AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UINT - V
5.1 Landslide Hazard Zonation : Case Studies
Landslide hazard is commonly shown on maps, which display the spatial distribution
of hazard classes (Landslide Hazard Zonation). Landslide hazard zonation refers to “the
division of the land in homogeneous areas or domains and their ranking according to
degrees of actual / potential hazard caused by mass movement” (Varnes 1984).
Landslide failures have caused untold number of causalities and huge economic losses.
In many countries, economic losses due to landslides are great and apparently are growing
as development expands into unstable hillside areas under the pressure of expanding
populations. Inspite of improvements in recognition, prediction, and mitigation measures,
worldwide landslide activity is increasing. The factors causing this expected augmented
activity are :
 Increased urbanization and development in landslide prone areas.
 Continued deforestation of landslide prone areas, and
 Increased regional precipitation caused by changing climate patterns.
At least 90 % of landslide losses can be avoidable if the problem is recognized before the
development or deforestation begins. Hence, there is a dire need for identification of
existing and potential unstable slopes. In this chapter more emphasis has been given to
review the past studies on LHZ mapping by various approaches using Remote Sensing and
GIS.

5.1.1 Uses of Landslide Hazard Zonation

The LHZ maps have multi uses, some of which are listed below.
 The LHZ maps identify and delineate unstable hazard-prone areas, so that
environmental regeneration programmes can be initiated adopting suitable
mitigation measures.
 These maps help planners to choose favorable locations for sitting development
schemes such as townships, dams, roads and other developments.
 General purpose master plans and landuse plans.
 Discouraging new development in hazard prone areas.
 Choice of optimum activity pattern based on risk zones.
 Quick decision making in rescue and relief operations.
Even if the hazardous areas cannot be avoided altogether, their recognition in the
initial stages of planning may help to adopt suitable precautionary measures. Clearly

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such maps have a large number of users, including several government departments and
private agencies as well as NGO’s involved in any type of development, construction of
disaster management work.

5.1.2 Mapping Scale for Landslide Hazard Analysis

The amount and type of data has to be stored in a GIS for landslide management
depends very much on the level of application, or the scale of the project management.
Natural hazards information should be included routinely in development planning
and investment project preparation. Development and investment projects should include
a cost / benefit analysis of investing in hazard mitigation measures, and weigh them against
the losses that are likely to occur if these measures are not taken.
Selecting the working scale for a slope instability analysis is determined by the purpose
for which it is executed. The following scales of analysis, which were presented in the
International Association of Engineering Geologist’s monograph on engineering geology,
can also be distinguished in landslide hazard zonation.
 National Scale (<1:1000,000)
 Regional and Synoptic Scale (1:100,000 - 1:1000,000)
 Medium Scale (1:25,000 - 1:50,000)
 Large Scale (1:5,000 - 1:15,000)
 Site investigation Scale (>1:2,000)
The national hazard zonation mapping scale is intended to give a general inventory of
problem areas for an entire country that can be used to inform national policy makers and
the general public. The level of detail will be low.
The regional mapping scale is mean for planners in the early phases of regional
development projects or for engineers evaluating possible constraints due to instability in
the development of large engineering projects and regional development plans.
Medium scale hazard maps can be used for the determination of hazard zones in areas
affected by large engineering structures, roads and urbanization.
The level of application is typically that of a municipality. The use of GIS at this level is
intended for planners to formulate projects at feasibility levels. At this level, the hazard
maps are produced mainly for authority dealing with detailed planning of infrastructural,
housing, or industrial projects, or with evaluation of risk.

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At site investigation scale, the hazard maps are made to plan and design of engineering
structures (buildings, bridges, roads etc), and in detailed engineering measures to mitigate
natural hazards (retaining walls, check dams etc.)

5.1.3 Case Study : Landslide Hazard Zonation in Darjeeling Himalayas

 Landslides pose serious threat to human settlements, transportation, natural
resources management and tourism in the Himalayan Region in India.
 Darjeeling Himalayas in West Bengal province are no exception, where every year
during the monsoon period (between June and September), loss of human lives and
colossal damage to properties take place due to slope instability.
 Darjeeling region witnessed devastating landslides in July 2003 resulting in the
death of tens of people and complete disruption of communication network during
the heavy rainfall.
 Geological Survey of India (GSI) has initiated on priority basis an integrated
multidisciplinary programme on Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) mapping of
the entire Darjeeling region following the tragedy, to demarcate various zones
based on their susceptibility to failure and suggest mitigative measures for
minimizing the losses caused by the landslides.

5.1.4 Geological Setup

 The Darjeeling area in West Bengal, India is bound by Nepal Himalayas in the west,
Sikkim Himalayas in the north, Bhutan Himalayas in the east and by the alluvial
plains in the south.
 One of the most important factors contributing to the landsliding in study area is
its complex geomorphological, geological and seismo-tectonic setup.
 The hill ranges of Darjeeling area are highly rugged, structurally-controlled and are
constantly under the highly dynamic and active denudational (erosional) processes.
Major Himalayan tectonic elements namely Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and
Main Central Thrust (MCT) traverse the southern parts of the area.
 The MCT separates the Proterozoic high grade rocks of Chutang Formation (present
in the north) from the lower grade schists of Gorubathan Formation and Palaeozic
Gondwana sediments.
 These rock formations are tectonically separated from the Siwalik sediments (Plio-
Pleistocene age) by the MBT (Geological Map of India 1998).

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 Several earthquakes ranging in magnitudes between 4.0 and 6.0 were reported in
the recent past (Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its environs 2000).

5.2 Earthquake Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings and Infrastructure :

Case Studies

5.2.1 Earthquake Preparedness and Coping Strategies

This primer will help you in preparing yourself before and during the disaster caused
by earthquakes, and how to cope with such a disaster.
 An earthquake is the sudden motion, trembling or shaking of the ground due to the
rapid release of energy.
 Most earthquakes are due to movement of large slabs of rock called tectonic plates.
When the plates slide or move against each other, the plates may be bent or
stretched.
 The bending or stretching stores energy. Sooner or later, the plates break and shift.
When the break happens, the stored energy is released in the form of waves, which
we feel as earthquake.

Fig. 5.2.1

 The waves spread out from the focus or source of an earthquake in all directions.
As the waves travel away from the focus, they grow gradually weaker. So, the
ground generally shakes less far away from the focus.
 Most earthquakes occur along the boundaries of the tectonic plates. If you live close
to a plate boundary, you will experience more earthquakes than if you lived far
from the boundary. For example, many countries around the Pacific Ocean are often
rocked by earthquakes because they are located near the boundary of the

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Pacific plate.

 Earthquakes occur every day. But most are too weak to be felt by humans. More
than a million earthquakes occur harmlessly every year. In comparison, damaging
earthquakes occur less frequently. The table below shows the frequency of
earthquakes worldwide.

5.2.2 Earthquake Measurement

 Every time there is an earthquake, we always hear or read the words intensity and
magnitude in the radio, on television, and in newspapers. Both terms describe the
strength of an earthquake.
 Intensity is based on the effects a person experiences during an earthquake, and on
the damage caused by the earthquake.
 Magnitude depends on the energy produced by an earthquake. Below is the scale
used in measuring the intensity of earthquakes in the Philippines.
 The intensity scale uses Roman numerals to avoid confusing it with the magnitude
scale, which uses Hindu-Arabic numerals.

Intensity I. Scarcely perceptible

 People under favorable circumstances can feel it.
 Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly.
 Still water in containers move back and forth (oscillates) slightly.

Intensity III. Weak

 Felt by many people indoors, especially in upper floors of buildings.
 Vibration is felt like the passing of a light truck. Some people feel dizzy and
nauseated.
 Hanging objects swing moderately.
 Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

Intensity IV. Moderately strong

 Felt generally by people indoors and some people outdoors.
 Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like the passing of a heavy truck.
 Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner plates, glasses, windows and doors
rattle. Floors and walls of wood-framed building creak. Parked cars may rock
slightly.
 Water in containers oscillates strongly.

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 Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

Intensity V. strong
 Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are
awakened. Some are frightened; some run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking
are felt throughout the building.
 Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken.
Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn.
 Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
 Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees is noticeable.

Intensity VI. Very strong

 Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance.
Motorists feel like driving with flat tires.
 Heavy objects and furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring.
Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly-built houses and man-made structures
are slightly damaged though well built structures are not affected.
 Few rocks fall and boulders roll in hilly and mountainous areas. Trees are
noticeably shaken.

Intensity VII. Destructive

Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in upper
floors.
Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly
built structures suffer considerable damage. Some well-built structures are slightly
damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow
block walls.
Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed, Trees are shaken
strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand loses strength during an
earthquake and behaves like liquid.)

Intensity VIII. Very destructive

People panic. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors.
Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundations
of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken.

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Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and

monuments may tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken.
Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man-made structures to sink, tilt or topple.
Numerous landslides and rock falls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are
thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and fault rupture
may be observed, trees are violently shaken. Water splashes or slops over dikes or banks of
rivers.

Intensity IX. Devastating

People are forcibly thrown to the ground. Many cry and shake with fear.
Most buildings are totally damaged. Bridges and elevated concrete structures are
toppled or destroyed.
Numerous utility posts, towers and monuments are tilted, toppled or broken. Water and
sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken.
Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreading and sand boils are widespread. The
ground is distorted. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders
are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently or slops over dikes and banks.

Intensity X. Completely devastating

 Practically all man-made structures are destroyed.
 Massive landslides and liquefaction, large-scale subsidence and uplifting of land
forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and
destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken or uprooted.
 To determine the strength and location of earthquakes, scientists use a recording
instrument known as a seismograph.
 A seismograph is equipped with sensors called seismometers that can detect
ground motions caused by seismic waves. Some seismometers are capable of
detecting ground motion as small as 1 billionth of a meter, or about 40 billionth of
an inch. A seismograph produces wavy lines that reflect the size of seismic waves
passing beneath it. The record of the wave, called a seismogram, is imprinted on
paper, film, or recording tape or is stored and displayed by computers.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is expressed using the Richter scale. It was
developed in 1935 by United States seismologist Charles F. Richter. The

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magnitude is a measure of the energy released in an earthquake. It is determined

by studying the height of waves recorded in seismograms.
 Every increase of one number in magnitude means the energy released is 32 times
greater. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 releases 32 times as much
energy as an earthquake measuring 6.0. To give you an idea of the magnitude scale,
a quake greater than 7.0 may destroy many buildings.

5.2.3 Epicenter and Earthquake Prediction

 Scientists locate the epicenter by noting how long it takes for the seismic waves to
arrive at different seismograph stations. From the arrival time, seismologists can
calculate how far the source of the earthquake is from each station.
 A circle is drawn around each station using the calculated distance as the radius.
Given three stations, the minimum number needed, there will be three circles. The
intersection of the three circles is the epicenter of the earthquake.
 Earthquakes happen suddenly. Scientists have no way of knowing exactly when or
where the next one will hit. But scientists can make fairly accurate long-term
predictions of where earthquakes will occur. They know, for example, that about
80 percent of the world's major earthquakes take place along a belt encircling the
Pacific Ocean. This belt is called the Ring of Fire because it has many volcanoes,
earthquakes, and other geologic activity.
 Scientists are working to make accurate forecasts on when earthquakes will strike.
Geologists closely monitor certain fault zones where quakes are expected. Along
these fault zones, they can sometimes detect small quakes, the tilting of rock, and
other events that might signal a large earthquake is about to occur.

5.2.4 Case Study : Earthquake Vulnerability Assessment of Buildings in

Uttarkashi Township of Uttarakhand using RADIUS
 Uttarkashi Township is the district headquarters of Uttarkashi district, and is one
of the most vulnerable towns in Uttarakhand when it comes to various natural
disasters.
 The natural calamity in the form of floods and landslides were the most recent
events that struck the town.
 Also, the town is seismically vulnerable too with the calamity of 1991 earthquake
in the region.

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 The present study tries to put things on perspective about the seismic vulnerability
of buildings in the region, estimating the damage if an earthquake of seismic
intensity and magnitude of as in 1991 struck the town again.
 The study area is the municipality town administratively divided into nine wards.
The Ward No. 3 of Gyansu and Ward No. 5 of Gangori making the western and
eastern boundary respectively.
 There is also a good settlement on the southern bank of the river, but the
municipality only covers the northern bank of the river with the area of
2.51 [Link]. The town has crescent shape with a considerable amount of
longitudinal variation.
 Thus the average length of town is manifold of the average breadth. The perimeter
of the town is 15.86 km, mostly covering the lengths along the River Bhagirathi in
the south and southeastern extremities, while the Varunavat Parvat marks its
northern boundary.
 The town is located in the longitudinal valley of river Bhagirathi, the south and
southeastern boundaries are marked by the Bhagirathi, while a small area in the
north-eastern flank of town is drained by Asi Ganga, a tributary of Bhagirathi.
According to 2012-13 survey of Municipal Corporation, Uttarkashi, the town has
3184 buildings in total.
 There was significant damage to many buildings in the past earthquake of 1991.
 The number of buildings has grown since then, but so is the craft in the building.
Now, most of the buildings are reinforced concrete frame building with brick infill
construction and are taking over the stone masonry construction that is more
prevalent at the time.
 The scenario taken has the same occurrence time as the original earthquake on 2:53
am in the morning.
 The present study analyses and calculate the damages to a prospective earthquake
of same magnitude and intensity as that of Uttarkashi strikes it again.
 The damages well exceed from the previous damages that the town experienced in
1991 due to the unplanned extension of town now and a significant increase in
population.

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5.3 Drought Assessment : Case Studies

 Drought is fundamentally the resultant of an extended period of reduced
precipitation.
 It is viewed through its impacts such as soil moisture, streamflow, crop yields, etc.
 As such, the question of predictability of drought must extend to those quantities
as well. Nevertheless, in developing an understanding of drought and its
predictability, it is useful to first consider the physical mechanisms that cause
precipitation deficits and how they vary by time scale.
 Availability of varied definitions of drought reflects the complexity of the natural
disaster cum hydrologic extreme.
 Studies were conducted on drought assessments using different techniques
(conventional such as estimation of relevant hydrologic parameters and advanced
such as Remote Sensing technique, GIS software, etc.) in varied domains of dry land
agriculture, rural / urban contexts, etc.

5.3.1 Estimation of Crop Water Requirement

 Information on crop water requirements is imperative in the planning and
operation of soil and water management strategies.
 Water used by the crops is predominantly lost by transpiration (T) but there are also
evaporative (E) losses from the soil and plant surfaces.
 The amount of water used by plants together with water losses through evaporation
is called evapotranspiration (ET).
 Other potential areas of water loss are due to many meteorological factors such as
humidity, wind speed, temperature etc.
 Estimating evapotranspiration in a locality is a difficult task because it involves
equipments which are considered to be quite costly.
 A lot of research has been undertaken to estimate a kind of reference ET from
meteorological data and convert this to the actual ET.
 There are various methods to calculate ET such as directly using lysimeters, indirect
methods of meteorological factors and pan evaporation data.
 A study sponsored by the United Nations indicates that irrigated agriculture will
need to provide 70 % of the world’s increased food requirements in future indicates
that food production levels needed in 2025 could require upto 2,000 cubic
kilometers of additional water for irrigation.
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 Water management and crop yields can be improved by means of increased use of
reliable methods for estimating crop evapotranspiration (ET).
 More than a score of methods have been proposed and used over the past 50
years.
 Selection of the preferred method should be based on the time step required, site
aridity, equipment costs and operation and maintenance requirements, quality of
the weather data available and the required simplicity of computations.

5.3.2 Drought Studies using Remote Sensing and GIS - Case Study
 National Remote Sensing Agency of India has assessed the drought based on the
analysis of vegetation index map and the greenness map as well as vegetation index
statistics for bimonthly periods for each taluka.
 The satellite based drought assessment and monitoring methodology was
developed based on the relationship obtained between previous years
 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) profiles with the corresponding
agricultural performance available at district level and their relative difference in
the current year.
 The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System
(NADAMS) in a view of the whole country coverage, envisages the use of data from
NOAA satellites with 1.1 km resolution, for generation of weekly composited
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) maps of country.
 The NDVI is a transformation of reflected radiation in the visible and near infrared
bands of NOAA AVHRR and is a function of green leaf and biomass.
 The various approaches presented above have not tried to quantify the water
deficiency during an agricultural drought, which is relevant from the water
resources engineering point of view.
 It is tried to quantity the water deficiency during an agricultural drought and the
method considers the soil moisture in the form of an Antecedent Precipitation Index
(API).

5.4 Coastal Flooding : Storm Surge Assessment

 Floods can be caused by unusually high tides, or storm surges. Land in estuarine
areas (enclosed coastal body of brackish water) can be at particular risk of flooding
as high river flows, marine tides and storm surge effects can act either alone or in

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combination to produce high water levels.

 Storm surges are episodes of high sea level caused by strong winds, often
increased further by unusually low air pressure.
 Storm surges usually affect in the fall and winter seasons, when strong low
pressure systems pass by offshore.
 During a storm surge, periods of strong winds drive water towards the shoreline,
significantly increasing the sea level.
 If the wind is blowing towards an estuary, the surge effect can be boosted even
more, as the water is funnelled into the estuary area.
 The longer strong onshore winds persist, the greater the surge effect.
 Low air pressure literally sucks the sea surface upward, and this effect can be
significant with intense low pressure systems.
 The worst surge impacts are caused when a surge due to wind and low pressure
coincides with an unusually high tide.
 Sea levels can be raised over a metre above normal tide predictions. The impact of
a storm surge may be offset if there is coastal sea ice present, although if the ice
breaks up, it can add to the damaging effect of flooding and wave action.
 Storm surges can also be caused by tropical storms systems (hurricanes).
 The combination of high winds, heavy wave action and flooding during a storm
surge can cause extensive damage to affected areas.

 A flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits,

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especially over what is normally dry land.

5.4.1 Fluvial Floods (River Floods)

 A fluvial, or river flood, occurs when the water level in a river, lake or stream rises
and overflows onto the surrounding banks, shores and neighboring land. The water
level rise could be due to excessive rain or snowmelt.
 The damage from a river flood can be widespread as the overflow affects smaller
rivers downstream, which can cause dams and dikes to break and swamp nearby
areas.
 To determine the probability of river flooding, models consider past precipitation,
forecasted precipitation, current river levels, and well as soil and terrain conditions.
 The severity of a river flood is determined by the duration and intensity (volume)
of rainfall in the catchment area of the river.
 Other factors include soil water saturation due to previous rainfall, and the terrain
surrounding the river system.
 In flatter areas, floodwater tends to rise more slowly and be shallower, and it often
remains for days.
 In hilly or mountainous areas, floods can occur within minutes after a heavy rain,
drain very quickly, and cause damage due to debris flow.
 To determine the probability of river flooding, models consider past precipitation,
forecasted precipitation, current river levels, and well as soil and terrain conditions.

5.4.2 Pluvial Floods (Flash Floods and Surface Water)

 A pluvial flood occurs when an extreme rainfall event creates a flood independent
of an overflowing water body.
 A common misconception about flood is that you must be located near a body of
water to be at risk.
 Yet pluvial flooding can happen in any location, urban or rural; even in areas with
no water bodies in the vicinity. There are two common types of pluvial flooding:
 Surface water floods occur when an urban drainage system is overwhelmed and
water flows out into streets and nearby structures.
 It occurs gradually, which provides people time to move to safe locations, and the
level of water is usually shallow (rarely more than 1 meter deep). It creates no
immediate threat to lives but may cause significant economic damage.

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 Flash floods are characterized by an intense, high velocity torrent of water triggered
by torrential rain falling within a short amount of time within the vicinity or on
nearby elevated terrain.
 They can also occur via sudden release of water from an upstream levee or a dam.
 Flash floods are very dangerous and destructive not only because of the force of the
water, but also the hurtling debris that is often swept up in the flow.

5.4.3 Coastal Flood (Storm Surge)

 Coastal flooding is the inundation of land areas along the coast by seawater.
Common causes of coastal flooding are intense windstorm events occurring at the
same time as high tide (storm surge) and tsunamis.
 Storm surge is created when high winds from a windstorm force water onshore,
this is the leading cause of coastal flooding and often the greatest threat associated
with a windstorm.
 The effects increase depending on the tide - windstorms that occur during high tide
result in devastating storm surge floods.
 In this type of flood, water overwhelms low-lying land and often causes devastating
loss of life and property.
 The severity of a coastal flood is determined by several other factors, including the
strength, size, speed, and direction of the windstorm.
 The onshore and offshore topography also plays an important role. To determine
the probability and magnitude of a storm surge, coastal flood models consider this
information in addition to data from historical storms that have affected the area.

5.4.4 Assessing Fluvial Flood Risk in Urban Environments : A Case Study

 Nowadays, floods are among the most impactful calamities regarding costs.
Looking at the natural hazards damage data collected in the International Disaster
Database (EM-DAT), it is observable a significant increase over the past four
decades of both frequency of floods and associated costs.
 Similarly, dramatic trends are also found by analyzing other types of flood losses,
such as the number of people affected by floods, homeless, injured or killed.
 To deal with the above-mentioned rise of flood risk, more and more efforts are
being made to promote integrated flood risk management.

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 The main goals of this research are the estimation of flood damages using the
KULTU Risk methodology and the comparing of the projected costs with the
observed one.
 The case study is the 2002 flood in Eilenburg, a town in Germany.
 According to KULTU Risk methodology, two major classes of data are considered
to evaluate flood risk damage : hydraulic data as regards Hazard and economic
information to assess Exposure and Vulnerability.
 This study shows the possibility to extend the lesson learned with the Eilenburg
case study in other similar contexts.
 The economic impact of floods has grown significantly over the past four decades.
 In particular, looking at the natural hazards damage data provided by the
International Disaster Database one can see a significant increase in terms of
frequency of floods and related costs.
 Furthermore, similar trends could be also appreciated by analyzing other types of
flood losses, such as the number of people affected by floods, homeless, injured or
killed.

5.4.5 Urban Pluvial Flooding : A Qualitative Case Study of Cause, Effect and
Nonstructural Mitigation
 Historically, flood risk management in the United Kingdom has mainly
concentrated on river and coastal flooding, yet flooding from surface water runoff
is a risk to urban areas.
 A comprehensive study of the causes, the impact and the consequences as well as
the management of serious pluvial flooding in Heywood, Greater Manchester, in
2004 and 2006 revealed that the victims of the floods were unprepared, ill- informed
and confused as to responsibilities before, during and after the event.
 Householders had to rely on their insurers for loss mitigation, but the response of
the insurance industry was varied and inconsistent, and there were difficulties in
building in resilience after the event.
 In 2006, only one property was on the Office of the Water Regulator DG 5 Register
on the basis of previous flooding.
 Thus the area falls between the responsibilities of the Local Authority (LA), the
environment agency and the water utility.
 The people affected do not know whom to turn to for assistance.
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 A way forward may be through the establishment of an overriding agency to

provide a coherent voice and strategic guidance, supported by dedicated flooding
experts within LA planning departments, the adaptation of buildings for flood
resilience and through changes within the insurance industry.

Kerala Floods - Case Study

 Kerala recently witnessed one of the worst floods in its history. Twelve out of
14 districts were affected.
 More than 450 human lives were lost and resulted in destruction valued at more
than ₹ 25,000 crore.

Be prepared for possible mega-disaster

 Often, disasters come without clear notice or warning, and hence we need to be
prepared to launch a large response involving multiple stakeholders at different
levels all the time.
 Failure to do this will only escalate the human casualties, suffering and damage to
property.

Learn ways to manage water

 A large part of India is prone to hydrological disasters on account of drought, floods
and cyclones.
 At various levels, need to learn to manage scarcity as well as excess water.
 Growing urbanisation and effects of climate change are forcing us to do this with
greater urgency.
 Need to take a careful look at integrated dam management, proper contour and
precipitation inundation maps, formulate effective land management laws and
ensure their enforcement.
 Use of better technology, ensuring political will at different levels and institution
alising resolve to enforce rules and regulations is the need of the hour.

Disaster management instruments

 The centre and different state governments have formulated acts, plans, protocols
and other instruments for effective disaster management in the country.
 The 2005 Disaster Management Act enacted by Parliament, 2016 National Disaster
Management Plan from National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), various
Guidelines from NDMA, state government acts and notifications are some of them. There
should be a concerted effort to put these guidelines and plans into action.

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Better forecast and effective synergy
 Weather forecasting needs to become more effective.
 To achieve this, not only the science of forecasting but also its dissemination and
follow-on actions after the forecast need to be improved. Agencies such as India
Meteorology Department (IMD), Central Water Commission (CWC) and Indian
National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) should have pre- notified
national and state-level agency liaison protocols for appropriate information and
warning.

Plan for critical infrastructure

 Significant public resources are invested to set up critical infrastructure such as
airports, railway stations and others.
 They need to have appropriate disaster management plans to ensure they are well
protected from disasters.
 It is sad to see some critical infrastructure facilities like airports which were critical
to mounting a response were shut as they were impacted.
 For example, airports in Chennai, Vishakhapatnam and now Cochin were closed
due to recent disasters. It will be interesting to learn what lessons they learned and
whether adequate plans will in place to ensure their safety in the future and
strengthened ability to respond in future.

Ensure better coordination

 This is one area where there is always scope for improvement.
 Worldwide, different governments are dealing with this issue with great attention.
 A situation where multiple stakeholders come together suddenly needs to be
coordinated well to make response effective, and this is easier said than done.
 NDMA issued an Incident Response System (IRS) guidelines in 2010, to strengthen
disaster response management and planned event management (such as Kumbh
Mela).
 Based on these guidelines, some state governments have notified IRS in their states
but many are yet to act on this.
 There is also a need to strengthen IRS training and its implementation during
disaster response.

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 Establishing a Unified Command consisting of multiple responding agencies is one

of the strategies discussed in IRS.
 This is pertinent in large disasters as multiple agencies such as Military, National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF), Fire Services, Police, Coast Guard and others
come together for search and rescue operations. Unified Command involving these
agencies will help in common planning and clear demarcation of geographies for
effective rescue and response action.

Promote support to NGOs

 It is once again demonstrated that the NGOs can move in quickly and support relief
efforts in a meaningful manner.
 Due to their flexibility, NGOs are able to address the specific needs of the survivors.
 NGOs need resources to undertake their efforts and the government should help
NGOs and promote their efforts to enable them to raise resources.
 One way the government can support NGOs is by creating a level playing field by
provisioning tax exemptions to the donors on par with the tax exemptions available
for the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund and Chief Minister’s Relief Fund.
 In absence of a level playing field, NGOs will find it difficult to raise resources.

Strengthen local capacities

 The fishing community of Kerala moved quickly and participated in rescue
operations shoulder to shoulder with the national rescue agencies.
 This very well demonstrates the importance of local capacities to deal with
disasters.
 There should be clearly articulated efforts to strengthen community capacities to
cope with disasters.
 Suitable system and operational procedures should also be in place to extend
government support to local community efforts during disasters.
 The fishermen of Kerala could achieve what they have, due to the support
government extended to them.

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5.5 Forest Fire : Case Studies

5.5.1 Forest Fire

 The most common hazard in forests is forests fire.
 Forests fires are as old as the forests themselves.
 They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna
and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment
of a region.
 During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered with
dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the
slightest spark.
 The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning
regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that
region.
 Forest fire causes imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by reducing
faunal and floral wealth.
 Traditional methods of fire prevention are not proving effective and it is now
essential to raise public awareness on the matter, particularly among those people
who live close to or in forested areas.

5.5.2 Causes of Forest Fire

Forest fires are caused by natural causes as well as man-made causes
 Natural causes - Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which
set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much
damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer
favorable circumstance for a fire to start.
 Man-made causes - Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette
or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable
material.
 Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. Themenace has been
aggravated with rising human and cattle population and the consequent increase
in demand for forest products by individuals and communities. Causes of forest
fires can be divided into two broad categories : environmental (which are beyond
control) and human related (which are controllable).

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 Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as

temperature, wind speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere
and duration of dry spells.
 Other natural causes are the friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity
and rolling stones that result in sparks setting off fires in highly inflammable leaf
litter on the forest floor.
 Human related causes result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, for example :

5.5.3 Wildland Fire Behaviour Case Studies and Fuel Models for
Landscape-Scale Fire Modeling
 This work presents the extension of a physical model for the spreading of surface
fire at landscape scale. In previous work, the model was validated at laboratory
scale for fire spreading across litters.
 The model was then modified to consider the structure of actual vegetation and was
included in the wildland fire calculation system Forefire that allows converting the
two-dimensional model of fire spread to three dimensions, taking into account
spatial information.
 Two wildland fire behavior case studies were elaborated and used as a basis to test
the simulator.
 Both fires were reconstructed, paying attention to the vegetation mapping, fire
history, and meteorological data.
 The local calibration of the simulator required the development of appropriate fuel
models for shrubland vegetation (maquis) for use with the model of fire spread.
 This study showed the capabilities of the simulator during the typical drought
season characterizing the Mediterranean climate when most wildfires occur.
 In this paper, two wildland fire behaviour case studies were reconstructed to test
the performances of a physical model of fire spread coupled with Forefire simulator.
 Fuel models were developed to consider typical shrubland vegetation for these
Mediterranean areas.

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 The asynchronous front tracking method used to propagate the fire front allowed
simulating both case studies with a computational time significantly lower than real
time (about 30 s simulation for 4 hours of spreading).
 Such simulation times opens the way for new practices in wildfire simulation,
where many fighting scenarios can be tested in a short amount of time and many
virtual fires can be started from a large number of possible ignition points.
 Simulated results were in good agreements with observation for the fire perimeter
and the rates of spread in both case studies.
 The sensitivity of the model to wind field and fuel models was studied. It was
shown that custom fuel models improve the coherency of the simulation. These fuel
models are characterized by a higher live to dead fuel ratio, in comparison with the
standard fuel model FM4 of Anderson.
 Local wind field data increase the performance of the simulation by depicting the
local increase in rate of spread. However, two case studies are not sufficient to
validate the simulator.
 Information derived from databases of actual fires that occurred in Mediterranean
areas will be used to provide an extensive calibration and validation of the
simulator.
 Enhancements of the simulation system are planned in order to model the cooling
effect of the wind during counterflow fires and to take into account the effects of
the relative humidity on the fire dynamics during the night.

5.6 Man Made Disasters : Case Studies

 These are mostly caused due to certain human activities. The disasters themselves
could be unintentional, but, are caused due to some intentional activity. Most of
these are due to certain accidents - which could have been prevented - if adequate
precautionary measures were put in place : Nuclear leaks, chemical leaks, terrorist
attack, structural destroy etc.
 Actions taken depend in part on perceptions of risk of those exposed.
 Effective emergency management depends on thorough incorporation of
emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government involvement.

5.6.1 Bhopal Gas Tragedy

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident

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in India, considered one of the world’s worst industrial disasters.

 It occurred on the night of 2-3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited
(UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
 A leak of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals from the plant resulted in the
exposure of hundreds of thousands of people.
 A government official declaration in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries
including 38,478 temporary partial and approximately 3,900 severely and
permanently disabling injuries.
 There were mass funerals and mass cremations as well as disposal of bodies in the
Narmada River. 170,000 people were treated at hospitals and temporary
dispensaries. 2,000 buffalo, goats, and other animals were collected and buried.
 The gas cloud was composed mainly of materials denser than the surrounding air,
stayed close to the ground and spread outwards through the surrounding
community.
 The early effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a
feeling of suffocation.
 Owing to their height, children and other people of shorter height inhaled higher
concentrations.
 The events in Bhopal revealed that growing industrialization in developing
countries without concurrent evolution in safety regulations could have terrible
consequences.
 Even without enforcement, international standards could provide norms for
measuring performance of individual companies engaged in hazardous activities
such as the manufacture of pesticides and other toxic chemicals in India National
governments and international agencies should focus on widely applicable
techniques for corporate responsibility and accident prevention as much in the
developing world context as in advanced industrial nations specifically, prevention
should include risk reduction in plant location and design and safety legislation.
 Local governments clearly cannot allow industrial facilities to be placed within
urban areas, regardless of the evolution of land use over time. Industry and
government need to bring proper financial support to local communities so they
can provide medical and other necessary services to reduce morbidity, mortality
and material loss in the case of industrial accidents.

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 The Bhopal disaster could have changed the nature of the chemical industry and
caused a reexamination of the necessity to produce such potentially harmful
products in the first place.
 Safety procedures were minimal and neither the American owners nor the local
management seemed to regard them as necessary. When the disaster struck there
was no disaster plan that could be set into action.
 We need to introduce a system of laws which will make them liable for higher
standards of safety.
 Multinationals operating in India, must agree as a condition of doing business that
they will submit to the jurisdiction of the Indian courts both civil and criminal.
 They must agree to be responsible for the acts of their subsidiaries and not disown
them like rats leaving a sinking ship
 Prevention is better than cures. Lesson learned from this manmade disaster is to
understand the nature of disaster before it occurs and implement better disaster
management system in place.
 When series of accidents occurred frequently in Bhopal plan, if prevented on time
properly by Union Carbide India Limited they could avoided this nightmare.
 The dead may not have been so unlucky after all. The end came horribly, but at least
the nightmare was brief.

Mitigations of Such Disaster in Future

The lessons we learn from this unfortunate accident have had a significant impact on
process safety and how we should be educated and trained to prevent future accidents :
 Safety culture : No safety measures that can prevent an accident if there is not a
safety culture that governs the behaviour of management and employees. In Bhopal
this basic pillar was not present or was weak.
 Safety management : In 1984 safety management systems were not widely
established, although there were recommendations and procedures such as PSM
(Process Safety Management) from DuPont or the Center for Chemical Process
Safety (CCPS) from the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. There were two
major accidents in 1984 (Bhopal and the explosions of PEMEX in Mexico), which
created the need for an organized and systematic approach.

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 Intrinsically safe design : The application of the principles of intrinsically safe

design are those that offer the best results. In Bhopal the main cause of the disaster
was unnecessary storage of large quantities of MIC, which ultimately was what
caused the mass poisoning.
 Knowledge transfer based on learning from accidents. The Bhopal accident still
provides valuable lessons after 30 years. Concepts such as “zero accidents” or “total
inherent safety” arose as a result of accidents in 1984 as well as what was coined by
Professor Trevor Kletz, one of the fathers of modern chemical safety: “Why should
we publish accident reports?”.

5.6.2 Chernobyl Disaster

 The Chernobyl disaster was caused by a nuclear accident that occurred on Saturday
26 April 1986, at the No. 4 reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the
city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR.
 It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history and was caused by one of only
two nuclear energy accidents rated at seven, the maximum severity, on the
International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear disaster in Japan.
 The accident started during a safety test on an RBMK-type nuclear reactor, which
was commonly used throughout the Soviet Union.
 The test was a simulation of an electrical power outage to aid the development of a
safety procedure for maintaining reactor cooling water circulation until the back-
up electrical generators could provide power.
 This gap was about one minute and had been identified as a potential safety
problem that could cause the nuclear reactor core to overheat.
 It was hoped to prove that the residual rotational energy in a turbine generator
could provide enough power to cover the gap.
 Three such tests had been conducted since 1982, but they had failed to provide a
solution.
 On this fourth attempt, an unexpected 10-hour delay meant that an unprepared
operating shift was on duty.
 During the planned decrease of reactor power in preparation for the electrical test,
the power unexpectedly dropped to a near-zero level.

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 The operators were able to only partially restore the specified test power, which put
the reactor in a potentially unstable condition.
 This risk was not made evident in the operating instructions, so the operators
proceeded with the electrical test.
 Upon test completion, the operators triggered a reactor shutdown, but a
combination of unstable conditions and reactor design flaws caused an
uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction instead.
 A large amount of energy was suddenly released, vaporising superheated cooling
water and rupturing the reactor core in a highly destructive steam explosion.
 This was immediately followed by an open-air reactor core fire that released
considerable airborne radioactive contamination for about nine days that
precipitated onto parts of the USSR and western Europe, before being finally
contained on 4 May 1986.
 The fire gradually released about the same amount of contamination as the initial
explosion.
 As a result of rising ambient radiation levels off-site, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) radius
exclusion zone was created 36 hours after the accident.
 About 49,000 people were evacuated from the area, primarily from Pripyat.
 The exclusion zone was later increased to 30 kilometres (19 mi) radius when a
further 68,000 people were evacuated from the wider area.
 The reactor explosion killed two of the reactor operating staff.
 In the emergency response that followed, 134 station staff and firemen were
hospitalized with acute radiation syndrome due to absorbing high doses of ionizing
radiation.
 Of these 134 people, 28 died in the days to months afterward and approximately 14
suspected radiation-induced cancer deaths followed within the next 10 years.
 Among the wider population, an excess of 15 childhood thyroid cancer deaths were
documented as of 2011.
 The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) has, at multiple times, reviewed all the published research on the
incident and found that at present, fewer than 100 documented deaths are likely to
be attributable to increased exposure to radiation.

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 Determining the total eventual number of exposure related deaths is uncertain

based on the linear no-threshold model, a contested statistical model, which has
also been used in estimates of low level radon and air pollution exposure.
 Model predictions with the greatest confidence values of the eventual total death
toll in the decades ahead from Chernobyl releases vary, from 4,000 fatalities when
solely assessing the three most contaminated former Soviet states, to about 9,000 to
16,000 fatalities when assessing the total continent of Europe.
 To reduce the spread of radioactive contamination from the wreckage and protect
it from weathering, the protective Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus was
built by December 1986.
 It also provided radiological protection for the crews of the undamaged reactors at
the site, which continued operating.
 Due to the continued deterioration of the sarcophagus, it was further enclosed in
2017 by the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement, a larger enclosure that allows the
removal of both the sarcophagus and the reactor debris, while containing the
radioactive hazard. Nuclear clean-up is scheduled for completion in 2065.
 The Chernobyl disaster is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in
history, both in terms of cost and casualties.
 The initial emergency response, together with later decontamination of the
environment, ultimately involved more than 500,000 personnel and cost an
estimated 18 billion Soviet rubles-roughly US$68 billion in 2019, adjusted for
inflation.
 The accident resulted in safety upgrades on all remaining Soviet-designed RBMK
reactors, of which 10 continue to be operational as of 2019.

Mitigations of Such Disaster in Future

 Tell the truth - After the Chernobyl disaster, the authorities failed to alert the public
to the danger for three days, putting thousands of lives at risk.
 Today, there is still a need for total transparency when it comes to nuclear accidents.
 Evacuate - Soviet authorities were initially in denial over the extent of the crisis and
failed to move people living close to the reactor to safety in the hours and days after
the incident.
 If they had acted sooner, countless lives would have been saved.

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 Closely monitor radiation levels in food - A report from the UN's scientific
committee on the effects of atomic radiation found that a rise in thyroid cancer was
the only substantial medical legacy of Chernobyl in the general population.
 The cancers came about because Soviet authorities allowed children to continue to
drink heavily contaminated milk.
 As a result, many children received high doses of radiation to the thyroid.
 Comply with safety rules - International reports have blamed the poor design of
the Soviet RBMK (High Power Channel-type Reactor), a lack of safety culture at the
plant and errors by operators for the Chernobyl disaster.
 The accident illustrates the importance of complying with basic safety principles
for nuclear power plants.
 Plan ahead - Experts have suggested that the Chernobyl accident demonstrated the
need to establish and support a high-level national emergency response system in
case of man-made accidents.

5.7 Space Based Inputs for Disaster Mitigation and Management and Field
Works Related to Disaster Management
India is prone to many natural disasters like floods, landslides, cyclones, forest fires,
earthquakes, drought, etc. Satellites provide synoptic observations of the natural disasters
at regular intervals that helps in better planning and management of disasters. In order to
better understand the risks due to such disasters, it is necessary to integrate satellite and
field based observations and to work towards risk reduction principles. Satellite
communication and navigation systems also play an important role in disaster
management with improved technological options.
Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programme, comprehensively addresses various
aspects of natural disasters in the country, using space based inputs. ISRO disseminates
relevant information in interactive geo-spatial domain through various geoportals like
Bhuvan, National Database for Emergency Management and MOSDAC for the
administrators to better understand the impact and for improved decision support.
ISRO provides the satellite based near real stime information support to Central
Ministries / Departments and State Ministries / Departments, prior during and after major
natural disasters. In addition, ISRO also provides capacity building in use of Space
technology inputs in Disaster Management Support.

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ISRO is actively involved with various other countries with regard to disaster
management, through international frameworks, such as, International Charter ‘Space &
Major Disasters’, Sentinel Asia, UNESCAP and so on.

A) Cyclones

Preparedness
With large coast line, India is susceptible for cyclones. It is important to understand the
impacts of cyclone, with respect to its earlier footprints, low lying areas, etc, wherein
satellite images provide such inputs. Using historical satellite data and Digital surface
models, these inputs are derived.

Early warning
ISRO uses geo-stationary and low earth orbit satellites for providing experimental
inputs on cyclogenesis, cyclone track, cyclone intensity. INSAT series of satellites with
frequent imaging provide the cyclone parameters for near real time analysis.

Response
Near real time information on inundation due to cyclones is derived, using optical and
microwave SAR data and the information is provided to the concerned departments.
During 2018, ISRO provided information on inundation to Odisha, Andhra Pradesh States
during TITLI, PHETHAI, etc.

B) Floods

Preparedness
Based on integration of historic satellite datasets acquired during major floods in
different States, flood hazard map layers were prepared for Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Entire Country.

Early Warning
Using hydrological modelling of satellite and ground based hydro-meteorological
inputs and digital elevation models, experimental spatial flood early warning systems are
established for selected river reaches like Andhra Pradesh (Godavari), Odisha (Mahanadi)
and Assam (Brahmaputra).

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Response
Near real time information on flood inundation is derived on an operational basis using
optical and microwave SAR data and the information is provided to the concerned
departments of Kerala, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh States.

C) Landslides

Preparedness
Landslides cause huge damages, particularly along pilgrim routes. ISRO prepared
Landslide Hazard Zonation maps for pilgrim routes in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
and [Link] addition, ISRO is also preparing seasonal landslide inventory on regular
[Link] satellite based inputs are very useful for preparedness.

Early Warning
Experimental Landslide Early Warning System for Rainfall Triggered Landslides is
carried out for the following routes namely Rishikesh-Badrinath, Rishikesh-Uttarkashi-
Gaumukh,Chamoli-Okhimath Rudraprayag-Kedarnath and Pithoragarh-Malpa in
Uttarakhand during specific seasons.

Response
Near real time information on landslides is derived regularly during major landslide
events in the country and disseminated through Bhuvan geoportal. Areal extent of
landslide is also estimated using satellite data and DSMs. In addition, in case of river
blockade due to landslide, necessary inputs are provided to Govt. from time to time.

Landslides Hazard Zones

Landslide hazard zonation maps were prepared for selected pilgrim routes in the
country. These zones are delineated based on geological, topological and anthropogenic
factors. These factors include lithology, soil, slope, drainage, lineament, landuse, etc. At
present these maps are available for pilgrim routes in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Meghalaya in addition, event-based and seasonal landslide inventory is also carried out.
The information on landslide inventory and hazard zones help the decision makers for
better planning in these areas.

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Landslides - Karnataka
Landslides occurred in Kodagu, Karnataka due to heavy rainfall in August, 2018. These
events resulted in many damages to existing infrastructure in Dakshina Kannada and
Kodagu districts. Over 900 landslides were identified in various taluks of Kodagu,
Dakshina Kannada and other districts of Karnataka using synoptic satellite data coverages.
These were made available to GSI, Karnataka State Disaster Monitoring Centre and others.

D) Forest fires

Preparedness
ISRO prepares Forest Fire Regime maps using historical forest fires observed from
satellite data. These maps help in identifying critical areas where forest fires are prevalent
and the average duration of forest fires. These details help the decision makers.

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Early warning
Many attempts are made to use multi-criteria approach in GIS environment to provide
early warning and vulnerability maps. More research in such area further continued on
experimental basis.

Response
ISRO regularly prepares Forest Fire alert maps using satellite data and provides to FSI
and other State Forest Departments. This near real time data dissemination through
Bhuvan Geoportal and SMS alerts help forest department for taking quick action. During
2018, burnt area assessment was done for Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir and Tamilnadu.

5.8 Role of Media in Disaster Management

 The media forges a direct link between the public and emergency organizations and
plays a very important role in disseminating vital information to the public before,
during and after disasters.
 The media assists in the management of disasters by educating the public about
disasters; warning of hazards; gathering and transmitting information about
affected areas; alerting government officials, relief organizations and the public to
specific needs; and facilitating discussions about disaster preparedness and
response for continuous improvement.
 To help the media fulfil these roles, direct and effective working relationships
between the media and disaster management organizations should be established
and maintained Experience shows that regular interactions with the media before
a disaster strikes, aids the effective flow of information and lays the groundwork
for effective working relationships in the aftermath of a disaster.

Media and Emergency Response

 In managing disaster - the necessity of "right information at right time" has not
changed for centuries.
 People need warnings ahead of the disaster and then, in its aftermath, data on -
casualties, damage, the supplies and skills that are needed, the best ways to bring
in these resources, the help that is available and is being provided, and so on.
 There are many examples where - public education and the rapid, widespread
dissemination of early warnings saved thousands of lives.

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 In November 1970, for example, a tropical cyclone, combined with a high tide,
struck southeastern Bangladesh, leaving more than 300,000 people dead and
1.3 million homeless.
 In May 1985, a comparable cyclone and storm surge hit the same area. "This time -
there was better local dissemination of disaster warnings and the people were better
prepared to respond to them.
 The loss of life, although still high, was 10,000 or about 3 percent of that in 1970.
 When a devastating cyclone struck the same area of Bangladesh in May 1994, fewer
than 1,000 people died. 1977 cyclone in Andra Pradesh, India killed 10,000
people, while a similar storm in the same area 13 years later killed only 910.
 The dramatic difference -was due to the fact that a new early-warning system
connected with radio stations to alert people in low-lying areas, was put into place.
 On the other side, there are many examples where absence of an alert and warning
system resulted into huge number of casualties and extensive damage of property.
Bhopal gas leak, 1999 super cyclone in Orissa and 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami are
few of the recent example in India where "timely alert" could have saved millions
of lives and enormous property.
 Media is usually defined as impersonal means of communication by which written,
visual or auditory or sometimes a combination of such messages are transmitted
directly to the audiences". In simpler terms, the word media denotes the means of
communication with large number of people spread over communities, cities or
countries through written or printed word or sound and voice or visual images or
a combination ofthese.
 By the definition itself, we understand that media is all organised means of reaching
large number of people, quickly, timely effectively and efficiently. There are two
main characteristics of media.
 It can reach millions of people in short time; even instantaneously.
 Audio media transcends the limits of illiteracy and the visual media can be
effective in a multilingual society as well.
 It is cost effective and generally user-friendly.
 Generally, media provide one way communication I.e. to the receivmg people.

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 AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UINT - V

 Television, radio, newspaper, magazines, audio and video as well as movies are
examples of media. These are very useful in the multilingual traditional and largely
illiterate society in India.
 Types of media : Media may be of various kind; but in disaster management,
following types of media are important :
Print media - Print media (newspapers etc.) have made tremendous progress in India
since 1780, when the first Indian newspaper 'The Bengal Gazette' appeared.
After Independence, the mass media assumed great significance. As per official-
records, more than 25000 different newspapers, magazines and bulletins are being
published from various states in the country in various languages.
 Broadcast media - They comprise radio and television. Messages are transmitted
by these media through satellite and received by viewers and listeners at distant
places of the country very quickly. Radio and T.V. reach more number of people
than print media. In disaster warning and creating awareness, broadcast media are
most effective especially a large multilingual country like India with low level of
literacy. Broadcast media are sometimes termed as Electronic Media although the
latter term would include audio video cassettes.
 Display media - This comprises the following :
 Hoardings or Billboards or illuminated signs which can be displayed at busy
public places like bus stands; railway stations, parks, etc.
 Wall paintings and posters on common places including railway stations, airports
providing specific awareness.
 Small panels on lamp posts or inside or outside buses, railway compartments,
taxis etc.
 Banners
 Window displays
 Sky balloons in trade fairs
 Small handbi lis, leaflets.
 Exhibitions and Fairs where special pavilions may be arranged to deal with the
theme of disaster management.

5.8.1 Importance and Role of Media

Media has a very important role in disaster management. In this context, it performs
major functions mentioned below :
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 AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UINT - V

 Surveillance of the environment, which means collection and distribution of

information concerning events in the climate/environment. A number of climatic
information is potentially related to the natural disasters, which can be
communicated regularly and more frequently at the time of disaster.
 The best example is cyclone, Media can play a very important role in dissemination
of information .such as formation of depression on the sea, its movement towards
the coast, areas likely to be affected, etc.
 Disaster Awareness Education to the masses can be given by media. Today we have
about 50 % illiterate people in India but most of them do have access to radio or
television.
 Long term preparedness and mitigation strategies can be explained effectively to
the masses through various media.
 Media help in policy formulation by conducting public debate or survey or polls.
The media have a strong impact on the perception of and response to disasters. Thus
role of media in a disaster is multipurpose and can be broadly classified in three categories
:
a) Informative
b) Suggestive
c) Analytical

A) Informative role
Media can play informative role in all the three situations :
j) Pre-disaster
ii) At the time of disaster; and
iii) Post-disaster
 In Pre-disaster situation, knowledge of disaster vulnerability of the community is
very important. In monsoon season, rainfall predictions, water level in different
rivers, water flow rate, possible breach of embankment etc. are the pieces of
information extremely useful for the people living in the highly vulnerable areas.
 Media can highlight some of the important mitigation measures, which community
should take up in the vulnerable zones of a natural disaster. Similarly, some of the
success stories of water-shed management in drought mitigation, can be useful in
other drought affected areas of the country.

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 AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UINT - V

 Himalayan region is highly vulnerable to a number of natural disasters

(viz. Earthquake, Landslides, Flash Floods, Avalanches etc.), A concept of
Environmental protection, ecological balance and sustainable development in this
region will certainly help in disaster reduction in the region. Awareness in this
regard can be generated by media only through informative reporting.
 At the time of disaster, accurate information should be the first aim of a journalist.
It needs cooperation between local officials and media. Most of the time the local
officials are unable or unwilling to give information, because of sensitivity or
security reasons or the news is still unconfirmed. In such cases journalist should
depend on reliable sources/agencies working in relief/or unbiased local community
so that right information may reach the people and other national and international
agencies. However, the media has to ensure balanced reporting so as to avoid
unnecessary panic and rumours.
 In post-disaster situation, informative role of the media is to provide correct
information about the continuing impacts of the disaster and the actual needs of the
affected people so that the rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes can be
tailored accordingly. The media helps to keep a check on various agencies which
undertake rehabilitation programmes.

B) Suggestive role
 In a disaster situation, there could be many mitigation measures available.
Sometimes it is difficult to find out the most suitable option for the specific disaster.
For example, Flood is a very common natural disaster. There are many states which
are prone to this disaster like Assam. U.P. Bihar, and West Bengal. .In this context,
media has a significant role in providing suitable suggestions for political attention
and public understanding for most acceptable options.
 Similarly, media has a role in checking activities which might aggravate the adverse
impacts of disasters. In the process of rehabilitation and reconstruction, media can
be used to muster expert opinion and solutions, e.g,'-
 Models of houses uitable building material suitable topography for building new
houses
 Do's and Don't in the construction work.
 Similar suggestions can be provided in the retrofitting of weaker structures and
houses in the earthquake vulnerable areas.

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 AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UINT - V

C) Analytical role
The most critical role of media is analytical. This approach can be applied in analysis
of
 Disaster preparedness
 Disaster mitigation
 Disaster relief
 Disaster rehabilitation
 Disaster management
 Role of various agencies
 There are preparedness plans for each disaster, After the disaster, the effectiveness
of plan and lessons learnt from the disaster should be analysed in a constructive
way.
 It will certainly improve the plan for future use. Similarly, if there are different
mitigation approaches used by Government and non-Governmental Organisations,
the media can highlight both and strive to evolve a balance of approach.
 This type of success stories can be replicated in other parts of the country in similar
situations.
 The analytical role of media is specialy helpful in rehabilitation and. reconstruction-
work after landslide or earthquake disaster.
 The Latur earthquake rehabilitation of more than 50 villages is a good example of
this kind. The media can give views of various role players about the success or
failure of their programme so that it can be a lesson for the authorities and the
mistakes committed once are not repeated in similar circumstances.

5.8.2 Role of Social Media in Disaster Management

 Social media, as a boon to internet users has emerged as the first choice of
communication among the youth world over.
 It is being used phenomenally by the youth these days for connecting with each
other in terms of data sharing, collaborating, exchanging views, and so on.
 In fact, social media has time and again proved its utility during emergency
situation.

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 AKSAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UINT - V

 Be it Nepal earthquake 2015, Cyclone in Odisha 2013 or Floods in Queensland in

2011, social media has played a vital role in informing and bringing the world
together on one platform in dealing with disasters.
 Though, social media fast is becoming one of the widely used mode of
communication, it is important enough that the scope and limitations of social
media are explored and understood.
 Social media provides platform for dissemination of disaster information such as
observing situations in remote areas, public tracking from ground zero, for
collaborative developments such as collecting donations, providing a platform for
people with similar ideologies to unite, and so on.
 While there are positive sides of social media, there is no denying from the fact that
it has its own drawbacks like spreading rumours, promoting ill-fated acts such as
terrorism and cyber-crime like “ransomware”.
 Regardless of the fact that social media is indirectly a breach of privacy, it is gaining
reputation world over for its usefulness.
 In short, this mode of communication is here to stay and grow with time and with
paradigm shift of use of media from one way communication to two way message
dissemination, it equally becomes important that disaster managers include social
media in their scheme of things as well.

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