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yalavarthi vishalMicroplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their
siz Microplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their size . There
are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific literature, and they may
overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in the narrow sense”
(50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined as <50 μm or <1
[ 31 ]
μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , used in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components.
These particles are most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle
effect on the skin compared to nat Microplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
.
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their size . There
are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific literature, and they may
overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in the narrow sense”
(50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined as <50 μm or <1
[ 31 ]
μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , used in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components.
These particles are most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle
effect on the skin compared to nat Microplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
.
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their size . There
are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific literature, and they may
overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in the narrow sense”
(50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined as <50 μm or <1
[ 31 ]
μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , u Microplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their size . There
are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific literature, and they may
overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in the narrow sense”
(50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined as <50 μm or <1
[ 31 ]
μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , used in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components.
These particles are most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle
effect on the skin comp Microplastics
Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia
Stable version , tested on August 13, 2025.
Microplastics are small particles of plastic . There is no single standard for classifying microplastics
by size in the scientific literature, but they are often defined as particles smaller than 5 mm .
Microplastics are formed as a result of mechanical wear of plastic products during their use (e.g. car
tires , fishing nets , synthetic clothing), and are also produced initially in the form of primary
microgranules .
Most microparticles enter the environment (aquatic ecosystems and soils) through wastewater and
surface runoff . By 2025, microplastics have been found almost everywhere - from Arctic ice to
deep-sea sediments in the Mariana Trench . According to UNEP , from 19 to 23 million tons of
plastic waste enter lakes, rivers and seas every year. The main sources of microplastics are wear
and tear from tires, synthetic clothing and paints, although some of the waste breaks down into
microparticles . Wind can carry plastic particles for tens and even hundreds of kilometers, spreading
them far beyond the emission sites. In soils, the concentration of microplastics can significantly
exceed the indicators of aquatic environments and reach millions of particles per kilogram. The
impact of microplastics on soils, where they can enter with wastewater, has not been sufficiently
studied. Studies indicate its harmful effects on soil structure and plant growth, although in some
cases neutral and even slightly positive effects are possible - for example, stimulation of plant growth
at low concentrations and for certain types of microplastics .
Microplastics have been found in various human tissues and organs, including the lungs, liver, heart,
and brain. Particles are even present in products such as bottled water , tea , vegetables , and fruits
. According to the 2022 World Health Organization report , the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on
human health remain poorly understood, and conclusions about possible effects are tentative.
Scientists are considering potential risks including inflammatory processes, metabolic disorders, and
effects on the reproductive and cardiovascular systems . Research shows that microplastics can
accumulate in the bodies of animals of various species, from plankton to large marine mammals,
and enter food chains. The scale and nature of its impact on flora and fauna continue to be studied .
To reduce pollution, measures are proposed at the international level: development of a circular
economy , reduction of the production of single-use plastic, improvement of wastewater treatment
systems and legislative restrictions. At the global level, there is still no unified agreement on
measures against plastic pollution .
Content
1
Detection
2
Classification
2.1
By size
2.2
By origin
2.2.1
Primary
2.2.2
Secondary
2.3
By form
3
Main sources
3.1
Car tires
3.2
Cosmetics and hygiene products
3.3
Paints and coatings
3.4
Plastic granules (pellets)
3.5
Textile microplastics
3.6
Disposable plastic products
3.7
Fishing
4
Spreading
4.1
In the aquatic environment
4.2
Atmosphere
4.3
Soil
4.4
Animal organisms
4.5
The human body
5
Consequences
5.1
For human health
5.2
For the animal world
5.3
For the soil
6
Solutions
6.1
Practical measures
6.1.1
Bioplastic
6.1.2
Treatment facilities
6.1.3
Shoreline Cleaning
6.1.4
Production reduction and recycling
6.2
Systemic measures and initiatives
6.2.1
Circular Economy
6.2.2
Extended Producer Responsibility
6.2.3
Legislative initiatives
6.2.4
International cooperation
6.3
Alternative solutions
7
See also
8
Notes
9
Literature
Detection
“I was doing research on the coast and I noticed that there were lots of little plastic fragments accumulating
there. So I decided to get some students involved and we started doing beach cleanups. I wondered,
‘Which of these particles are the smallest?’ The students took sand samples from the beach and when we
looked at them under a microscope we saw that there were particles in the sand that were clearly plastic.
That’s how we discovered microplastics – particles so tiny that some were thinner than a human hair. It
turns out they’re already polluting coastal waters in the UK.
In a paper we published in 2004 in Science , we showed that marine organisms were able to ingest these
particles. And when we looked at older samples, it became clear that the amount of these tiny fragments —
which we called “microplastics” — had been increasing significantly since the 1960s.”
[English] [1]
— From Richard Thompson's memoirs on the discovery of microplastics in 2004
[2]
Since the 1950s, plastic production has become global in scale . The first scientific and public
discussions about the problem of plastic pollution began in the late 1960s: large fragments of plastic
began to accumulate on shores and beaches, and scientists first discovered traces of it in the bodies
[3]
of marine animals . The problem received widespread attention only in the 1980s, when reports
began to come in about plastic accumulations in remote regions, such as the island territories of
Alaska , as well as direct harm to wildlife: animals became entangled in plastic waste, swallowed it
[4]
and died from exhaustion or suffocation . The first studies of large plastic waste were conducted
[5]
mainly on the coast of the United States and the European coasts of the Atlantic .
The term "microplastics" was first used by the US Air Force Research Laboratory in 1968 to describe
,
microscopic damage to plastic materials caused by mechanical stress. Initially the term had no
environmental significance and was used solely in an engineering context to describe deformations
[6][7][8]
of large plastic parts .
first
In 2004, marine biologist Richard Thompson used the term "microplastics" to describe plastic
particles around 20 micrometres in size collected from the beaches and coastline of Plymouth ,
[9]
England . His study, published in the journal Science , was the first significant scientific paper to
identify microplastics as a distinct category of pollutant and initiated an intensive study of the
[ 10 ]
phenomenon . In 2008, the first scientific conference devoted to studying the impact of
microplastics on living organisms, assessing environmental risks, and possible measures to reduce
[5]
their spread was held in the United States . Since then, the term "microplastics" has entered
[6] [ 11 ] [ 6 ] [
scientific circulation , and the number of studies on this topic continues to grow rapidly
8]
.
Researchers predict that the amount of microplastics will only increase. As journalist Matt Simon
points out in his book A Poison Like No Other: How Microplastics Corrupted Our Planet and Our
Bodies , microplastics have already become an “omnipresent poison,” penetrating all ecosystems
[ 12 ]
and even the human body . According to the projected volumes of plastic pollution in general –
including macro- and microplastics – the volume of plastic waste will increase until at least the
middle of the 21st century, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In the baseline “no
action” scenario, by 2050 the annual volume of plastic waste in the environment will reach 66.1
million tonnes, which is expected to lead to an increase in the volume of microplastics due to the
[ 13 ]
gradual breakdown of macroplastic waste . According to a study published in 2021, even if
plastic production were to stop completely at that point, the waste that has already
accumulated—about 5 billion tons—would continue to break down into microparticles that cannot be
[ 14 ]
removed or collected . The researchers estimate that global annual emissions of microplastics
[ 15 ]
into the atmosphere in 2023 were about 0.324 million tons . By reducing microplastic emissions
into the ocean by more than 5% annually, its levels in surface waters could stabilize by the end of the
century. Even with such a reduction, the total microplastic “load” would still double by 2100
[ 16 ]
compared to 2026 levels. With less drastic measures, pollution would continue to grow . If
current trends continue, microplastic concentrations in agricultural soils could reach levels already
used in laboratory experiments—up to 0.67% of soil mass by 2122. Particularly rapid accumulation
[ 17 ]
is observed in fertilized soils .
Classification
The key problem in the study of microplastics remains the lack of a unified classification. The term
"microplastic" has long been used without a clear definition, which makes it difficult to compare
results and gives rise to terminological ambiguity. In the scientific literature, particles are usually
[ 18 ] [ 19 ]
classified according to four main features: size , origin , shape and chemical composition .
Existing classification schemes cover only part of the physical and chemical characteristics of
microplastics - they are focused mainly on spherical particles and are not very applicable to fibers,
[ 20 ]
films and fragments . The morphology and composition of microparticles depend on the
environment of origin: fragments predominate in soil, while fibers predominate in water and air.
Different types of polymers have different degrees of stability and biodegradability. An important, but
rarely taken into account parameter is the electric charge of particles, which affects their behavior in
[ 20 ]
biological and soil systems . The lack of a unified approach to taking these properties into
[ 20 ]
account complicates the assessment of potential environmental and toxicological risks .
Despite the diversity of forms and sources, microplastics as a category share a number of
characteristic properties related to their microscopic size. Such particles are difficult to detect with
the naked eye; they are easily carried by wind and water currents, pass through filtration systems,
and easily enter the organisms of animals. In food chains, microplastics can accumulate and be
transferred from lower to higher links, even reaching humans. In addition, the surface of
microplastics quickly becomes covered with a bacterial biofilm capable of adsorbing organic
[ 21 ]
pollutants, increasing the toxicity of the particles .
By size
Electron microscope photograph of a plastic microbead , 2016
Microplastics are most often defined by size, although the upper and lower limits are not clearly
[ 22 ]
established . Some authors interpret the term broadly, including particles with a diameter of less
[ 23 ] [ 24 ]
than 5 mm, while others propose narrower criteria - less than 2 mm, 1 mm or even 500 µm
.
The most common definition of microplastics is plastic particles ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm.
Microplastics can be irregular in shape, so the classification takes into account the size along at
least one axis, which allows the definition to include both spherical particles and fibers, films, and
fragments. The upper limit of 5 mm is due to the maximum size at which particles can be absorbed
by marine biota . The lower limit of 1 μm is due to the technical capabilities of analytical methods,
such as microspectroscopy, which do not reliably detect and identify particles of smaller sizes. This
definition is used in regulatory documents of various countries and international organizations,
[ 22 ] [ 6 ]
including the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the European Union
[ 25 ] [ 18 ] [ 26 ] [ 19 ]
. This classification has a number of disadvantages. In particular, most studies
focus exclusively on the upper limit of 5 mm, despite the fact that particles of 5 mm and 50 µm differ
significantly in physicochemical properties, environmental mobility and toxicological effects. The
chemical composition of microplastics varies depending on their origin. The most frequently
mentioned types of microplastics in field and laboratory studies are polyethylene (PE, mentioned in
[ 27 ]
23% of studies), polystyrene (PS, 22%), polypropylene (PP, 12%) and polyester (PES, 9%) .
These materials are widely used in packaging, disposable tableware, textiles, pipes and medical
[ 28 ] [ 19 ]
equipment .
The heterogeneity in defining the sizes and types of microplastics makes it difficult to compare data
from different studies. Size is most often defined as the length of the longest axis, although thickness
[ 29 ] [ 18 ]
and volume are also important parameters when interacting with organisms . An alternative
approach is to define microplastics in the range of 1 μm to 1 mm, which is conveniently consistent
[ 19 ]
with the units of measurement of the International System of Units .
To improve accuracy, a number of scientists have proposed introducing additional terminology that
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
would allow plastic particles to be divided into subcategories based on their size . There
are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific literature, and they may
overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in the narrow sense”
(50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined as <50 μm or <1
[ 31 ]
μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , used in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components.
These particles are most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
effect on the skin compared to natural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary
microplastics include plastic dust generated during industrial production and when using plastic
products in everyday life
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
ared to natural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary microplastics include
plastic dust generated during industrial production and when using plastic products in everyday life
sed in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components. These particles are
most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle effect on the skin
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
compared to natural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary microplastics
include plastic dust generated during industrial production and when using plastic products in
everyday life
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
ural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary microplastics include plastic dust
generated during industrial production and when using plastic products in everyday life
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
ural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary microplastics include plastic dust
generated during industrial production and when using plastic products in everyday life
[ 30 ] [ 24 ]
e . There are several options for classifying plastic particles by size in the scientific
literature, and they may overlap. For example, “small microplastics” (1–100 μm) and “microplastics in
the narrow sense” (50–500 μm) reflect different approaches. Similarly, “nanoplastics” can be defined
[ 31 ]
as <50 μm or <1 μm, but are most often understood to mean particles smaller than 1 μm .
● Nanoplastics are particles typically smaller than 1 µm, approximately 100 times smaller
[ 32 ]
than the diameter of a human hair . Due to their microscopic size, they are virtually
undetectable by standard visual analysis methods. Nanoparticles are highly reactive ,
capable of penetrating cell membranes and causing inflammatory and oxidative reactions
[ 33 ]
. Being tens of times smaller than eukaryotic cells , nanoplastics can affect
biological systems at the molecular and subcellular levels. Their presence has already
[ 34 ] [ 32 ]
been recorded in the placenta , blood, lungs and breast milk of humans .
Research on nanoplastics is complicated by technical difficulties in their identification and
[ 35 ]
analysis in biological samples . This is due to their special properties - they are very
small and mobile, have a large surface area relative to their mass, and can also release
chemicals added to the plastic during production into the environment. Therefore,
nanoplastics are increasingly considered as a special type of pollutant that requires a
[ 36 ] [ 37 ]
separate approach to study and control .
● Small microplastics are particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 µm. Due to their small
size, they are highly bioavailable and can adsorb various pollutants, including heavy
metals , persistent organic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. These particles easily
accumulate in filter feeders such as mussels, oysters, and zooplankton , and can be
[ 30 ] [ 38 ]
further transmitted through food chains .
● Large microplastics are particles between 100 µm and 5 mm in size. These particles are
easier to identify using filtration, microscopy and spectroscopy , and are therefore the
most studied category of microplastics. Large microplastics are regularly found in
[ 39 ]
seawater, soil, sediments and atmospheric dust .
By origin
Microplastics are classified by origin as primary or secondary. In most cases, it is difficult to reliably
determine the origin of specific particles, so this classification is only used when the source of
[ 40 ]
microplastics can be identified with a high degree of certainty . However, differentiation by origin
has practical implications for developing measures to reduce pollution, such as banning the use of
microbeads in cosmetics or preventing the fragmentation of plastic products by reducing the volume
[ 19 ]
of plastic waste in the environment .
Primary
Microfiber cloth , 2008
[ 41 ]
Primary microplastics are intentionally produced in microscopic sizes . The most common form
is microbeads , used in cosmetics and hygiene products as exfoliants or abrasive components.
These particles are most often made of polyethylene , since its smooth surface has a more gentle
[ 42 ] [ 43 ]
effect on the skin compared to natural abrasives , which have a rough structure . Primary
microplastics include plastic dust generated during industrial production and when using plastic
products in everyday life
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