Engineering Geology

It is a branch of geology that focuses on the

application of geological principles, techniques,
and knowledge to engineering practice.

It involves the study of the Earth's materials,

such as rocks, minerals, soil, and water, with the
aim of providing a comprehensive
understanding of the geological conditions at
construction sites or areas of engineering
interest.

Geo = earth
Logy = study of science

William Smith- known as the Father of Civil Engineering and

the Father of Historical Geology. He was a keen
observer of the rocks in England.

Geologists- concerned with understanding the nature of

natural phenomena.

Branches of Geology

1. Physical or dynamic (al) geology deals with the

materials that constitute the earth, the structure
and surface features of the earth, and the processes
that have given the earth its present structure and
appearance.

2. Historical geology deals with the history of the

earth-its changing face and structure and the
changing forms of living things whose remains or
traces are found as fossils in the rocks.

Important Fields of Geology

1. Mineralogy is the study of minerals, their composition, the ways in which they occur, their crystal
structure, and their behavior. Minerals are the constituents of all soils, rocks, and ores.

2. Petrology is the study of the origin of rocks, their structures and textures, and their alteration.

a. Petrography is the systematic description and classification of rocks.

b. Sedimentation is a specialized branch of petrology that deals with the way in which
sedimentary rocks are deposited in water, air, and ice.
3. Stratigraphy is the description and study of stratified rocks. It is concerned with the distribution,
composition, thickness, age, variations, and correlation of rock strata.

4. Paleontology is the study of fossils, the remains and traces of the life of the past.

5. Structural Geology is concerned with the shape and configuration of the rocks in the crust of the
earth.

6. Glacial Geology is the study of the cause, distribution, erosion, transportation, deposition, and other
effects of the formation of large masses of ice on the continents.

7. Geomorphology means the study of the shape of the earth. It is specifically devoted to the description
and origin of land forms. It is the systematic examination of land forms and the interpretation of them
as records of past history.

8. Oceanography, the study of the oceans, includes investigation of the physiography and structure of
the ocean basins, and the mechanism and nature of waves, tides, and oceanic circulations. It is
concerned with the composition and variations in density of sea water, and with the past history of
the oceans.

9. Meteorology is one branch of geology that has grown so fast it is often considered as a separate field.
It is the study of the atmosphere, weather, and climates. The investigation of ancient climate is called
Paleoclimatology.

10. Geophysics is a branch of experimental physics that deals with the structures, composition, and
development of the earth, its atmosphere, and its hydrosphere. It includes geodesy, seismology,
meteorology oceanography, and earth magnetism.

11. Terrestrial Magnetism is the study of the earth’s magnetic field- its causes, variations, and the history
of changes that have taken place in the position of the field and the poles.

12. Seismology is devoted to the detection and interpretation of earthquake waves. These have proven
to be our best means of investigating the structure and composition of the interior of the earth and
the structure of that part of the crust that is not exposed to direct observation.

13. Geodesy is the investigation of any scientific questions connected with the shape and dimension of
the earth.

14. Geochemistry is defined broadly to include all parts of geology that involve chemical changes. It may
also be defined as the study of the relative and absolute abundances of the elements and of the
atomic species, isotopes, in the earth, and the distribution and migration of the individual elements
in the various parts of the earth.

15. Petroleum Geology is an applied field of geology in which the study of various other branches is
brought to focus on the occurrence and migration of oil.

16. Economic Geology treats the origin, occurrence, and distribution of ore minerals and other
economically important mineral and rock resources.
17. Engineering Geology is the application of geological sciences to engineering practice. The purpose is
to assure that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, operation, and maintenance of
engineering works are recognized and provided for.

18. Hydrology is the science of the distribution and phenomena related to the water on the surface of
the earth. Groundwater geology is concerned specifically with the occurrence, distribution,
movement, and action of underground water.

19. Agricultural Geology is the study of soils, especially of their depletion and erosion.

20. Military Geology is the application of geologic knowledge to warfare.

Applications of Geology in Engineering

1. Site Investigation
• Geological surveys help identify
potential risks such as landslides,
earthquakes, or soil instability.
• Geological maps aid in selecting
suitable locations for construction
projects.

2. Foundation Design
• Understanding the underlying geology
is crucial for designing stable
foundations.
• Different soil and rock types have
varying bearing capacities.

3. Tunneling and Excavation

• Geotechnical data guides the design of tunnels and excavations.
• Identification of weak or unstable strata is vital to prevent collapses.

4. Water Resource Management

• Geological studies help in locating and managing
groundwater resources.
• Understanding aquifer properties is essential for
well design.

5. Environmental Impact Assessment

• Geology is considered in assessing the impact of
engineering projects on the environment.
• Mitigation measures are developed based on
geological considerations.
Challenges in Geology in Engineering
1. Uncertainty:
• Geological conditions can be highly variable, leading to
uncertainties in predictions.
• Engineers must account for these uncertainties in their designs.

2. Human-Induced Changes:
• Construction activities can alter natural geological conditions.
• Proper planning and monitoring are essential to minimize negative
impacts.

Earth's Structures and Composition

Size of the Earth

Polar diameter = 7,900 miles

Equatorial diameter = about 7,927 miles
Circumference around the equator = approximately 24,900
miles
Area of the earth's surface = about 197 million square miles,
of which about 71 per cent is covered by
oceans

Volume of the earth = more than 250 billion cubic miles

Mass = about 6,600 quintillion
(6,600,000,000,000,000,000,000) tons.

Shape of the Earth

The earth is a geoid, a triaxial ellipsoid, nearly spherical but slightly flattened at the poles.

Major Division of Earth

1. Lithosphere- the solid central zone

2. Hydrosphere- the water zone
3. Atmosphere- the gaseous envelope that
surround the lithosphere and
hydrosphere.

1. Internal Structure

CRUST
The outer part of the solid lithosphere
composed mainly of rocks similar to those visible
at the surface, extending down 20-30 miles.
MANTLE
Consist of two major zones presumed to be composed of rocky material under substantial
pressure, adequate to keep it from melting at the high temperatures that prevail there.

CORE
The core is inner part of the earth having a diameter of 4,300 miles.
Outer Core- 1,360 miles thick
Inner Core- 1,580 miles in diameter

2. Earth's Composition

• Silicate Rocks:
• Common Minerals: Feldspar, quartz, mica.
• Occurrence: Abundant in the Earth's crust and mantle.
• Non-Silicate Rocks:
• Examples: Carbonates (e.g., limestone), oxides (e.g., hematite), sulfides (e.g., pyrite).
• Occurrence: Present in various geological settings.
• Minerals:
• Definition: Naturally occurring, inorganic substances with a defined chemical
composition and crystalline structure.
• Diversity: Thousands of minerals, each with unique properties.

3. Earth's External Features

• Landforms:
• Types: Mountains, valleys, plains,
plateaus, and more.
• Formation: Result from a combination
of geological processes, including
tectonic activity and erosion.

• Hydrological Features:
• Rivers, Lakes, Oceans: Carve
landscapes, shape coastlines, and
influence climate.
• Processes: Erosion, sedimentation,
and the water cycle.

• Atmosphere:
• Composition: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen
(21%), traces of other gases.
• Function: Protects life, moderates temperature, and transports moisture.
4. Tectonic Processes

• Plate Tectonics:
• Concept: Earth's lithosphere divided into
plates that move and interact at plate
boundaries.
• Consequences: Earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and the formation of mountain
ranges.

• Volcanism:
• Origin: Magma rising from the mantle.
• Consequences: Formation of volcanic
landforms, release of gases, and potential
hazards.

• Earthquakes:
• Cause: Sudden release of energy along faults.
• Consequences: Ground shaking, surface rupture, and tsunamis.

5. Geological Time

Eras are the major divisions of geologic time.

1. Precambrian- rock units are almost completely

unfossiliferous. They contain scattered
remains of algae an a few questionable fossils
of such animals as jellyfishes or worms.

2. Paleozoic (old life) - a period of nearly 300

million years during which the marine
invertebrates were abundant forms of life on
earth. The first fish appeared about the middle
of the Paleozoic Era, and the first amphibians
and reptiles were present before its end.

3. Mesozoic (middle life) - a time of development

for the land animals. The reptiles, particularly
dinosaurs, dominated the earth, and birds,
mammals, and modern plants evolved. At the
end of the Mesozoic the dinosaurs become
extinct, and more modern forms of life
appeared.

4. Cenozoic (modern life) - mammals dominate the earth.

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics

Understanding the concepts of continental drift and plate tectonics is fundamental to comprehending
the dynamic processes shaping the Earth's surface.

1. Continental Drift

A large-scale horizontal movement

of continents relative to one another and to the
ocean basins during one or more episodes of
geologic time.

Continental drift theory was given by Alfred

Wegener in 1915. This theory has explained the
origin of continents and ocean basins.

According to Wegener, all the continents formed a

single continental mass which is
called “Pangaea'' which means all earth. This
supercontinent was surrounded by a mega ocean
called “Panthalassa '' meaning all water.

Subsequently, Laurasia and

Gondwanaland continued to break into various
smaller continents that exist today. Thus, Wegener
proposed that continents are floating and constantly drifting on the earth’s surface.

2. Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s

outer shell is divided into several plates
that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner
layer above the core. The plates act like
hard and rigid shells compared to Earth’s
mantle. This strong outer layer is called the
lithosphere.

Plate tectonics affects humans in several

important ways.
- It causes earthquakes
- It causes volcanism
- It induces the recycling of
elements within the biosphere and
between the geosphere and
biosphere
- It causes mountain-building
Types of Plate Boundaries:

• Divergent Boundaries: Plates

move apart; new crust forms.

• Convergent Boundaries: Plates

collide; one may subduct
beneath the other.

• Transform Boundaries: Plates

slide past each other
horizontally.

Evidence for Plate Tectonics:

• Seafloor Spreading: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

exhibits volcanic activity and the creation
of new oceanic crust.

• Subduction Zones: Trenches and volcanic

arcs mark areas where one plate is forced
beneath another.

• Subduction zone is a region in the earth’s

crust where tectonic plates meet.

Consequences of Plate Tectonics:

• Earthquakes: Result from the release of stress along

faults.

Earthquake- is a trembling or shaking of the ground caused by

the sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the
earth’s surface.

Seismology- is the study of earthquakes.

Generating artificial earthquakes is one of the major methods

employed in the search for petroleum.
 • Volcanism: Occurs at convergent and divergent boundaries.

The term volcanism is derived from

the name of the Roman God of fire,
Vulcan. It denotes one of the major
geologic processes and covers the
origin, movement, and solidification
of molten rock.

Magma- it is the underground

molten rock.

Lava- it is the molten rock thrown

out by a volcano.
Vent- is the opening through which
an eruption takes place.

Crater- is a basin like depression over

a vent at the summit of the cone.

Volcanism- is one of the most dramatic evidences of the dynamic nature of the earth.
 • Mountain Building: Collisions at convergent boundaries lead to the formation of
mountain ranges.

Mountain building, also known as orogenesis, is

a geological process that involves the formation
and uplift of large, elevated landforms, known
as mountains. These landforms are typically
characterized by steep slopes, high elevations,
and rugged terrain.

Mountain building occurs due to the complex

interactions of tectonic plate movements and
geological forces. It is a fundamental aspect of
Earth’s dynamic geology and has played a
significant role in shaping the planet’s surface.

3. Driving Forces

• Mantle Convection:

Convection is the process by which less dense

material rises and more dense material sinks. The
former is said to be more “buoyant” than the
latter, and the vertical forces due to density
difference are referred to as buoyancy forces.

Mantle convection refers to the slow, but

organized, creeping motion in the mantle, driven
by buoyancy force. These forces arise primarily
because of thermal expansion and contraction
associated with temperature difference.

• Slab Pull and Ridge Push:

Ridge Push – magma rises as the plates move

apart. The magma cools to form a new plate
material. As it cools it becomes denser and slides
down away from the ridge. This causes other
plates to move away from each other.

Slab Pull – the denser plate sinks back into the

mantle under the influence of gravity. It pulls the
rest of the plate along behind it.
4. Implications for Earth's Surface

• Landform Evolution:

The evolution of landforms refers to the different

processes of transformation of one landform to the
next, or the transformations of individual landforms
once they are formulated. A landform goes through
various stages of development- which are youth,
maturity, and old age.

Erosion and deposition are the two important parts

of the evolution of landforms.

The evolution depends on the geomorphic agents

that include groundwater, glaciers, waves, and
winds. Both the processes of erosion and
deposition change the surface of the earth.

• Ocean Basin Formation:

The five major ocean basins are the Atlantic, Southern,

Arctic, Pacific, and Indian.

The five major oceans (from largest to smallest) are the

Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern and Arctic.

All ocean basins are formed from plate tectonic activity,

weathering, and erosion. Seafloor spreading and
subduction are the primary forms of plate tectonic
activity that provide a pathway for molten rock to leave
the earth's mantle and create a new oceanic crust.

• Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes:

• Ring of Fire: Circum-Pacific region with frequent

earthquakes and volcanic activity.
5. Human Impacts:

• Natural Hazards:

• Resource Formation: