samplers are labor-intensive for their operation
and analysis.
• Passive samplers generally provide only monthly or weekly
averages
 Passive Samplers……..

• Passive samplers are an excellent tool for saturation

sampling.
• This involves the collection of many samples in a
small, well-defined area over a short duration, to
provide an in-depth characterization.
• Saturation sampling is typically conducted to gather
data necessary to properly site long-term monitoring
devices.
• The passive sampler incorporates an adsorbing
surface, pre-treated depending upon the target gas.
 Passive Samplers……..

• The adsorbing surface is placed within a

cylindrical enclosure that has a diffusive surface,
allowing the target gas to reach the adsorbing
surface.
• The sample is exposed for between 1 and 7 days
or more depending upon the target gas and the
expected ambient concentration.
• The sample is then extracted and analyzed using
a variety of standard laboratory methods
 Active samplers

• Active samplers draw ambient air through a

collecting medium for some specified time, typically
24 hours, with the volume of air being metered.
• The collecting medium is subsequently analyzed
and the concentration of pollutant in the sampled
air is determined.
• Active sampling methods are usually low cost and
easy to operate.
 Active samplers…….……
• The active sampling methodologies offer reliable
performance, with an extensive historical database
because most of these methods have been in
operation for many years.
• Active sampling methods require labor-intensive
sample collection and analysis, and require
laboratory analysis after the ambient air sample is
collected.
 Active samplers………
• Manual sampling is event-specific, that is, the sampler
usually operates over a fixed period of time
accumulating and integrating sample.
• Integrating measurement methods, although
fundamentally limited in their time resolution, are
useful for the assessment of long-term exposure, as
well as being invaluable for a variety of area-screening,
mapping and network design functions.
• Manual sampling is still widely used world-wide
because manual methods offer a wider variety of
pollutant monitoring and can be relatively
straightforward.
 Active samplers………
• In the past, active sampling of gaseous
pollutants was typically carried out.
• This can be done by using wet absorption
techniques, where sample air is introduced
into a liquid reagent through impingers.
• The pollutant is absorbed in the reagent and
the reagent is then analyzed using various
methods (usually some sort of
chromatography) to determine the
concentration of pollutant in the batch
sample.
 Active samplers………
• Another method of batch sampling is where
sample air is drawn through a porous bed of
solid adsorbent over a period of time.
• The pollutant is then extracted from the
adsorbent and analyzed.
 Active samplers………
• Collection efficiencies from this type of sampling
apparatus can often exceed 90%.
• Sampling for most ambient air toxics involves the
collection of grab samples and subsequent
analysis using gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) or high performance
liquid chromatography.
• The grab sample is usually collected on an
absorbent material or in a specially treated,
chemically inert cylinder or bag.
 Active samplers………
• The sampling method is dependent upon the
target compound, analysis method and
sampling environment.
 Canister sampling

• Canister sampling can be used for volatile

hydrocarbons up to C9.
• Air samples are collected in stainless steel canisters
by the aid of a pump or just by opening the valve
of an evacuated canister.
• The canisters are sent to the laboratory for analysis
and then cleaned by evacuating it.
 Adsorbent tubes

• Adsorbent tubes can be used for sampling of a wide

number of volatile organic compounds.
• The tubes can be filled with different kinds of
adsorbents, depending of which components of
interest.
• When used as a passive sampler, there is no need for
any extra equipment.
• To decrease the minimum sampling period or to
improve the detection limit, the tube can be connected
to a pump.
• Adsorbent tubes are not suitable for some of the most
volatile hydrocarbons.
 Absorption bottles

• The most commonly used active device for gaseous sampling

has been the bubbler with an absorption solution, often
together with a filtration system.
• A chemical solution is used to stabilize the pollutant for
subsequent analysis with minimum interference by other
pollutants.
• Samplers have also been used with impregnated filters based
on the iodide absorption method.
• The flow is set with a restrictor and measured with a mass flow
meter.
• In the sequential version of these samplers the desired start
time can be set to start sampling at the same start time every
day at 24 hour intervals.
 Impregnated filter sampling

• A relatively simple alternative to the use of solutions for

absorption and chemical reaction is to use chemically
impregnated filters.
• These filters are prepared by dipping filters into a
solution of the selected chemical and drying them
before sampling commences.
• This sampler consists of a glass bulb with an
impregnated filter inside.
 Impregnated filter sampling………

• The impregnated filter bulb is connected to a

calibrated pump that draws a steady airflow
through the filters.
• After exposure, the filter and the pollutant of
interest react with the chemical on the filter.
• The filter is sent to the laboratory for analysis.
• The detection limit is better than for the other
methods but the method is more labor intensive
and depends of extra sampling equipment such
as a high precision electric pump.
 High and low volume sampler

• For measurements of ambient suspended

particles the most accurate way to determine
aerosol mass concentration is to pass a known
volume of air through a filter.
• Each filter has to be weighed unexposed, before
being installed in the sampler.
• The weighing should be performed in weighing,
the filter is placed in the plastic bag with zip
tightening and marked with station identification
and/or number.
 Size selective samplers
A variety of sampling devices are available that segregate
collected suspended particulate matter into discrete size
ranges based on their aerodynamic diameters.
• These particle samplers may employ one or more
fractionating stages.
• The physical principle by which particle segregation or
fractionation takes place is inertial impaction.
• Therefore, most such devices are called impactors.
• Other impactors have been developed to fractionate
suspended particles into two size fractions, i.e., coarse
(from 2.5 to 10 μm) and fine (less than 2.5 μm).
• Although these virtual or dichotomous impactors operate
like a typical inertial unit, large particles are impacted into a
void rather than an impervious surface.
 High volume PUF-sampler

• The high volume PUF-sampler can be used for sampling

of a wide range of organic pollutants like poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), dioxins, pesticides (like DDT), etc.
• The sampler consists of a glass cylinder and a filter
holder.
• The glass cylinder holds two polyurethane foam (PUF)
plugs for trapping the gas phase of the pollutants.
• The filter holder in front contains a glass fiber for
collecting pollutants condensed on particles.
• The air is drawn through the sampler by a pump and
500 m3 of air would be a typical sample volume for a
24-hour sample.
 Continuous monitors

• The analyzers are connected to a data acquisition

system and an automatic gas calibration unit to
provide regular quality control checks for the
data.
• Continuous analyzers provide high resolution
measurements (typically hourly averages or
better) at a single point for most of the "Criteria
Pollutants" (SO2, NO2, CO, O3 and PM) as well as
for other important species such as VOC.
 Continuous monitors……………..
• The sample is analyzed on-line and in real time,
usually by electro-optic methods: UV or IR
absorption, fluorescence, or chemiluminescence
are common detection principles.
• To ensure that data from continuous emission
monitoring systems are accurate and reliable, a
high standard of maintenance, operational and
quality assurance and quality control procedures
is invariably required.
 Continuous monitors……………..
• The advantages of continuous analyzer
systems are that they offer a proven
technology, high performance, hourly data,
and/or on-line information.
• Disadvantages of continuous emission
monitoring systems include the complexity
and cost of the instrumentation, the
requirement for a high level of skill in the
operation of the instrumentation, and high
recurrent costs.
 Continuous monitors……………..
• It can also take time to ensure the instruments
are stable and therefore, it may not be
possible to move the station on a daily basis.
• A good source of power supply is necessary
and it may be difficult to ensure stable and
continuous power at all locations.
 Continuous monitors……………..
• Methods and instruments for measuring continuous air pollutants
must be carefully selected, evaluated and standardized.

• Several factors must be considered:

Specificity: respond to the pollutant of interest in the presence of
other substances
• Sensitivity: range from the lowest to the highest concentration
expected
• Stability: remain unaltered during the sampling interval between
sampling and analysis
• Precision: accurate and representative for the true pollutant
concentration in the atmosphere where the sample is obtained
• Response time: short enough to record accurately rapid changes in
pollution concentration
• Ambient temperature and humidity: no influence on the
concentration measurements
 Remote sensors
• Remote sensors have recently been developed. They use long-path
spectroscopic techniques to make real-time concentration
measurements of a range of pollutants.
• The data are obtained by integrating along a path between a light
source and a detector.
• Long-path monitoring systems can have an important role in a
number of monitoring situations, particularly in proximity to
sources.
• Remote sensing systems provide path or range-resolved data with
multi-parameter measurements and are useful near emission
sources.
However, the remote sensing systems are very complex, expensive
and difficult to support, operate, calibrate, and validate.
• Data from remote sensing systems are not readily comparable with
point data, and the operation of remote sensing systems is
susceptible to problems due to atmospheric visibility and other
interferences.
 Typical air pollutant concentrations
and methods of measurement
• The table below lists the typical air pollutant
concentration of interest involved in
monitoring air quality:
 Typical air pollutant concentrations and
methods of measurement
• The most commonly used methods for
automatically monitoring air pollutants such as
those above are
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Measured by the fluorescent
signal generated by exciting SO2 with UV light.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Measured by the
chemilumiscent reactions between NOx and O3.
• Ozone (O3): Measured by an ultraviolet
absorption analyzer which determines the ozone
concentration by the attenuation of 254 nm UV
light along a single fixed path cell.
• Particulate matter (PM-10, PM-2.5 and
TSP): Measured by gravimetric methods including
true micro weighing technology.
• For automatic monitoring an instrument named
"Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance
(TEOM)" has been most frequently used.
• Measurement on filter tape using the principles
of beta attenuation for estimating 30 minute or
one hour average concentrations of PM-10 or
PM-2.5 has also been used.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): In urban air pollution studies, a
non-dispersive infrared photometer utilizing gas filter
correlation technology and state-of-the-art optical and
electronic technology is used to measure low
concentrations of CO accurately and reliably.
• Hydrocarbons (Methane and NMHC): Measured using a
flame ionization detector (FID).
• However, problems in power supplies may interrupt
these continuous measurements.
• Volatile Organic compounds (VOC): Measured by gas
chromatography and photo-ionization detector (PID).
 Biomonitoring of air pollution
• Biomonitoring of air pollution with plants has been a
common practice for many decades.
• Some plant species are sensitive to specific single
pollutants or to mixtures of pollutants.
• Those species or cultivars are likely to be used in order
to monitor the effects of air pollutants as bioindicator
plants.
• They have the great advantage to show clearly the
effects of phytotoxic compounds present in ambient
air.
• As such they are ideal for demonstration purposes.
However, they can also be used to monitor temporal
and spatial distributions of pollution effects.
 Biomonitoring of air pollution……
• Standardisation of methods is crucial in order to develop
air quality standards based on effect monitoring.
• More recently new methods to detect microscopic effects
(e.g. mutagenicity) and biochemical disturbances have
been presented and are very promising, but need to be
developed further.
• Effects on growth and yield need a specific experimental
approach, as those effects are not specific and need to be
compared to ‘normal’ growth and yield.
• Those effects have an economic link whilst biochemical
changes have implications towards food and fodder crop
quality.
• Both effects are of increasing importance for
biomonitoring work.
 Biomonitoring of air pollution
• Many plants are useful as bioaccumulators and the choice
of species depends on the aims of bio-monitoring.
• Is monitoring environmental pollution, as such, the main
purpose or is it to study the impact on ecosystems or the
transfer of pollutants to the food chain?
• Mosses and lichens accumulate heavy metals and other
compounds very efficiently because of their large specific
surface and slow growth.
• As such they serve mostly as passive biomonitors to
provide an indication of the pollutant impact at the
ecosystem level.