Give short answers to the following questions.

1. Structural elements can be failed in five different ways. Explain briefly.

01.Tension failure
Tensile stress is greater than Tensile strength of the material, then fails.
(Tension failure happens when a material is pulled apart and cannot resist the tensile force applied
to it.)
Tension failure happens when -----> Tensile Stress>Tensile Strength
Example: A cable snapping under excessive weight.

02.Compression failure
Stress due to the Applied load is greater than the material’s compressive strength, then fails.
(It occurs when a material or structural member cannot withstand the compressive forces (pushing
forces) acting on it, leading to buckling, crushing, or cracking.)
When compressive stress > compressive strength, the material cracks or shatters
Example: A column buckling under heavy load

03. Bending failure

Bending failure happens when the bending stress exceeds the bending strength of the material.
It occurs when a structure bends too much and breaks.
Example: A beam breaking in the middle due to a heavy load

04. Torsion failure

Torsion failure happens when the Torsion stress exceeds the Torsion strength of the material.
Torsional Stress>Torsional Strength
Torsion failure happens when a material or structural member is twisted beyond its capacity,
causing it to crack, deform, or break.

05. Shear failure

When the internal shear stress exceeds the shear strength of the material. (The shear resistance is
less than the shear stress then it will break)
Shear failure occurs when a material or structure breaks or slides apart due to opposing forces
acting across a surface. It's like the layers of a material being cut or torn in opposite directions.
Example : In reinforced concrete, if there's not enough shear reinforcement (stirrups), the beam
might crack diagonally and fail – this is shear failure.

2. What are the two types of specifications used in the construction industry?

In the construction industry, the two primary types of specifications are:

Method Specifications

• These detail exactly what materials, products, and installation methods

should be used.
• They provide specific brand names, types, sizes, compositions, workmanship
standards, and other criteria.
• Contractors are expected to follow these instructions precisely.
• Example: “Use 20 MPa concrete with 10mm aggregate and a slump of 75mm.”
Advantages:
• Clear expectations and control over quality.
• Easier for quality assurance during construction.

End Specifications
• These specify the expected outcome of a component or system, rather than how
to achieve it.
• They do not prescribe specific materials or methods—contractors can use any
solution that meets the stated requirements.
• Example: “The roof shall withstand wind speeds up to 150 km/h without leakage.”
Advantages:
• Offers flexibility and innovation in how the contractor meets the goals.
• Encourages cost-effectiveness and alternative materials or methods.
3. Soil can be classified into six categories. What are those?

Soil is commonly classified into the following six categories based on its physical and
engineering properties in the construction and geotechnical engineering context:
1. Gravel
• Coarse particles, typically larger than 2 mm.
• Good drainage and load-bearing capacity.
• Commonly used in foundations and road bases.
2. Sand
• Particles between 0.075 mm and 2 mm in size.
• Good drainage, but poor cohesion.
• Often used in concrete and as a base material.
3. Silt
• Fine particles, between 0.002 mm and 0.075 mm.
• Poor drainage and low strength when wet.
• Can be unstable and is sensitive to water.
4. Clay
• Very fine particles, smaller than 0.002 mm.
• High plasticity and cohesion.
• Expands and contracts with moisture, which can affect structures.
5. Peat (Organic Soil)
• Contains a high amount of decomposed organic matter.
• Very compressible and poor for supporting loads.
• Often avoided in construction unless specially treated.
6. Loam
• A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
• Considered ideal for agriculture but not typically used structurally.
• Has moderate strength and water retention.
4. Complete the detail below to 1"-2'-0" scale using the following reinforcements and
draw the plan. Footing-Y 10 @ 6" both ways, Column-4Y12, R6 @ 8"
 �--Mo--4Y12·12
.-1,1--R6·04· 8"

11 1/2" 9" x· 9" RCC

COLUMN SHAFT
1"
2'-0"

3"
12"
9"

8"
4'-0"

�---4Y12·03

1 1/2"
8"

3'-0"

7Y10-01-6" 7Y10-02-6"
2" THICK LEAN
CONCRETE· U,6 (40)

SECTION X-X
7Y10-01-6"

7Y10-02-6"
3'-0"

3'-0"

FOOTING
5. Draw section A-A to show details of the foundation to 1"=4'-0" scale. Draw outside
plinth to 2" and inside plinths should not be visible at level drops. Mark center lines
and give all dimensions from center lines for excavation of foundation trenches. Use
given foundation detail for whole building
GL-1'-0" GL-1'-0"

2'-0"

2'-0"
2'-2"

2'-3"

2'-6"
0'-4" 0'-11" 1'-1" 0'-2"
0'-4" 0'-11" 0'-11" 0'-4"
1'-3" 1'-3"
1'-3" 1'-3" 1'-1" 0'-2"
1'-3"
8'-0" 12'-0" 10'-0" 5'-0"

SECTION A-A
Assumption - Dimensions are denoted as wall center to center
6. Complete and draw the given beam using following reinforcement to 1"-2'-0" scale.
a) Top reinforcement 2Y16. B) Bottom reinforcement 2Y12. C) Top Tension bars 2Y16.
D) Bottom compression bars 2Y12. E) Stirrups R6 @ 6'c/c
Show all bar numbers. Mark dimensions as standard and draw sections A-A and B-B to
1"=1'-0" scale
 3'-4" 3'-4" 2'-8" 2'-8"
2Y16-01
A 2Y16-02 2Y16-03 2Y16-04
01 03 03 04 B
02

01

02

04
21R6-07-6" 17R6-07-6"
05

05
06 06 08 08
A B
2Y12-05 2Y12-06 2Y12-08

11'-0" 9'-0"

02 02 02 0404 02
1'-10"

1'-10"
07 07

05 06 06 05 05 08 08 05
1'-4" 1'-4"

SECTION A -A SECTION B - B
 7. Explain briefly.

a) what is concrete?
Concrete is one of the most important and widely used construction materials in the world.
It is a mixture made from cement, sand, gravel (or crushed stones), and water. When these
materials are combined in the right proportions, they form a paste that can be poured into
different shapes. After some time, this mixture hardens and becomes very strong, making
it suitable for many types of construction work.

Cement acts as the binding material in concrete. When water is added to cement, a
chemical reaction takes place called hydration, which causes the concrete to harden over
time. Sand and gravel are called aggregates, and they help give concrete its strength and
stability. Water helps with the chemical reaction and makes the mix workable before it sets.

Concrete is used for building houses, roads, bridges, dams, and many other structures.
One of its biggest advantages is that it can be poured into molds of any shape and size
before it hardens. Once it sets, it becomes a durable and long-lasting material. It is also
fire-resistant, weather-resistant, and relatively low-cost, which makes it popular in the
construction industry.

b) How do we prepare concrete?

Preparing concrete on a construction site is a common and important activity in building work.
Concrete must be mixed properly to get good strength and durability. Here are the main steps
followed to prepare concrete on site:

1. Collecting Materials
The first step is to gather all the required materials. These include:
• Cement (the binding material)
• Fine aggregate (usually sand)
• Coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stones)
• Clean water
Sometimes, admixtures are also added to improve workability or strength.

2. Measuring the Ingredients

To make good quality concrete, the materials must be measured in the correct ratios, such as
1:2:4 (1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel). This ensures the mix is strong and
consistent.
3. Mixing the Materials
Concrete can be mixed in two ways:
• Manual Mixing:
Materials are placed on a clean platform or sheet. First, dry materials (cement, sand, and
gravel) are mixed well. Then water is added slowly while mixing continues until the
concrete is smooth and uniform.
• Machine Mixing:
A concrete mixer is used on larger sites. All the materials are placed inside the mixer, and
it rotates to mix them evenly.

4. Transporting the Concrete

After mixing, the concrete should be transported quickly using buckets, wheelbarrows, or concrete
pumps to the place where it will be used. It should not take too long, or the concrete may begin to
set.

5. Placing and Compacting

The fresh concrete is placed in the mold, slab, or formwork. It is then compacted using rods or
vibrators to remove air bubbles and to make sure it fills every corner.

6. Finishing the Surface

The top surface of the concrete is leveled and smoothed using trowels or screeds, depending on
the final finish required.

7. Curing the Concrete

After the concrete sets, it needs to be kept moist for at least 7 to 14 days. This process is called
curing, and it helps the concrete gain full strength and prevents it from cracking.
c) mention 3 concrete mixing ratios and places where we use them.
8. Give a short description of the following items
a) Reinforcement

Reinforcement refers to steel bars or mesh that are placed inside concrete to make it stronger and more
durable, especially in tension.

b) Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. So, reinforcement helps resist tension forces,
prevent cracking, and improve the overall strength of concrete structures like beams, columns, slabs, and
foundations.
c) The most common type of reinforcement is steel bars, also known as rebar (reinforcing bar). These
bars are usually ribbed to bond well with concrete.

d) Clear cover

e)
Clear cover is the distance between the outer surface of a concrete structure and
the nearest surface of the reinforcing steel (rebar) inside it.
This cover is very important because it:
• Protects the steel from rusting and corrosion.
• Provides fire resistance to the reinforcement.
• Ensures proper bonding between the concrete and steel.
The required thickness of clear cover varies depending on the structure type and
exposure conditions, typically ranging from 20 mm to 75 mm.
Example: For a beam in a building, a clear cover of 25 mm is usually provided.

f) Main reinforcement.

Main reinforcement refers to the primary steel bars placed in reinforced concrete
(RCC) structures like beams, slabs, and columns to resist the tensile (pulling) forces.
Since concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension, steel bars are added to
carry the tension loads. The main reinforcement is usually placed in the bottom part of
beams and slabs, where tension is the highest.
9. Give reasons for using reinforcement.

Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension (pulling or bending forces). Reinforcement,
usually steel bars, is added to concrete to overcome this weakness and improve its overall performance. Here
are the main reasons for using reinforcement:
1. To Resist Tensile Forces
Concrete cracks easily under tension. Reinforcement provides the strength needed to carry these
tensile stresses safely without cracking.
2. Increase Structural Strength
Reinforced concrete can carry much higher loads compared to plain concrete, making it suitable for
beams, columns, slabs, and other structural elements.
3. Control Cracking
Reinforcement helps control the size and spread of cracks caused by shrinkage, temperature changes,
and loading.
4. Improve Durability and Safety
By carrying tensile loads and controlling cracks, reinforcement helps the structure last longer and stay
safe for use.
5. Allow Flexible Structural Design
Reinforced concrete can be molded into many shapes and sizes while still being strong, allowing
architects and engineers to design creative and efficient structures.
10. Draw Plan and Section of R.C.C. column footing to approximately 1:20 scale &
section of the column to approximately 1:10 scale using following details. a)
Footing size 1200x1200 mm.
b) Footing height 200 mm.
c) Lean concrete 75 mm.
d) Depth of column pit 1000mm from ground level.
e) D.P.C. level 300mm from ground level
Column size 225x225.
g) Footing R/F-Y10 @ 150 B/W
h) Column R/F-4Y16 & R10 @ 200mm.

11. Complete and draw the given staircase sections using following reinforcement to 1:25
scale. a) Main reinforcement Y10 @ 150. B) Distribution bars Y10 @ 200.
Show all bar numbers. Mark dimensions as standard.