1

PhD Haciyeva I. Y.

Hydraulics
(lectures)
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Hydraulics is an applied technical science that studies the laws of

equilibrium and motion of liquids, as well as methods of applying these laws in
various fields of engineering practice. The word "hydraulics" comes from the
fusion of two Greek words "hudor" - water and "aulos" - a pipe, a channel, a
stream.
Basic physical properties of liquids. The liquid is a physical body, the

particles of which are easily movable, i. e. fluid has fluidity, unlike solids. Unlike

solid bodies, liquids do not have the ability to retain their shape and acquire the

shape of the vessel in which they are located. The mobility of particles is

determined by the fact that a fluid at rest can not resist tangential stresses.

The main physical properties include: bulk density (volume weight,

specific gravity), density, compressibility, temperature expansion and fluid
viscosity.
The bulk weight of a liquid is the ratio of the weight of a liquid body to its
volume (the value of γ is also called the specific gravity):

G
γ=
V (1.1)
Where G is the weight of the volume of the liquid in question;
V is the volume of the liquid.
The density is the ratio of the mass m of the body to the volume V:
m
ρ=
V (1.2)
For unit density is taken kilogram per cubic meter (kg / m3), which
corresponds to the density of such a homogeneous substance, one cubic meter of
which accounts for a mass of one kilogram.
 3

In hydraulics, the concept of relative density, which is the ratio of the

density of the liquid to the density of water at t = + 3.98 ° C and atmospheric
pressure, is also widely used.

Between the volume weight γ and the density ρ there is the following
gρV
γ=
relationship: G=gm and m=ρV then V and , γ = ρg .

The property of a liquid changes with a change in pressure and temperature.

Drip fluids are characterized by very low compressibility, as a result of which the
coefficient of volumetric compression is βV, i.e. the number determining the
relative decrease in the volume of the liquid with increasing pressure on one
atmosphere

dV
β V =−
will be V o dp

Where Vo is the initial volume in m3;

dV - elementary change of volume in m3;

dp is the elementary change in pressure in N / m2.

With increasing temperature and pressure, the compressibility of liquids

decreases somewhat.

The number that determines the increase in the volume of the liquid with

increasing temperature by 1 ° C is equal to

1 dV
βt= ⋅
V o dT

T is the temperature
The coefficient of thermal expansion of β t for water increases with

increasing pressure, and for most other droplet liquids decreases.

 4

Viscosity refers to the property of real fluids to resist shearing tangential

forces. This property can not be detected at rest of the liquid, since it manifests

itself only when it moves.

To clarify the physical essence of the concept of viscosity, consider the

following scheme. Let there be two parallel plates A and B (Fig. 1).

Fiq.1
In the space between A and B they contain a liquid. The lower plate is

fixed, and the upper plate moves translationally at a certain constant velocity v.

In this case, as experience shows, the layers of liquid that adjoin directly to the

plates (adhering) will have the same speeds with them, i.e. The layer adjacent to

the upper plate will move with velocity v, and the layer adjacent to the lower plate

will be at rest. Intermediate layers will slide one at another with a speed

proportional to their distance to the lower plate. If the distance between the plates

is denoted by h, then the velocity vy of the liquid layer located at a distance y from

this plate will be equal to v1 (y / n).

The fluid in which the viscosity appears is called viscous. Any friction is

accompanied by a loss of energy, so when moving viscous fluids inevitably lost

part of the energy contained in the flow.

Newton's law of friction for liquids.

 5

As early as 1687, considering the rectilinear jet stream, Newton

hypothesized that the forces of internal friction (longitudinal forces of internal
friction) arising between neighboring moving fluid layers are directly proportional
to the relative velocity of these layers and the area of their contact surface, depend
on the kind of liquid and do not depend on pressure.
The assumption of the proportionality of the longitudinal forces of
internal friction, the velocity of the relative motion of the contacting layers of the
liquid, for the case of rectilinear motion is expressed as follows:
du
F=sμ| |
dh

Where F is the internal friction force;

du
| |
dh - the absolute value of the velocity gradient;

du -the difference in the velocities of the neighboring adjacent layers

fluids

dh - the distance between the axes of adjacent layers;

S is the area of the adjoining layers;

μ - coefficient of viscosity (coefficient of internal friction)
characterizing the viscosity of the liquid.

As a result of internal friction in viscous fluids, tangential stresses arise

during motion, which can be determined by dividing the internal friction force F by
the friction area s.

F du
τ = =μ| |
s dh
When the motion of the liquid stops and the sliding speeds become equal to
zero, the internal friction forces also disappear. Therefore, in a fluid at rest, the
forces of internal friction and, consequently, tangential stresses do not appear.
 6

τ
μ=
du
The viscosity coefficient dh , which characterizes the viscosity of
dropping liquids, is called the dynamic viscosity coefficient and has the dimension
[kG.sec / m2].

μ
υ=
In practice, the kinematic viscosity coefficient ρ [sм2/sек]; [stoks].

Viscosity of dropping liquids varies with temperature and pressure changes;

With increasing temperature, the viscosity of dropping liquids decreases rapidly.

In the range of low pressures (up to 100 atm), the viscosity change is

insignificant, and therefore they are neglected in most cases. At high pressures,

these changes for some liquid droplets (for some types of oils) are very significant.

The hypothesis of Newton was subjected to repeated experimental testing

and was fully confirmed. Extremely valuable studies to prove this hypothesis were

carried out by the largest Russian scientific professor NP Petrov (1836-1920), the

creator of the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication.

Dynamic and kinematic viscosity.

In the general hydraulics courses, only Newtonian fluids are usually

studied. Practically, the viscosity is determined experimentally by means of special

instruments called viscosimeters. The unit of measurement of dynamic viscosity is

pascal per second (Pa.s), it is called Poiseuille. In practice, the dynamic viscosity is

often measured in poises (P); This is the so-called unit of dynamic viscosity in the

physical system of units. The viscosity of low-viscosity liquids and gases is usually

measured in hundredths of a poise, called centipoise (cp).

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Between Poiseuil and Poise there exists the following relation: 1 Pa.s = 10 P.

Hydraulics often also use the value obtained as a result of dividing the

dynamic viscosity by the density. It is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted

by the letter ν.

μ
ν=
According to the definition, the kinematic viscosity ρ.

The unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m2/sec).

In a physical system, the kinematic viscosity is measured in Stokesas (St). The

hundredth part of the Stokes is called santistokes (sSt).

The indicated units are connected by a simple ratio of 1 m2 /sec = 1.104 St.

1
ξ=
The inverse of the dynamic viscosity μ is called fluidity.

Dependence of viscosity on pressure and temperature.

As shown by numerous observations, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with

increasing temperature. For different liquids the dependence of viscosity on

temperature is different.

For water, it has the form

0 ,0178
ν=
1+0 ,0337 t +0 , 000221 t 2

Where ν is the kinematic viscosity in St; T is the temperature, oC.

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The viscosity of a liquid depends strongly on temperature. The viscosity of

different grades of a liquid of one name, for example oil, depending on its

chemical composition and molecular structure, can have different values .

The temperature dependence of the viscosity of oil is well described by the

−ut
formula of PA Filonov: υ t =υ o e .

Where νt, νo - kinematic viscosity of oil at temperature, respectively, t and 0

о
С .; e - is the base of the natural logarithms (e = 2.71); u - is the coefficient

established by the experimental data.

To determine the coefficient u - it is necessary to know the viscosity of oil

ν1 and ν2 at temperature t1 and t2:

ν1
ln ( )
ν2
u= .
t 2−t 1

For viscous oils, the average values are u = 0.05 ÷ 0.1 at 1 оС. As the

viscosity increases, the value of u usually increases.

The viscosity of liquids, as experiments show, also depends on the pressure.

As pressure pressure increases, it usually increases. The exception is water, for

which at a temperature of up to 32 ° C, with increasing pressure, the viscosity

decreases. At pressures encountered in practice (up to 20 MPa), the change in the

viscosity of liquids is very small and is not taken into account in conventional

hydraulic calculations.
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For gases, the dependence of viscosity on pressure and temperature is very

significant: with increasing pressure, the kinematic viscosity of the gases

decreases, and with increasing temperature increases and vice versa.

Model of real and ideal fluid.

When considering the main physical properties of liquid droplets, it was

found that liquids that exist in nature, or, as they are usually called, "real", or

viscous, have practically constant density, and very low resistance to tangential

forces.

These physical properties of real liquids allowed us to introduce the

concept of "ideal" or "inviscid" fluid into hydraulics, which was made to facilitate

the solution of many problems and problems of hydromechanics and practical

engineering hydraulics. Thus, an "ideal" or "inviscid" liquid is a conditional liquid

that is considered to be completely incompressible and non-expanding, has

absolute mobility of particles, and there are no internal friction forces in it (ie, the

viscosity forces are zero).

Considering the ideal fluid instead of a real one, in a number of cases we

do not make a very big mistake. If an ideal fluid is considered to be absolutely

incompressible and non-expanding, then in real liquids we observe practically

constant volumes and densities.

If the particles of an ideal fluid are considered absolutely mobile, then in

real they are very mobile. Consequently, only neglect of the viscosity of liquids

(by internal friction forces) can give a more or less significant discrepancy in the

results obtained in the investigation of a real and ideal fluid.

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But here laboratory experimentation, as well as observations in kind, with

the help of which it is possible to take into account and eliminate the inaccuracies

inevitably arising as a result of considering the motion of an ideal fluid instead of

the real one, comes to the aid.

Thus, the notion of an ideal fluid coincides with the concept of a real fluid in

those cases when it is used in solving problems for a fluid at rest, i.e. In the

hydraulics section, called hydrostatics

Forces - acting on the liquid.

The liquid is subject to the action of two categories of external forces:

voluminous (massive) and superficial. Volumetric forces are called proportional to

the volume of the fluid (gravity and inertia forces), surface forces are called forces

applied to a surface bounding the volume of a liquid, or to a surface held inside

this volume.

In the general case (with a uniform distribution of these forces over the
surface), the magnitude of the surface force is proportional to the area to which it
acts. As an example of the surface force, atmospheric pressure, acting on the
surface of a liquid placed in an open vessel.
Hydrostatic pressure and its properties.

Hydrostatic - called the hydraulics section, which deals with the laws of

equilibrium of liquids and the practical applications of these laws.

Let us isolate in a fluid in equilibrium some volume, (Fiq.2.1)

cut it with an arbitrary plane AB into two parts and mentally discard one of them,

the upper one.

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In this case, we must apply forces to the plane AB, the action of which will
be equivalent to the action of the discarded upper part of the volume on the
remaining lower part of it.
Consider in the plane of the section AB a closed contour of area ΔF,
including some arbitrary point a. Let this area of forces named above be the force
ΔP
pср = ,
ΔP. Attitude ΔF which is a force, acting per unit area, will be called the
average hydrostatic pressure, or the average hydrostatic pressure across the area
ΔF.
The true pressure at different points of this area can be different. At some points it
is larger, while in others it is less than the average hydrostatic pressure.
Obviously, in the general case, the average pressure рav will differ less from
the true at point a, the smaller the area will be ΔF, and in the limit (as it tends to
zero), the average hydrostatic pressure coincides at this point with the true one.
Thus, the true hydrostatic pressure p (usually called simply hydrostatic
ΔP
p=lim| |
pressure) will be ΔF ΔF → 0 .
For liquids in equilibrium, it is analogous to the compressive stress in
solids.
In practice, the hydrostatic pressure is determined in various ways. If in
this case the atmospheric pressure acting on the free surface of the liquid is taken
into account, it is called complete or absolute.
 12

Often the atmospheric pressure on the free surface is not taken into account,
determining the so-called excess, or gauge (above atmospheric) pressure. The
gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure in the liquid and the

atmospheric pressure: p мин = рабс − р атм .

There are cases when the hydrostatic pressure in the liquid is less than atmospheric
pressure. In such cases, talk about a vacuum (discharge). The vacuum is
determined by the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute

pressure in the liquid ( pвак = ратм − рабс . ) and varies from zero to 0.01 MPa.

Vacuum can also be characterized by absolute pressure. The hydrostatic

pressure has the following two basic properties: it is directed along the inner
normal to the site on which it acts, and its value at a given point does not depend
on the direction (ie from the orientation in the space of the site including this
point).

The first property is a simple consequence of the assumption that tangential

and tensile forces are absent in the resting fluid.

Suppose that the hydrostatic pressure is not directed along the normal, i.e.
not perpendicular, but at some angle to the site. Then it can be decomposed into
normal and tangential components. The presence of the latter, in view of the
absence of forces of resistance in shear forces in the liquid at rest, would inevitably
lead to motion along the site, i.e. would break her balance. Consequently, the only
possible direction of the hydrostatic pressure is its direction along the normal to the
site.
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Suppose further that the hydrostatic pressure will be directed along the outer,
rather than the inner normal, i.e. not inside the volume in question, but outside.
Since the liquid does not exert resistance to tensile forces, even in this case the
liquid particles will move and its equilibrium will be disturbed. Hence, the
hydrostatic pressure is always directed along the inner normals and represents the
compressive pressure.

To prove the second property, we select the prism (Fig. 2.2) in the liquid at
rest with the section ΔF. One end face of the prism will be perpendicular to the
generatrix, and the second one is inclined to it by the angle α. The length of the
prism will be denoted by L. Mentally discarding the liquid surrounding the prism
selected in it, we replace the action of the discarded liquid by pressure forces on
the prism face. In accordance with what was said above, these will be forces
normal to the faces.

Fiq.2.2

Let us denote by ро and р1 the mean pressure, respectively, at the end

perpendicular to the generator, and on the chamfered end; we will compose an
expression for the sum of the projections of all forces acting on the prism and on
the axis coinciding with the axis of the prism. Since the prism is in equilibrium,
this sum of the projections of forces must equal zero. Let Q be the projection onto
this axis of a unit volumetric force, i.e. force applied to a unit of volume (in the

particular case when only gravity acts from the volume forces, Q=− ρg )

Then the projection of the volume forces applied to the prism will be QΔ FL ;

projection of the force of pressure on the butt А po ΔF ,

ΔF
p1 ( );sin α=− p1 ΔF .
and the force of pressure on the bevelled end - sin α Forces of
 14

pressure on the side faces of the projection prism on its axis will not give.
Therefore, the sum of the projections of all forces will be
po ΔF− p1 ΔF +QΔ FL=0 , whence

p1 = po + QL . (1).

Consequently, the value of p1 does not depend on the angle α. In the limit
(for ΔF tending to zero), po and p1 are the true pressure values at points A and B
and, in accordance with equation (1), are determined by the position of these points
in space. Thus, the hydrostatic pressure at any point has the same value in all

directions and is a function of only its coordinates: p=f ( x , y . z).

Equation (1) also implies that if the pressure, for example at the point A,
changes by an amount Δp0, then at the same point it will change at any point of the
liquid. This is the Pascal law known from physics, usually formulated as follows:
the pressure produced on the liquid is transmitted inside the liquid in all directions
with equal force.

The differential equation of a liquid in a state of rest (the Euler

equation).

Let us select an infinitesimal volume in the form of a parallelepiped in the

liquid at rest, with sides parallel to the coordinate axes and equal to dx, dy, dz (Fig.
2.3), respectively, and consider the equilibrium of external forces acting on this
parallelepiped.

Such forces are: 1) surface forces of hydrostatic pressure on the side of the
parallelepiped from the side of the surrounding liquid; 2) volumetric (mass) forces.

Let us compose the equations of the projections of these forces on the

coordinate axes. Here we confine ourselves to a detailed consideration of only one
of them, for example, the equation of projections on the x axis. Let p be the
hydrostatic pressure at one point of the abcd face and assume that it is the average
for the entire face. Then the total force of pressure on this face, up to infinitesimals
 15

of a higher order, is determined by the expression dPx = pdydz, where dydz is the
area of the face.

Рис.2.3.

The pressure on the opposite face of a'b'c'd 'will be different from this
pressure. Here it is necessary to take into account that the hydrostatic pressure in
the fluid at rest depends on the coordinates and varies continuously linearly. Since
the transition from the face abcd to the face a'b'c'd 'has changed only one
coordinate x (by the value of dx), the hydrostatic pressure on this face will be
∂p ∂p
p+( )dx ,
∂x where ∂ x - a
private differential taken over the coordinate x.
In this case, the total force of pressure on the face a’b’c’d’:

[
dP'x = p+(
∂p
∂x ]
)dx dydz

The indicated forces dPx and dP'x are projected onto the x-axis in full size.
The direction of the first of them coincides with its positive direction, and the
second direction, and the second one is directed in the opposite direction.

We now find the projection of the volume (mass) forces dQ on the x-axis.
We define it as the product of the elementary mass of the parallelepiped dm =
ρdxdydz on the projection of the acceleration of these X * forces on the same axis:
dQx = dmX = ρdxdydzX.

Summing up and equating to zero the expressions thus established for the
projections of all forces acting on the parallelepiped, we obtain the first equation of
equilibrium:
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dP x −dP'x−dQ x = pdydz− p+
[ ( ) ]
∂p
∂x
dx dydz− ρ dxdydzX =0 .

After a number of simple transformations, we find

( ∂p
∂ x ) dxdydz −ρ dxdydzX =0 .

Dividing this equation into ρdxdydz (those. having carried all forces to unit of

weight), will have:

( )( )
1 ∂p
ρ ∂x
− X=0
.
Similar equations are obtained for projections on the y and z axes :

( )( )
1 ∂p
ρ ∂y
−Y =0
,
1 ∂p
ρ ∂ x ( )( )
− X=0
.

These equations can also be represented in the form

∂p ∂p ∂p
=ρX ; =ρY ; =ρZ .
∂x ∂y ∂z (2)

They are called differential equations of a fluid. They were first deduced in
1775 by L. Euler and express in a differential form the law of distribution of
hydrostatic pressure.
Integration of the basic equation of hydrostatics.

We start from the differential equations of equilibrium (2).

We multiply each of them by dx, dy, dz, respectively, and add them. We get

( ) ( ) ( )
∂p
∂x
dx +
∂p
∂y
dy +
∂p
∂z
dz=ρ ( Xdx +Ydy+Zdz )
(3)

Since in the case of equilibrium the hydrostatic pressure is a function of

only the coordinates p=f ( x , y , z ), the left-hand side of this equation is the total
differential dp. Consequently,

dp=ρ ( Xdx +Ydy+ Zdz ) (а)

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Observance of the equilibrium conditions requires that the right-hand side of

equation (3) is also the total differential of some other function of the coordinate U
U =f ( x , y , z ), whose partial derivatives with respect to coordinates are equal to
the positions of the accelerations of volumetric forces:

∂U ∂U ∂U
=X =Y =Z
∂x ; ∂y ; ∂z (б)

Such a function is called the force, or potential, and the forces that satisfy
conditions (b), forces that have a potential. In this way,

Xdx +Ydy+Zdz= ( ) ( ) ( )
∂U
∂x
dx +
∂U
∂y
dy +
∂U
∂z
dz=dU .
(в)

In this case, equation (3) takes the form

dp=ρ dU (4)

and can be integrated.

Let us consider the most often encountered in practice case of equilibrium
of a heavy (that is, under the influence of gravity alone), a homogeneous (ρ =
const) dropping liquid. In this case, the projections of the acceleration of the
volumetric forces will be equal to: Х = 0; Y = 0; Z = -g, and equation (4) will

receive the following form of writing:dp=−ρ gdz or, the same thing,
dp+ ρ gdz=0 .
Integrating the last equation, we find:
p+ρ gz=C . (5)

The integration constant C can be determined here, for example, from the
conditions on the free surface of the liquid. Denoting by ро the pressure at some
point of this surface, and byzо the ordinate, we have:
po + ρ gz o=C .

After substituting the last expression into equation (5), we get:

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p+ ρ gz= po + ρ gz o , or

p= p o + ρg ( z o−z )= po + ρ gh , (6)

where h=zo – z – is the immersion depth of the point under consideration under the
free surface.

Equation (6) is fundamental. It is called the basic equation of hydrostatics

shows that the hydrostatic pressure at any point of a stationary dripping liquid is
completely determined by the depth of its immersion under the free surface of the
liquid or under some other surface with the pressure known on it, in other words,
varies depending only on the vertical coordinate this point.

Distributing diagram of hydrostatic pressure.

The changes in hydrostatic pressure on the surface that bounds the liquid
are represented very graphically, or by pressure diagrams. In this case, the pressure
increasing with the depth of immersion of the point of its application according to
a linear law is deposited on a certain scale in the form of segments normal to the
surface.

Suppose, it is required to construct a diagram of absolute pressure on the

vertical wall AB of the vessel, filled with a liquid having a density ρ, to the level h
(Fig. 2.4a). The pressure on the free surface of the liquid is atmospheric.

Fig.2.4
 19

The change in hydrostatic pressure along the wall height in this case is
determined by an expression representing the equation of a straight line.
In this case, the change in the hydrostatic pressure along the height of the

wall is determined by the expression p= p atm +ρ gh , representing the equation of a

straight line. Therefore, in order to construct the pressure diagram, it is necessary
to lay off the segment aA corresponding to the atmospheric pressure on the free
surface of the liquid (h = 0), and from the point B at the bottom of the vessel - the

segment hB corresponding to the pressure at this point p= p атм + ρ gh , and

connect the ends of these segments direct av. The resulting figure is the trapezoid
AavB and will be the hydrostatic pressure diagram.

The diagram of the excess (gauge) pressure for the same wall will obviously
have the form of a rectangular triangle ABB (Fig. 2.4b).

The diagram of the excess (gauge) pressure p= ρ gh for the same wall will
obviously have the form of a rectangular triangle AbB (Fig. 2.4b).

In the case where the vessel has an inclined wall that makes an angle α with
the horizontal plane, the diagram of excess hydrostatic pressure is also segments
showing the pressure and are inclined to the horizontal plane at an angle of 90 ° -
α.

If the wall consists of a series of individual planar faces inclined at different

angles to the horizon (Fig. 2.5a) in the form of some broken ABCD line, the
hydrostatic pressure diagram can be constructed in the same way as for a
conventional flat wall. To do this, let's postpone from point B normally to the face
AB a segment Bb representing the hydrostatic pressure at this point.
If the wall consists of a series of individual planar faces inclined at different
angles to the horizon (Fig. 2.5a) in the form of some broken ABCD line, the
hydrostatic pressure diagram can be constructed in the same way as for a
conventional flat wall. To do this, let's postpone from point B normally to the face
AB a segment Bb representing the hydrostatic pressure at this point.
 20

Fig.2.5

Then we connect the points A and b straight and obtain the pressure
diagram for the specified face in the form of a right triangle AbB. Then we turn to
the construction of pressure on the face of the aircraft. We postpone from the
points B and C of this face normal to it segments corresponding to hydrostatic
pressures: from the point B, the segment BB'B, equal to BB, and from the point C
the segment Cc. As a result, we obtain a trapezoid Вв'СС, which is a diagram of
pressure on the face BC.

In a similar way, we construct a pressure diagram for the last CDd (trapezoid
Cdd).

We also note the case when the wall has a curvilinear shape. The
hydrostatic pressure at certain points of such a wall is also depicted by segments of
straight lines normal to the wall at the corresponding points, and the pressure
diagram in this case is a curvilinear triangle (Fig.2.5b).
The center of the pressure force acting on the horizontal wall.
Knowing the law of the distribution of hydrostatic pressure in a liquid, one
can find the total force of pressure on the surfaces that bound the liquid-the walls
and the bottom of the vessel. This task is reduced to determining the force of
pressure (by value and direction) and finding the point of its application.

Let us first consider flat surfaces - flat walls.

Suppose that there is a flat wall of area F, inclined to the horizon at some
angle α (Fig. 2.6). We divide it in height by a series of elementary horizontal very
narrow strips dF and determine the pressure on one of them.

Fiq.2.6
 21

The hydrostatic pressure at any point on the axis of the strip is determined
p= p o + ρ gh , where р is the pressure on the free surface of the liquid; h - is the
о

depth of immersion of the point under consideration.

Since the width of the isolated shelf is small, the hydrostatic pressure and at
all points of it can be considered equal and equal to the pressure at the points on
the axis of the strip. Therefore, the pressure dR on the entire strip is obtained by
multiplying the value of this hydrostatic pressure by dF
dR= pdF=( po + ρ gh) dF It will be directed normally to the wall. But, since the

wall consists of a number of such elementary strips, the pressure force on the entire
wall is determined by summing the pressure forces on individual strips
R=∫ dR=∫ ( po + ρ gh )dF= po ∫ dF+ρg ∫ hdF
F F F F

∫ dF=F ∫ hdF
Integral F , and the quantity F can be represented in the form

∫ hdF=∫ lsin α dF=sin α ∫ ldF

F F F , where l is the distance to any strip from the
surface of the liquid, measured in the plane of the wall.

∫ ldF
The value F -is the static moment of area F relative to the line of
intersection of the liquid surface with the plane of the wall, it is equal to F lс,
where lc is the distance from the plane of the wall to the center of gravity C of this
area.

∫ hdF=Fl c sin α =Fhc

Consequently, F . Here hc = lc sin α is the depth of
immersion of the center of gravity of the wall. Then
R=p o F+ ρ gh c F=( p o + ρ gh c ) F .
Noting that the value in parentheses is the hydrostatic pressure at the center
of gravity of the wall, we finally obtain: the pressure of the liquid on a flat surface
is equal to the product of the wetted area of the wall by the hydrostatic pressure at
its center of gravity.
 22

If the pressure on the free surface of the liquid in the vessel and on the
external surface of the wall is equal to atmospheric, the total excess pressure on the

wall R=ρ gh c F .
In the case where the wall is horizontal (angle α = 0), i.e. is not a side wall,
but the horizontal bottom of the vessel, the total pressure is determined by the

same formulas and is R=pF= ρ gHF , where H is the height of the column of
liquid in the vessel.

Fiq.2.7

Consequently, the pressure on the bottom does not depend on the shape and
volume of the vessel, but only on the bottom area and the height of the liquid
column in the vessel. Therefore, for vessels of different shapes (Figure 2.7), filled
with the same liquid to the same level of H and having the same bottom area, the
total pressure force on the bottom will be the same.
This property of a fluid, at first glance contrary to the usual concepts, is
known as the hydrostatic paradox.

Center of pressure.

The force of the fluid pressure on the wall in addition to the value and
direction is also characterized by its application point. This point is called the
pressure center.

Let us consider the case, which is very often encountered in practice, when
the wall has an axis of symmetry lying in the vertical plane. The center of pressure
in this case lies on the axis of symmetry and for its determination it remains to find
only one vertical coordinate. To do this, consider a flat wall (Fig.2.9), similar to
that shown in Fig. 2.6, retaining the previous notation.
 23

Fiq.2.8

Using the theorem of theoretical mechanics, the moment of the resultant

(the moment of the resultant force with respect to some axis equals the sum of the
moments of the component forces relative to the same axis), equate the sum of the
moments of the pressure forces, to the elementary areas dF with respect to the x
axis, coinciding with the line of intersection of the liquid surface with the plane of
the wall, at the moment of the resultant force of pressure on the entire wall F with

∫ ρ ghdFl=ρ ghc Fl c
respect to the same axis: F

Here l is the distance in the plane of the wall from the axis to the center of
gravity of the elementary area (in the limit (when the width of the elementary strip
tends to zero) this distance practically coincides with the distance to the pressure
center of the elementary strip, and l0 is the distance from the axis to the pressure
center 0 of the total area F.

Further bearing in mind that h=l sin α and h c=l c sin α , where lс –
distance in the plane of the wall from the axis to the center of gravity from the area

∫ ρgsin α dFl 2=ρ glc sin α Fl o ρg sin α ∫ dFl 2 =ρg sin α Fl c l o

F, we obtain: F or F

∫ dFl 2=Fl c l o ∫ dFl 2

and F . As is well known, expression F represents the moment

of inertia 1 of the wall area F relative to the x-axis. Consequently, Fl o l c =I ,

I
lo=
whence Flc .
 24

The resulting expression is often more convenient to represent in another

form, replacing the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the axis
coinciding with the liquid cut-off, the moment of inertia Ic relative to the axis
passing through the center of gravity.

In theoretical mechanics, the following relationship is established between

2
these quantities: I =I c + Fl c . (1)

Substituting the given value into expression (1), we obtain finally:

Ic
l o =l c +
Fl c .

It can be seen from the last expression that the pressure center is always
below the center of gravity of the wall (for example, in the case of a rectangular
wall, one side of which coincides with the surface of the liquid, the center of
pressure is 1/3, and the center of gravity is ½ of its height from the base, t from the
bottom of the wall).

The pressure acting on the curved wall.

To obtain a general solution, we take a vessel of arbitrary shape and
select on its wall some curved surface S bounded by the contour AMBN (Fig. 2-9).

We shall seek the components of the total pressure on this surface along the
coordinate axes, choosing, for example, the origin of coordinates on the free
surface of the liquid and arranging the axes as shown in the figure. Here we
confine ourselves to determining only one component of Rx parallel to the x-axis,
since the remaining components can be found in a similar way.

We find the projection of the surface S onto some plane NN, normal to the
x-axis and located between this surface and the coordinate plane zO y. Note that the
indicated projection plane NN, like the direction of the x-axis itself, can be chosen
differently.
 25

The following forces act on the fluid enclosed in the volume between the
surface S, the plane NN and the surface of the projecting cylinder, the generatrix of
which is parallel to the x-axis: the gravity (weight) Gx of the allocated volume of
the liquid; the pressure of the liquid RFx on the projection of the surface S onto the
plane NN; pressure on the lateral surface of the specified volume (their projection
on the x axis is zero); reaction R from the side of the surface S, equal in value, but
reverse in the direction of the sought-for force of the fluid pressure.
The following forces act on the fluid enclosed in the volume between the surface S,
the plane NN and the surface of the projecting cylinder, the generators of which are
parallel to the x-axis: gravity (weight) G x of the allocated volume of liquid; the
pressure of the liquid RFx on the projection of the surface S onto the plane NN;
pressure on the lateral surface of the specified volume (their projection on the x
axis is zero); reaction R from the side of the surface S, equal in value, but reverse
in the direction of the sought-for force of the fluid pressure. Projecting these forces

on the x-axis, we have:

∑ X= R F + Gx cos α x −R x =0 ,
x whence for the
' '
R x=R F x +G x cos α x
projection of the reaction force we obtain .

Fig.2. 9

Similarly, expressions are found for the projection of the reaction force and on other coordinate
R y=R F +G y cos α y ,
y

R z =R F + Gz cos α z .
axes: z

where αx, αy, αz are the angles between the direction of the action line of gravity
and the x, y, z coordinate axes.
Thus, we obtain the following general theorem on the pressure on a
curvilinear surface: the projection of the pressure force on the curved surface S and
 26

on the given x axis is equal to the sum of the projections on this axis of the fluid
weight between the surface S, the surface of the projecting cylinder and the plane
of projections normal to the x axis , and the pressure forces of the liquid on the
projection of the surface S onto the same projection plane.
Relative equilibrium of liquids.
We determine the force of the total pressure from the liquid side to the
matter immersed in it.
To do this, consider a body of arbitrary shape with volume V and density ρ 1,
immersed in a liquid of density ρ (Fig. 2.10), and find the components of the
pressure force along the coordinate axes (the x and y axes are placed in the
horizontal plane, the z axis is directed vertically).

Рис.2.10

We first find the pressure component along the x-axis, for which we split the body into a series of very thin
horizontal prisms with axes parallel to this axis. Since the depths of immersions of both bases of such

elementary prisms under the free surface of the liquid are the same and the
projections of the areas of these bases are equal and the projections of pressures
dR1 and dR2 on the x axis, and since the projections of pressure on the end
platforms of each prism are opposite in direction, is equal to zero. This also applies
to the horizontal pressure component along the y axis. To determine the vertical
component, we divide the bodies into a series of elementary vertical prisms. The
hydrostatic pressure in the centers of gravity of the end faces of such prisms will be
denoted by p1 and p2, and the pressure on the free surface of the liquid is p0.
 27

To determine the vertical component, we divide the bodies

into a series of elementary vertical prisms. The hydrostatic
pressure in the centers of gravity of the end faces of such prisms
will be denoted by p1 and p2, and the pressure on the free surface
of the liquid is p0.
Replacing these pressures with their values depending on the depth of the

sites p1 = po + ρ gH 1 ; p2 = po + ρ gH 2 and denoting the sections of the prism

normal to the axis dF1 and dF2 (dF1 = dF2 = dF) for vertical components of
dR z =( p o + ρ gH 1 )dF 1 ;
1

dR z =( po + ρ gH 2 ) dF 2 .
pressure on the indicated areas, we obtain: 2

These two forces are different in meaning and opposite in direction. The first
is directed vertically down, the second - up. Their resultant will be

dR z =dR z −dR z =( p o + ρ gH 2 ) dF−( p o + ρ gH 1 )dF

2 1

= ρg( H 2−H 1 ) dF=ρ gHdF= ρ gdF

where H is the height of the elementary prism in question;
dV = НdF – the volume of this prism.

Having put pressure on all elementary prisms, on which the body is broken,
we get:

R=∫ dR z =∫ ρ gdV =ρg∫ dV = ρ gV

F F F

Thus, the vertical component of the pressure from the liquid side to the body
immersed in it is directed upward and equal to the force of gravity (weight) of the
fluid in the volume of the body (Archimedes' law). The pressure force R is often
called the Archimedean lifting force. From the law of Archimedes, it follows that
two forces act on a body immersed in a liquid: gravity (body weight) G and
Archimedean lifting force R (Fig. 2.10).
The following basic cases can occur.
 28

1. The density of the body and the liquid are the same (ρ1 = ρ). Then
G= ρ1 gV ; R=ρ gV .

The resultant of these forces is G = R = 0. Consequently, the body will be in

a state of indifferent equilibrium, i.e. placed at any depth, it will neither float nor
sink. The density of the body is greater than the density of the liquid (ρ1> ρ).
Consequently, the weight of the body is greater than the lifting force (G> R) and
their resultant is directed downward. The body will sink.
2. The density of the body is less than the density of the liquid (ρ1 <ρ). Hence, the
weight of the body is less than the lifting force (G <R) and their resultant is
directed upwards. A body immersed in a liquid will float until, due to the exit of
part of it above the surface of the fluid, the lifting force does not decrease so much
that it becomes equal to the weight of the body. The lifting force in this case is
called supporting.
Devices - measuring pressure.

Instruments for measuring hydrostatic pressure can be divided into two main
groups: liquid and mechanical.

The simplest liquid-type device is a piezometer measuring the pressure in a

liquid by the height of a column of the same liquid.
The piezometer (Fig. 2.11) is a glass tube of small diameter, usually not less
than 5 mm, open at one end. The second end of the tube is connected to a vessel in
which the pressure is measured.

Fiq.2.11
 29

Let the pressure p on the surface of the liquid in the vessel be higher than
atmospheric pressure. Then the liquid in the tube of the piezometer rises above the
liquid level in the vessel to a certain height hn. The hydrostatic pressure of the
liquid at point A, taken at the base of the piezometric tube at a depth h from the
free surface of the liquid in the vessel, is determined from the basic equation of
hydrostatics:

Let the pressure p on the surface of the liquid in the vessel be higher than
atmospheric pressure. Then the liquid in the tube of the piezometer rises above the
liquid level in the vessel to a certain height hn. The hydrostatic pressure of the
liquid at point A, taken at the base of the piezometric tube at a depth h from the
free surface of the liquid in the vessel, is determined from the basic equation of

hydrostatics: p A =p атм + ρg ( h п +h )

Consequently,
( p А − p атм )
h п +h=
ρg

In addition, we have p A =p + ρ gh . We find p= p атм + ρ gh п

The pressure equal to 1 Pa corresponds to a mercury column with a height of
0.0075 mm or a water column with a height of 0.102 mm. The physical
atmosphere (1,033kgs / cm2) is determined by a mercury column with a height of
760mm. For petroleum and petroleum products having a lower density, the height
of the liquid column in the piezometer will naturally be larger. The piezometer is a
very sensitive and accurate instrument, but it is convenient only for measuring
small pressures. For significant pressures, the piezometer tube must be excessively
long, which complicates its use.
In this case, so-called liquid pressure gauges are used, in which the pressure
is balanced not by the liquid in the vessel but by a liquid of higher density. Usually
such a liquid is mercury. Since the density of mercury is 13.6 times higher than the
density of water, the mercury manometer tube is much shorter than the piezometric
tube and the device itself is more compact.
 30

The mercury gauge (Fig. 2.12) is a U-shaped glass tube, the bent knee of
which is filled with mercury. Under the pressure p in the vessel, the level of
mercury in the left knee of the manometer decreases, and in the right one it rises.

Fiq.2.12

In this case, the hydrostatic pressure at point A, taken on the surface of

mercury in the left knee, is determined by: p A =p +ρ1 gh1 =p atm +ρhg ghhg ,

where ρ1, ρhg– density, respectively, of the liquid in the vessel and mercury. From

here p= p аtm +ρhg ghhg−ρ1 gh1 .

To measure high pressures, a piston gauge is used, which is an inverted

hydraulic press. The piston manometer (Fig. 2.13) consists of a tube A, through
which the measured pressure p is transmitted to the piston B, terminating in a wide
metal plate C.

Fiq.2.13

Under the plate is a rubber diaphragm D, in contact with water, filling the
short elbow of the manometer E. The lower part of this elbow and the open tube G
are filled with mercury.
 31

If f is the area of the piston, F is the area of the metal plate, h is the height
of mercury in the manometric tube, then, according to the equation of equilibrium

p= ( Ff ) ρ gh .
fr

From this expression, it can be seen that a piston gauge at a relatively low
altitude of the mercury column makes it possible to measure very high pressures.

The differential pressure gauge (Fig. 2.14) is used in those cases when it is
necessary to measure not the pressure in the vessel, but the pressure difference in
two vessels (Au and B) or at two points of the liquid in the same vessel.

Fiq.2.14

Here, as before, for the pressure p at the mercury surface in the left knee (point C),
we have
p= p A + ρ1 gh1 =p B + ρ1 gh 2 + ρтр gh , whence
p A −p B= ρ1 g (h2 −h1 )+ ρтр gh or because h2 −h 1=−h ,

p A −p B =( ρтр −ρ1 ) gh

Thus, the pressure difference is determined by the level difference in the two
knees of the differential manometer. To measure the pressure below the
atmospheric (in the vessel there is a vacuum) are devices called vacuum gauges.

Vacuum meters usually measure not directly pressure, but vacuum, i.e.
pressure that does not reach the atmosphere. They are a mercury filled bent tube,
 32

one end of which A connects to vessel B, where pressure p is measured, and the
other C is open.

Fiq.2.15

The use of liquid-type devices, including mercury ones, is limited to a region

of relatively low pressures. For measuring high pressures, devices of the second
type - mechanical ones are used.
The spring manometer (Fig. 2.16) is the most common of the mechanical
manometers.

Fiq.2.16

It consists of a hollow, thin-walled curved brass tube (spring A), one end of
which is sealed and connected by means of a chain B with a gear mechanism C.
The second, open end of the tube communicates with the vessel in which the
pressure is measured. Through this end, the tube A receives liquid. Under the
influence of pressure, the spring is partially straightened and, through the gear
mechanism, moves the arrow, the deflection of which determines the pressure
value.

In addition, there are so-called membrane pressure gauges (Fig. 2.17), in

which the liquid acts on a thin metal (or a rubberized cloth) plate-membrane.
 33

Fiq.2.17

Deformation of the membrane through a system of levers is transmitted to

the arrow indicating the value of the pressure.

Methods of studying motion.

Hydrodynamics is called the hydraulics section, in which the laws of fluid
motion are studied. If the state of the liquid at rest is determined only by
hydrostatic pressure, then its state in motion is also characterized by the velocity of
its particle motion. Because of the large number of variables that characterize the
motion of a liquid, the complexities of the phenomena observed in this process,
and the difficulties of mathematical investigation, the actual motion of a fluid is
usually replaced by some conventional, simplified scheme that considers the flow
of a liquid consisting of individual elementary jets. In hydraulics, this scheme is
often called an airplane model of motion.

For a mathematical description of motion, it is sufficient to follow the

change in velocity, pressure, and other quantities, depending only on one variable,
the distance of the cross section of the flow from some initial section of the flow.
Such a motion is called one-dimensional (or one-dimensional).

If the change in velocities, pressures along two or three coordinate axes is

fully taken into account, the motion is respectively called two-dimensional (two-
dimensional) or flat, three-dimensional (three-dimensional) or spatial. 2-
dimensional and 3-dimensional motions are considered mainly in theoretical
hydrodynamics. In this case, the motion of a fluid is represented as a continuous
and sequential deformation of a continuous material medium. His study is aimed at
 34

expressing mathematically, in the form of differential equations, the basic

kinematic and dynamic characteristics as continuous functions of coordinates and
time and can be performed by two methods: Lagrange and Euler.

The Lagrange method consists in observing the motion of the same mentally
marked particles of liquid passing through different points of space and reduces to
studying the trajectories of these particles and tracing in time the change in their
kinematic characteristics.

According to Euler's method, the object of observation is the kinematic

characteristics of different particles of a liquid that continuously follow one after
another through fixed fixed points of space.

The Euler method is more simple and convenient. Assigning the external
volume (mass) forces to the projections of their accelerations X, Y, Z, and the
velocities of the projections vx, vy, vz onto the coordinate axes and adding the
hydrodynamic pressure p and the density ρ, for each particle of such an ideal
homogeneous fluid, we obtain 8 quantities whose dependence from the time t and
the coordinates x, y, z and makes up the content of the basic problems of
hydrodynamics.

To solve these problems, it is possible to make up 5 equations giving the

dependencies between the indicated eight quantities, three of which are assumed to
be given.

Model of hydraulic flow.

Consider some part of the space filled with a moving fluid. At some arbitrary point, we

construct a velocity vector vB, representing (in terms of value and direction) the velocity of a
particle of fluid B at a given moment of time at this point.
 35

Рис.3.1

On this vector, at a very small distance from point B, we take point C and
construct a vector vc corresponding to the velocity of the particle at this point at
the same instant of time, etc. We obtain a broken line BCDEFGH, whose sides
coincide with the directions of the velocity vectors of the fluid particles B, C, D, E,
F, G, H at a given time.

If the length of the segments BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, GH is infinitely reduced,
then in the limit the broken line turns into a curve called the current line - this is a
curve drawn through a series of points in the moving fluid in such a way that the
velocity vectors of the fluid particles, which are currently in these points, are
tangent to it.

Рис.3.2

We select an elementary area dF in the liquid and through all its points
located both inside the site and on the contour, draw a current line. The set of these
lines forms a certain bulk beam, called an elementary stream of liquid.
 36

If the velocity and pressure at each given point of the space filled with a
moving fluid remain constant all the time (but can change as you move from one
point of space to another), the motion is called steady.

With steady motion, the elementary stream has the following properties:

1) since the stream lines that make up the trickle do not change their shape with
time, the shape of the entire trickle remains unchanged in time;
2) in view of the fact that current lines in this case are also the trajectories of liquid
particles, the flow of the latter through the side surface from one stream to another
is impossible; the stream appears to be enclosed in rigid walls forming a tubular
surface, called the current tube.
Flow types and hydraulic elements.

In the study of fluid flows, a number of concepts characterizing flows from the hydraulic and
geometric points of view are introduced. These are: the area of the live section, the wetting
perimeter and the hydraulic radius.

The area of the live section, or the live section of the stream, is called the
cross-sectional area of the flow, carried out normally to the direction by the current
line, i.e. normal to the direction of the velocities of elementary jets. When the flow
consists of a series of divergent elementary streams, the live section represents the
curvilinear surface AB. But if the divergence of the jets is small (the motion is
called slowly varying in this case), a living section is usually understood as a plane
flow cross-section normal to the general direction of fluid motion.

Fig.3.3
 37

If the walls limit the flow completely, the motion of the fluid is called - pressure; In the case of
partial flow restriction, the motion is called non-pressure. Pressure flows, sometimes called -
completely filled, and non-pressure - unfilled.

Pressure movement is characterized by the fact that the hydrodynamic

pressure at any point of the flow is different from the atmospheric pressure. Non-
pressure motion is determined by constant pressure on a free surface, usually equal
to atmospheric pressure.
An example of a pressure movement is the movement of liquid in the
pipeline when it is pumped by pumps, flowing out of a reservoir or a water tank,
and an example of a non-pressure movement is the movement of fluid in open
channels and rivers.
A part of the perimeter of the live section, along which the flow contacts the
walls bounding it, is called the perimeter of wetting. At pressure head - the
geometrical perimeter and perimetre of wetting coincide on value, and at non-
pressure the perimetre of wetting will be different from geometrical, since The line
along which the liquid touches the air in the length of the wetting perimeter is not
included.
For the channel, the wetting perimeter A=2 h+b , but geometric is 2 b+2 h .

The ratio of the area of the living section to the perimeter of wetting
( R=
F
)
A ,
called the hydraulic radius of the section. In the case of a pressure motion in a
d
r=
circular pipe of diameter d, the geometric radius 2 , but the hydraulic radius
F πd 2 d
R= = =
A 4 πd 4 .
 38

Fig.3.4

bh
R=
When the liquid moves in an open channel (fig.3.4) (b+2 h ) , and the
concept of a geometric radius is not inherent in this section at all.

Speed and flow.

Flow rate refers to the amount of fluid flowing through the cross section of
the flow per unit time. The amount of flowing liquid, measured in volumetric units,
is called the volumetric flow and is denoted by Q. The mass of fluid m
corresponding to the volumetric flow is called the mass flow rate.

Between volumetric and mass flow there is the following relationship

m=ρQ . Volumetric Flow Units: [м3/с; м3/час; л/с; л/мин]. Units of mass flow:
[кг/с; кг/час; кг/мин; т/с; т/час]. Along with this, in hydraulics, the notion of the
weight flow G and the equivalent concepts of productivity, flow rate, throughput
are used.
The flow rate of the elementary stream of liquid dQ can be determined as
follows. Denote dFa - the area of some cross section of the trickle a-a (Fig. 3.5).

Fig.3.5

Then the volume of liquid dQadt passing through this section in a very short
time dt will be dL.dFav, where dL is the distance along the axis of the trickle, to
which it moves for a specified time in section а-а; dFav - the average cross-

sectional area of the trickle at a distance dL. It has

dQ a=dF av ( dLdt ).
 39

dL
Here dt – the average velocity in the section dL of the flow of the liquid
constituting the elementary trickle.

We will reduce indefinitely the time interval dt. Then in the limit, for dt →

0, we get dQ a=v a dF a .

Since the section of the elementary stream was chosen arbitrarily, dQ=vdF
, (**) those. the flow rate of the liquid passing through the cross section of the
elementary trickle is equal to the product of the cross-sectional area of the trickle
by the speed in this section. Equation (**) is called the flow equation for an
elementary trickle.

If we consider the flow of a fluid as a collection of a large number of

elementary jets, then the total fluid flow Q for the entire flow as a whole can be
defined as the sum of the elementary costs of all the individual jets the stream
consists of.

Q=∫ dQ=∫ vdF

Suppose that the fluid particles along the entire cross section of the flow
move at the same speed, this imaginary fictitious velocity is called the average
flow velocity (vср).

Thus, we obtain the flow equation for the flow in the following form:
Q=v ср F . From this expression we find
Q vdF
v ср= =∫
F F .

Equation of continuity. Formulas of its expression.

The physical meaning of the continuity equation.

The fluid flow rate, calculated from the average velocity, can be represented as the volume of a

cylinder with area F and height vср (fiq.3.6а).

 40

If the flow rate is determined from actual velocities, the distribution law of which in the cross
section of the flow is given by a curve, for example a parabola, its value is determined by the volume of

the corresponding paraboloid of revolution with the same area of the base F, as shown in the figure

(fig.3.6b).

Fig.3.6

If the motion of the fluid is steady and the dimensions and shape of the cross
sections along the flow do not change, and consequently the average velocities in
all cross sections of the flow are the same, the motion is called uniform.

The steady-state motion of a liquid is called non-uniform, in which the

cross-section of its flow varies along the length of the stream and, consequently,
the average velocity.

Uniform is the motion of a liquid in a pipe of constant diameter with a

constant flow rate of liquid, and non-uniform motion of a fluid in a pipe of variable
cross-section.
We separate the sections a-a and b-b, separated from each other at a distance
dL, by a certain compartment of the same elementary trickle (Fig. 3.5). In this
compartment a volume of liquid flows dQ a=v a dF a through the cross section a-a,
and through it and b-b a volume flowsdQ b=v b dFb out.
Let us assume that the motion of a liquid is a steady-state motion, the fluid is
incompressible and it is impossible to form empty spaces in it-that is, empty. the
condition of continuity or continuity of motion is observed. Taking into account
that the shape of the elementary stream does not change over time and the
transverse inflow into the trickle, as well as the outflow from it, we come to the
conclusion that the elementary flows of the fluid passing through the cross sections
a-a and b-b must be the same.

In this way, dQ a=dQ b , or v a dF a =v b dF b .

 41

Similar relations can be made for any two sections of the trickle. Therefore,

in a more general form, we get that everywhere along the trickle dQ=vdF=const

This equation is a mathematical expression of the continuity condition. It is called the

equation of constancy of flow (the continuity equation).

Going to the flow as a whole and using the notion of average velocity, we obtain by analogous

arguments the equation of constancy of flow for a stream:

Q=v ср F=const . From this

v 1 ср F2
=
equation it follows
v 2 ср F 1 , that the average velocities of the cross sections of the flow with
the continuity of motion are inversely proportional to the areas of these sections.

Differential equation of motion of an ideal fluid (Euler equations)

The motion of an ideal fluid is characterized by the absence of internal friction forces in it,
which cause the appearance of tangential stresses. Therefore, the pressure forces in the flow of
such a liquid, as in the case of rest, have only a normal component. This allows us, in deriving
the differential equations of motion, to use the differential equations of hydrostatics obtained
earlier

X− ( )( )
1 ∂p
ρ ∂x
=0 Y −
,
1 ∂p
ρ ∂ y
=0 Z−
, ρ( )( )
1 ∂p
∂ z
=0 ( )( ) (1)

The fluid is incompressible and homogeneous, and some elementary volume

in the form of a parallelepiped with sides dx, dy¸dz moving with velocity v is
allocated in it. The components of the velocity along the coordinate axes will be
denoted by vx¸vy¸vz.

Equilibrium equations for a system of forces acting on this moving volume

of fluid can be obtained if, on the basis of the known principle of d'Alembert's
theory known from theoretical mechanics, the force of inertia is added to the forces
 42

(pressure, volume and mass) that are actually acting, accounted for by equations
(1).

dv
Pin =−dma=− ρ dxdydz( ).
dt

The minus sign indicates that the direction of the inertia force is opposite to
the direction of acceleration.

In (1) equations, all forces are represented as projections onto the

coordinate axes and are referred to the unit mass of the volume of the liquid in
question.

Forces of inertia, for the components of this force along the axes of
coordinates referred to the unit mass:

dv x dv y dv z
Pinx =− ; Piny =− ; P inz=−
dt dt dt

Consequently,

∂ p dv y
X−
1
ρ
∂ p dv x
( )( )
∂x
−
dt
=0 Y −
,
1
ρ ( )( ) ∂y
−
dt
=0 Z−
,
1 ∂ p dv z
ρ ∂ z
−
dt
=0 ( )( ) (2)

In the general case, the quantities vx¸vy¸ and vz. are functions of the
coordinates x, y¸z and time t, therefore their total differential will be

∂ vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
dv x= dx + x dy + x dz + x dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

∂vy ∂ vy ∂vy ∂ vy
dv y= dx + dy +
dt dz +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
dv z = z dx + z dy + z dz + z dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
We add these expressions to the system of equations (2),I
dx dy dz
=v x =v y =v z
mean dt ; dt ; dt , we get
 43

∂ p ∂ vx ∂v ∂v ∂v
X− ( )( )
1
ρ ∂x
=
∂x
vx + x v y + x v z+ x
∂y ∂z ∂t

1 ∂ p ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
Y −( )(
ρ ∂ y) ∂x
y y y y
= v + v + vx+ y z
∂y ∂z ∂t

1 ∂ p ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
Z−( )(
ρ ∂z ) ∂x
z z z z
= v + v + v +
x y z
∂y ∂z ∂t
These equations are the differential equations of motion of an ideal (inviscid) fluid. They
establish the connection between the projections of volumetric, mass forces and velocities, the
pressure and density of the fluid, and are the basis for studying many of the basic problems of
hydrodynamics. They are called Euler equations.

The Bernoulli equation for a trickle of liquid.

The Bernoulli equation is the main one in technical hydromechanics. It

establishes the relationship between velocity and pressure in different sections of
the same elementary trickle.
In a spatial elementary stream, we select a volume bounded at some time t
by sections 1-1 and 2-2 normal to the axis of the stream O1O2 (Fig. 3.7).

Fig.3.7

Initially, the fluid will be considered ideal, i.e. devoid of viscosity. The
forces of internal friction in such a liquid are absent and only gravity forces and
hydrodynamic pressure forces are applied to the isolated volume of the trickle. Let
for a small time interval dt the indicated volume move to the positions 1'-1'and 2'-
2'. We apply to its motion the kinetic energy tower, according to which the
increment of the kinetic energy of the moving system of material particles is equal
 44

to the sum of the work of all the forces acting on the system. This theorem can be
expressed by the following simple equation:

ΔW =∑ A (3)

where ∆W – increment (change) of kinetic energy; ΣΑ – the sum of the work of the
acting forces.

The increment of the kinetic energy is defined as the difference of the kinetic
energy values in two positions of the moving volume V1'-2' and the volume V1-2.
Noting that the volume V1'-2 enters as an integral part in the expressions for the
volumes V1-2 and V1'-2' :

V 1−2 =V 1−1' + V 1' −2' ;

V 1' −2 ' =V 1´−2 +V 2−2´ ,

and bearing in mind that the kinetic energy V 1'-2 for steady-state fluid motion is the
same at time t as well as at time t + dt, we arrive at the conclusion that the required
increment in kinetic energy is ultimately determined by the difference in the
kinetic energy of the V2'- 2' and V1 - 1' . The named volumes are the result of the
displacement during the time dt of the end sections of the selected section of the
elementary trickle. Denoting v1 and v2 velocities in sections 1-1 and 2-2, we find
that the corresponding displacements are v1dt and v2dt, and the volumes considered
are:

V 1−1 ' =dF 1 v1 dt =dQ1 dt ;

V 2−2' =dF 2 v 2 dt =dQ2 dt .

where dQ1 and dQ2 – flow values in sections 1-1 and 2-2.

But by the continuity condition, the flow in all sections of the elementary
stream is the same (dQ1= dQ2= dQ) and, consequently, V1 - 1'= V2 - 2'= dQdt. The

mass of the volumes in question dm= ρdQdt .

 45

Thus, the expression for the increment of the kinetic energy can be written in
the form.

ρ dQdt 2 ρ dQdt 2
ΔW = v2− v1
2 2
or
ΔW =
dm 2 dm 2
2
v 2−
2
v 1=dm
2 (
v 22 −v 21
)
Let us determine the work of the forces acting on the fluid object under
consideration. The work of the force of gravity is equal to the product of this force,
on the path traversed by the point of its application, i.e. the center of mass (gravity)
of the moving volume of the liquid along the vertical. Considering, as before, the
extracted volume of the trickle in its two positions consisting of the volume V 1'-2.

Let us determine the work of the forces acting on the fluid object under
consideration. The work of the force of gravity is equal to the product of this force,
on the path traversed by the point of its application, i.e. the center of mass (gravity)
of the moving volume of the liquid along the vertical. Considering, as before, the
allocated volume of the trickle in its two positions consisting of a volume V1'-2 and
equal volumes V1-1' and V2-2', it is easy to conclude that the work of the AT of gravity
will be equal to the product of the force of gravity volume V1 - 1' by the distance
along the vertical between the centers of mass of the volumes V1 - 1' and V2 -2' i.e.

AT =dmgz 1−dmgz 2 =dmg( z 1−z 2 ) ,

where z1 and z2 – vertical distances from arbitrary horizontal plane,

called the reference plane, to the centers of mass volumes V 1 - 1'
and V2 -2', (i.e, vertical coordinates of the centers masses of these
volumes).
The pressure forces acting on the volume of the liquid add up from the
pressure forces on its lateral surface and on the end cross sections. The work of the
pressure forces on the side surface is zero, since these forces are normal at all times
in the movement of their application points. The sum of the work of pressure
forces Σ AД on the end sections is
 46

∑ A Д = p1 dF1 dS1− p2 dF 2 dS 2 ,
Where p1dF1¸ p2dF2 - pressure forces on the ends 1-1 and 2-2; dS1, dS2 are the
elementary displacements of the points of application of these forces during the
time dt (the work of the pressure forces on the end face 2 is negative, since the
direction of the force p2dF2 is opposite to the displacement dS2).

But the quantities dF1dS1 and dF2dS2 are equal volumes of V1 - 1´ and V2 -2´ of
dm= ρV = ρV 2−2' ,
mass dm. Therefore, taking into account the fact that 1−1' the
expression for the sum ΣAD can be represented in the form

∑ A Д =( dm
ρ ) 1 2
(p −p )

Substituting the expressions found for the work of forces and for
increasing the kinetic energy in equation (3), we obtain
(v 22 −v 21 ) dm
dm =dmg( z 1 −z2 )+ ( p1 − p2 ).
2 ρ

We then divide this equation by dm= ρdQdt , i.e. let us take it to the unit
mass of the flowing liquid, and regroup the terms. Will have

p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
gz 1 + + =gz 2 + +
ρ 2 ρ 2 (4)

Taking into account that sections 1-1 and 2-2 are taken arbitrarily, this
equation can be extended to the whole trickle, applying it for any cross sections
taken along its length, and present in general form:

p 1 v 21
gz 1 + + =const .
ρ 2 (5)

Equations (4) and (5) represent a different record of the Bernoulli equation
for an elementary stream of an ideal fluid. The sum of the three terms in equation
(5) is called the total specific energy of the liquid in a given section of the trickle
 47

and is denoted by E. The specific energy of the position gz, the specific energy of
p v2
.
ρ
pressure and the kinetic specific energy 2

In accordance with this, the Bernoulli equation can be formulated as follows:

for an elementary stream of an ideal fluid, the total specific energy, i.e. the sum of
the specific energy of the position, the specific energy of the pressure, and the
kinetic specific energy is a constant in all sections of the trickle.

The physical and geometric meaning of the Bernoulli equation.

The Bernoulli equation for a trickle of an ideal fluid is essentially a law of

conservation of mechanical energy, compiled with reference to a unit of mass flow
of liquid. This follows from the fact that in the process of its derivation the values
of the work of the forces applied to the selected volume of the trickle and the values of

the kinetic energy of this volume were divided by a value ρ dQdt .

v2
Hence it becomes clear that since a term 2 is a measure of the kinetic
p
gz+
energy of a unit mass of a moving fluid, the sum of the terms ρ will measure
its potential energy.

With respect to gz, this is obvious. Indeed, if a particle of a liquid of mass

dm is located at a height z with respect to a certain plane and is under the action of
gravity forces, then its ability to perform work, i.e. its potential energy with respect
to this plane is dmgz. Being divided by the mass of the particles dm, this part of the
potential energy, called the specific potential energy of the position, gives the
value gz.

To get a more clear physical idea of the potential energy being measured and
p
the magnitude ρ , consider the following scheme. Let a piezometer equipped with
 48

a crane be connected to a pipe filled with a liquid with excess pressure p. The valve
is first closed, i.e. the piezometer is free of liquid, and the elementary annular
volume of liquid dV with mass ρdV in front of the crane is under pressure p. If you
p
h п=
then open the tap, the liquid in the piezometer will rise to a certain height ρg
.

The work of gravity at this displacement of the volume dV will be

AT =−ρ gdVhп .

The potential energy per unit mass of the liquid will increase by an amount
AT ρ gdVhп p
= =gh п=
ρ dV ρdV ρ

Thus, the unit of mass under pressure p, as it were, still carries a "charge" of
p
potential energy, determined by the specific energy of pressure ρ .
Under pressure understand the energy of the fluid, referred to the unit of
gravity, and not mass, as was done earlier in the derivation of the Bernoulli
equation.

p v2
z + + =const .
In accordance with this, we obtain ρg 2 g -
Bernoulli equation for an elementary stream of an ideal fluid in another form, very
convenient for hydraulic calculations.

p v2
H=z + +
Similarly, we will distinguish between heads: a full ρg 2 g ,
p v2
geometric z, piezometric ρg and high-speed 2 g .
 49

In this case, the Bernoulli equation can be formulated as follows: for an

elementary trickle of an ideal fluid, the total head, i.e. the sum of the geometric,
piezometric and velocity head is a constant in all its sections.
Between pressure and specific energy, there is a simple dependence of
э
H= .
g Pressure - measured by units of length. The value z is the vertical
coordinate of the center of gravity of the section of the trickle. Unit of

p v2
=h
measurement ρg and 2 g linear (meter).

This makes it possible to plot the graphs of the Bernoulli equation. On the
abscissa axis, the distances along the axis from a certain section are taken as the
initial ones, and along the ordinate axis - the values of the pressure components for
a number of sections of the trickle.
The total head is designated by the letter H. In accordance with equation
p v2
H=z + +
ρg 2 g , the change in the total head along the trickle during the motion
of the ideal fluid is represented by a horizontal straight line ( H=const ) .

Suppose that an elementary trickle, arbitrarily located in space, carries a

fluid flow rate dQ. Then the velocity head in any section of the trickle
v2 dQ2
=
2 g 2 g (dF )2 ,where dF – area of the trickle.

Let the head with respect to a certain comparison plane be H 1 and the ordinate
z of the trickle axis be given by the position of the comparison plane. Then it is
possible to calculate the values of the piezometric head in any section of the
p dQ 2
=H 1− z1 −
trickle: ρg 2 g( dF )2 .
 50

Similarly, if the positions of the reference plane, the head H 1 and the
piezometric head for a number of sections of the trickle are given, the velocity

v2 p
=H 1 −z 1 −
head in these sections can be found: 2 g ρg and, consequently,
determine the velocity v.

p
The comparison plane is assigned arbitrarily. Calculating the values ρg
v2
and values 2 g , It is possible to present on one graph the changes along the length
p v2
of the trickle of the values of all the components (z, ρg , 2 g ) of the total
pressure H. Such a graph (fig.3.8) will be called the graph of the Bernoulli
equation. The curve aa in this graph is called the piezometric line. It depicts the
p
change in the sum of the geometric and piezometric forces (z + ρg ) along
the length of the trickle and is, the characteristic of the change, its specific
potential energy.

The change in this energy, per unit length, is called the piezometric slope
and is denoted by i. The value of the piezometric slope for a section of the trickle is
p
d(z+ )
ρg
iп=
given by dL at dL → 0, where dL – length of the elementary section
of the trickle, which includes the section under consideration.

Fig.3.8
 51

p1 p2
( z1 + )−( z 2 + )
ρg ρg
iп =
Expression
1 −2 L1−2 determines the value of the
piezometric slope in the section between sections 1-1 and 2-2 of length L 1-2, а
p2 p3
( z2 + )−( z 3 + )
ρg ρg
iп =
выражение
2 −3 L2−3 – the average value of the piezometric
slope in the section between sections 2-2 and 3-3 of length L2-3.
The Bernoulli equation for an elementary trickle of a real fluid.

When the ideal fluid moves, its total specific energy or head H keeps a
constant value along the length of the trickle, then when the real fluid moves this
energy will decrease in the direction of motion. The reason for this is the inevitable
expenditure of energy to overcome resistance to movement, caused by internal
friction in a viscous fluid. This means that for a trickle of a real liquid, the total
specific energy in the cross section is 1-1

p 1 v12
э1 =gz 1 + +
ρ 2

will always be greater than the total specific energy in the following section of the
cross section 2-2

p2 v 22
э2 =gz 2 + +
ρ 2

by the value of the indicated energy losses, and the Bernoulli equation therefore
p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
gz 1 + + =gz 2 + + + э 1−2
takes the form ρ 2 ρ 2

Just as the three terms on the left-hand side of this equation and the first
three terms on the right-hand side represent the total specific energy of the fluid in
sections 1-1 and 2-2, respectively, so the value of e1-2 is a measure of the energy
 52

lost by a unit mass of liquid to overcome resistance when moving between

specified cross sections.

Corresponding to this loss of specific energy, the head is called the head loss
between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and is designated h1-2.
Consequently, the Bernoulli equation for an elementary stream of a real
liquid can be represented in the form
p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
z1+ + =z 2 + + +h
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 1−2

In accordance with this, the graph of the Bernoulli equation for a trickle of
a real liquid (Fig. 3.9) will differ from a similar graph for an ideal fluid (Fig. 3.8).
Since in the case of a real liquid the total head along the trickle is not
constant, but decreases in the direction of motion, the changes in its values along
the length of the trickle are represented by some curve bb (in the particular case
when the trickle has a constant cross section, the loss of pressure along its length
will be proportional to the distance from the initial section and the change in the
total head is represented as an inclined straight line).

Fig.3.9

The Bernoulli equation for the whole flow of a real fluid is identical to the
record for an elementary trickle

p 1 α 1 v 21 p2 α 2 v 22
z1+ + =z 2 + + +h1−2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

α1, α2 is the Coriolis coefficient. This coefficient is the ratio of the actual kinetic
energy of the fluid flowing through the cross section of the flow per unit time to
the kinetic energy that would occur at the same flow rate if all the particles of the
liquid had the same velocities equal to the average velocity.
 53

Usually, the Coriolis coefficient is determined experimentally on the basis

of velocity measurements at various points in the investigated flow. It depends on
the degree of uneven distribution of velocities in its cross section and is always
greater than unity. For the so-called laminar regime in a cylindrical tube, α = 2, and
for turbulent α = 1.045 ÷ 1.10. In practical calculations, α = 1 is often taken,
thereby neglecting the non-uniformity of the velocity distribution, assuming that
all the streams move with the same average velocity.

p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
z1+ + =z 2 + + +h
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 1−2

Practical application of the Bernoulli equation.

With the help of the Bernoulli equation formulas are derived for determining
the flow of water passing through openings and weirs, the hydraulic calculation of
the pipelines of many water measuring devices is carried out, the basic equation of
the uneven motion of the liquid is derived, and so on. In hydraulics, there are
almost no sections where the Bernoulli equation would not be used to some extent.
We confine ourselves to those problems where the loss of pressure during motion
can be neglected.

Fig.3.10

The Venturi water meter is a device by means of which it is possible to

measure the fluid flow in the pipes of Fig. 3.10. The Venturi water meter consists
of a cone-shaped converging pipe with a smaller diameter insert than the diameter
of a cylindrical tube to which the water meter joins. The insert is followed by the
cone of the water meter, expanding in the direction of the current. Two
piezometers are installed along the axis of the device: one before the cone-shaped
 54

narrowing, and the other in the middle of the narrowed insert. We introduce the
following notation:

D is the diameter of the pipe in which the flow is measured liquid;

d is the diameter of the tapered insert;

v1 is the average velocity in a pipe of diameter D;

v2 is the average speed in the region of the narrowed insert.

We apply Bernoulli's equation to the flow of fluid moving through the

Venturi. For this we draw a plane of comparison along the axis of the device and
consider two sections: the first I-I at the beginning of the constriction, where the
first piezometer is installed, and the second I I-I I in the tapered insert where the
second piezometer is installed.

Due to the insignificant length of the device between these sections (usually
3-5 pipe diameters) and a smooth cone-like approach to the narrow insert, the head
loss can be neglected, so we can write down the Bernoulli equation for the case in
question as follows:

α 1 v 21 p1 α 2 v 22 p2
+ = +
2g γ 2g γ

The geometric heights z1 and z2 are zero because the reference plane passes
through the centers of gravity of the living sections, which coincide with the axis

of the device. Since the consumption

Q=v 1 ω 1=v 2 ω2 , then

πd 2 πd 2 D2
v1 =v 2 v =v
4 4 .We now determine the velocity v2: 2 1 d2 . We make
α 1 v 21 p1 α 2 v 21 D4 p2
+ = +
a substitution, then 2g γ 2 gd 4 γ or
 55

4
p1 p2 2 α2 D α1
− =Δh=v 1 ( − )
γ γ 2 gd 4 2 g ,if we denote by Δh the difference in the
piezometric heights, measured from the scale of the instrument.

√
2 gΔh
v 1= 4
D
α 2 4 −α 1
Consequently, d . At the same time, the flow rate of the

√
1
Q=ω1 4 √2 gΔh
D
α 2 4 −α 1
liquid passing through the water meter is d . In the
derivation of this formula, we did not take into account energy losses during the
movement of water through the device; practically they can be taken into account
by introducing a water meter consumption factor μ<1. Then the final formula for
Q:

√
1
Q=μω 1 4 √ 2 gΔh
D
α 2 4 −α 1
d .
Coefficient of consumption for new water meters μ = 0,985
and for water meters that were in use, μ = 0,98.

Hydraulic resistance.
When the fluid moves, there are two types of resistance and, accordingly,
two types of head loss.

1) Resistance, manifested along the entire length of the flow, due to the
frictional forces of the particles of fluid against each other and the walls that limit
 56

the flow; the corresponding head loss will be called the friction loss along the
length and denote hl (resistance along the length);
2) local resistance caused by various kinds of obstacles installed in the flow
(valve, crane, elbow), leading to changes in the value or direction of the flow
velocity of the fluid; the corresponding head loss (local losses) will be denoted h l.r
(local resistance).

Modes of fluid motion. Reynolds parameter.

One of the main tasks of practical hydraulics is the estimation of head losses
to overcome the hydraulic resistances that arise when moving real fluids in various
hydraulic systems. To correctly determine these resistances, first of all, it is
necessary to form a clear idea of the mechanism of the movement of the liquid
itself. When investigating the issue, we come to the conclusion that there are two
different, dramatically different modes of motion. This was already known in the
first half of the nineteenth century, but the existence of two regimes of motion was
clearly confirmed only in 1883 by the well-known physicist Reynolds on the basis
of very simple experiments.

To characterize the fluid motion regime, Reynolds introduced the

dimensionless parameter Re, taking into account the influence of the factors listed
vd ρ
Re=
above, called the Reynolds number (or criterion). μ

μ vd
=υ Re=
As ρ , we get υ .
When calculating, it is usually assumed that the Reynolds number is Re =
2300. For Re <2300, the mode is always considered to be laminar, and for Re
<2300 it is always turbulent. With a circular cross-section of the hydraulic radius,
substitute its value for d and obtain the formula for the Reynolds number expressed
in terms of the hydraulic radius:
 57

4 vR
Re=
υ , whence
Re vR
=
4 υ . For the cross section of any form, the criterion for judging the nature
2300 vR
=575 ¿¿
of the mode of motion is a quantity equal to 4 . If υ , laminar
vR
¿575¿
regime if υ , mode turbulent.
The motion of a liquid at low velocities, when individual streams of liquid move parallel to
the axis of the flow, are called laminar (from the Latin word "lamina" - a layer), or streamed.
Laminar motion can be regarded as the motion of separate layers of a liquid, which occurs
without mixing the particles.

The second type of fluid motion, observed at high speeds, is called turbulent
("turbulent" in Latin - vortex). In this case, there is no apparent regularity in the
motion of the fluid. Separate particles are mixed with each other and move through
the most bizarre, ever-changing trajectories. This movement is also called
disorderly. Turbulent regime, characterized by intense mixing of the liquid as a
result of the motion of particles along very complex trajectories; particles move
across the flow, making difficult paths for their general forward motion.
Obtaining expressions for the determination of hydraulic resistances on the
basis of the theory of uniformity. The expression Darcy-Weisbach.

Let us investigate the uniform motion of the liquid flow-pressure (flow in

pipelines) and non-pressure (motion in open channels). The average velocities in
all cross sections are the same, there are no local resistances, and there are only
resistances that appear along the length of the flow, causing corresponding
frictional pressure losses.

Consider a fluid flow with uniform motion, whose axis is

inclined to the horizon at an angle α (Fig. 4.3).
 58

Fig.4.3

We select in this flow two sections 1-1 and 2-2 a certain volume of small
length L and apply to its motion the theory of the theory of motion of the center of
mass. Since, during the motion of a fluid, the uniform acceleration of the center of
mass of the allocated volume is zero, hence the sum of the projections of all
external forces applied to the indicated volume on any axis must also be zero.
These external forces are:
 Forces of pressure P1 and P2 in sections 1-1 and 2-2, normal to these sections
and directed: the first - in the direction of motion, the second - the side
opposite to the motion; these forces are equal to the product of the average
hydrodynamic pressures in these sections p 1 and p2 by the cross-sectional
area of the flow F, namely: P1 =p 1 F ; P2 = p2 F ;
 Forces of hydrodynamic pressure on the lateral surface of the volume under
consideration from the side of its surrounding fluid psur, directed normally to
this surface;
 Gravity (the weight of the volume bounded by sections 1-1 and 2-2),
directed vertically downwards defined by the expressionG= ρ gFL ;
 Force of resistance to movement T
Let us assume that all particles of the liquid move with identical velocities
equal to the average flow velocity. Then the drag force will be equal to the
frictional force arising on the lateral surface of the selected volume. To define it,

we denote the frictional force per unit surface (that is, the tangential stress) τ.
 59

In this case, the total friction force T =τ AL , where A is the wetted perimeter
of the same volume, between sections 1-1 and 2-2. This force is directed parallel to
the axis of the flow in the direction opposite to the flow.

Let us compose the sum of the projections of all these forces on the x-axis parallel to
the axis of the flow. Taking into account the fact that the forces pn do not give a projection onto
this axis, we obtain

P1 −P2 +G sin α −T =0 (4.1.)

Substituting, in (4.1.) the expressions for the individual forces and

substituting

( z 1− z2 ) z 1 −z 2
sin α = p1 F− p2 F+ ρ gFL −τ AL=0
L , will have L .

A
=R
Dividing the resulting equation by taking into account the fact that F
(where R is the hydraulic section radius), we transform it as follows:

p1 p
z1+
ρg
=z 2 + 2 +
ρg ρg
τ
( )( ) L
R (4.2.)

Comparing equation (4.2) and the Bernoulli equation in its usual form

p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
z1+ + =z 2 + + +h
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 1−2 , compiled also for uniform motion (v1 = v2), we obtain an
expression for the loss of pressure along the length of the flow:

h тр= ( )( )
τ
ρg
L
R (4.3.)

This equation is also called the basic equation of uniform motion.

Let us consider (Fig.4.4) the case of fluid motion in a pressure pipeline of
circular cross-section. Let r denote the inner radius of the tube and select the origin
 60

at the center of its cross section O, pointing the x axis along the pipe axis and the z
axis along the vertical.

Fig.4.4

We then select the volume of the liquid inside the tube in the form of a cylinder whose
radius is y, the length L, and apply to it the basic equation of uniform motion (4.3.).

y
R=
Since the hydraulic radius for the circular section 2 , then we get

h тр= ( )( )
τ
ρg
2L
y (4.4.)

When the tube is horizontal (z1 = z2), then (4.4.) Can be written as:
Δp 2 τL
h= =
ρg ρ gy (4.5.)

where Δp is the pressure drop across the section L. For the unit friction force
(tangential stress) on the radius y, we obtain:

Δ py
τ=
2L (4.6.)

This allows us to establish the law of distribution of tangential stresses in the

cross section of the tube. τ varies linearly: the smallest value of τ0 = 0 will be on
Δ pr
τ r=
the pipe axis (at y = 0), and the largest value at its walls (at y = r): 2L
(4.7.)
The graph of the variation of τ along the pipe cross-section in Fig.4.4.
 61

(4.3.) (4.4.) (4.5.) (4.8.) – these formulas are applicable both for laminar and
turbulent regimes.

τ 1
= 2 v2
If we accept, as was suggested by Chezy, ρg C ,
then from (4.4.) we obtain

v2 L
h1−2= 2
C R (4.8.)

hтр
=i
Taking into account the fact that L (where i is the hydraulic gradient),
from (4.8.) We obtain the Chezy formula for the velocity with uniform motion of
the fluid:

v=C √ Ri (4.9.)

The value of the coefficient C in the formula (4.9.) Is determined experimentally. The
quantity C2 has the acceleration dimension. For practical applications, it is more convenient to
have empirical coefficients as dimensionless quantities, so the Chezie C coefficient was

subsequently replaced.

C=
√ 8g
λ (4.10.)

where λ is a dimensionless quantity, usually called the coefficient of hydraulic

friction or hydraulic resistance. Such a replacement allows us to bring the formula
(4.8.) To a very convenient form for practical use (for open flows):

L v2
h1−2= λ
4 R 2g (4.11.)
 62

Since for round tubes 4R = d, then from the equation (4.11.), We obtain the
Darcy-Weisbach formula (4.11.) For the determination of head losses with uniform
motion of fluid in round tubes:

L v2
h1−2= λ
d 2g (4.12.)

Losses of pressure spent on the speed and friction of laminar motion.

Let us isolate in the tube (Fig.4.5 (4.10)) an elementary section in the form of
a ring with an internal radius y, thickness dy, and consequently with a cross-
sectional area. The thickness of the ring is infinitesimal, we assume that the
particle velocity vy of the liquid at all its points is the same and is determined by
the formula

Fig.4.5

v y=( ) Δp
4 μL
( r 2− y 2 )

expressing the law of velocity distribution in the cross section of a circular

tube under a laminar regime known as the Stokes law.

Elementary flow rate of liquid passing through this annular section,

dQ y=v y dF y=v y 2 π ydy .

The total flow of liquid through the entire cross section of the pipe is
defined as the sum of such elementary costs or, as an integral taken over the whole
section, i.e. in the range from y = 0 to y = r. In this way,
 63

r r r
Q=∫ dQ=∫ v y 2 π ydy =π ∫ v y d ( y 2 ) .
0 0 0 (4.13)

Integrating (4.13) by parts, we obtain:

[ ]
r
Q=π
2 r
|v y y |0 − ∫ y 2 dv y
0 (4.14)

The first term is zero, because at y = r (at the walls) vr = 0, and on the
tube axis y = 0. Consequently,

r
Q=−π ∫ y 2 dv y
0 (4.15)
τ
y=r
We introduce a new variable τ. From expression τr
(from the stress distribution law), we have

2 r2 2
y =τ 2
τ (4.16)

We also take into account

dy =
( )
r
τr
dτ
. Then, since
−
dv y
dy
=f ( τ )
, then
r
−dv y=f (τ )dy=f (τ ) dτ
τr (4.17)

Substituting in (4.15) instead of y2 and dvy their values (4.16) (4.17), we

obtain finally
τr
πr 3
Q= 3 ∫ f ( τ ) τ dτ
2
τr 0 (4.18)

Integrating this expression for the case of a flow of a Newtonian fluid, when
τ
f (τ )=
μ substituting in (4.18), we obtain:
 64

τr τr
Qτ 3r τ 2 1
=∫ τ dτ= ∫ τ dτ
2

πr 3 0 μ μ 0 ,
whence after integration we find

( )( )
Qτ 3r 1 τ4
=
πr 3 μ 4 (4.19)
or

Q= ( )
πr 3
4μ r
τ
(4.20)
rΔp d
τ r= r=
As 2 L , and also 2 (where d is the diameter of the pipe), we
obtain a formula for determining the flow rate for a laminar mode:

1 πΔp 4
Q= d
128 μL , (4.21)

called the Hagen-Poiseuille formula.

The average velocity for the entire pipe section

Q 1 Δp 2
v ср= = d
πd 32 μL
2

4 (4.22)

Turbulent flow.
In a turbulent flow, each individual fluid particle moves along a complex
curvilinear trajectory different from the trajectories of particles with it and, as can
be seen from the Reynolds experiments discussed above, moves not only in the
direction of the flow axis, as in the laminar regime, but also participates in random
transverse movements.
 65

Let us consider a certain flow of liquid under turbulent conditions (Fig. 4.6).
Despite the fact that each particle in this stream participates in both longitudinal
and transverse motions, it is always possible to establish the main direction of
motion. Such main direction, which determines the general direction of the flow of
the entire flow, we must consider the motion of particles along the axis of the flow,
since each of them, in the end, moves in this direction.

Fig.4.6 Fig.4.7

In a space filled with a moving fluid, we note a point O (Fig. 4.6). Various
liquid particles (for example, particles of liquid a and b) will pass through it, and
the velocities of these particles va and vb will be different not only in magnitude but
also in direction. The velocities of moving fluid particles at a given point at a given
time are called instantaneous local velocities at a given point, or simply
instantaneous velocities.

Any instantaneous velocity v can be decomposed into components:

longitudinal (along the x axis) vx directed parallel to the axis of the flow, and two
transverse flowing in the plane of the live section of the stream - the horizontal
component vy along the y axis and the vertical component v z along the z axis (Fig.
4.7).
 66

Figure 4.8 shows a graph for the axial component of the instantaneous
velocity (corresponding to the direction of the main motion of the entire flow),
which is of greatest importance for practical purposes.

Fig.4.8

Similar graphs can be constructed for transverse components. These graphs

are the pulsation graphs, the very time variation of the component of the
instantaneous velocity in time, the pulsation of the velocities. Since the
instantaneous velocity at a given point is not constant, but varies in time, the notion
of averaged velocity is introduced, the average speed at a given point in a
sufficiently large time interval, the bar denotes averaged.
Since the instantaneous velocity at a given point is not constant, but varies
in time, the notion of averaged velocity is introduced, the average speed at a given

point in a sufficiently large time interval v , the bar denotes averaged.

Denote by ΔF the element of the flow cross-section at point O (Fig. 4.7),
and vx is the corresponding longitudinal component of the local velocity. Then the
volumetric amount of liquid that has passed through this section for an

infinitesimal time dt will be dV =v x Δ Fdt . The volumetric amount of fluid that has
passed after some finite time t is determined as
t
V =∫ v x Δ Fdt
0 .

Elemental flow rate

t
ΔF ∫ v x dt
V 0
dQ= =
t t (4.23)
 67

This flow rate can also be calculated by some average longitudinal time

velocity v x in time

dQ=v x ΔF (4.24)

Equating, we get:
t
∫ v x dt
vx = 0
t (4.25)

The value obtained v x is the longitudinal component of the time-averaged or

average local velocity. Similar expressions can be obtained for the components of

the averaged velocity

v y and v z along the y and z - u axes.

Then the vector of the total averaged velocity will be

determined by the expression

v=√ v 2x +v 2y +v 2z (4.26)

Experiments have been established:

1) the flow velocity of the liquid directly on the wall surface itself due to the
wetting liquid adhering to them is zero;
2) at a very small distance from the walls, the velocities reach a considerable value;
3) at the points of the live section of the stream more distant from the wall surface,
the velocities increase more slowly.

Nikuradze's experiments.
 68

Experiments on the study of hydraulic resistances in rough pipes were made by

Nikuradze in 1932. They were delivered very carefully and were carried out in tubes with an
artificial homogeneous roughness. In tubes with this roughness, at various flow rates, the loss of

L v2
h1−2= λ
pressure was determined, and the formula λ was calculated from the formula d 2g ,
the values of which were plotted on the graph as a function of the Reynolds number0.

The results of Nikuradze's experiments are shown in the graph (Fig. 4.9). The whole
area of numbers can be divided into five zones:

The first zone - laminar regime [ λ=f ( Re ) ] ;

The second zone - transition from laminar to turbulent regime [ λ=f ( Re ) ] ;

The third zone is the region of "hydraulically smooth" pipes under turbulent

conditions [ λ=f ( Re ) ] ;

The fourth zone is the region of rough pipes (the pre-quadratic region of "mixed
friction") under turbulent conditions [ λ=f ( ε ,Re ) ] ;

Fig.4.9

The fifth zone is the region of "completely roughened pipes" (quadratic or

self-similar region) under turbulent regime [ λ=f ( ε ) ] .

Expressions for the determination of hydraulic resistance.
 69

In the laminar mode, the Poiseuille formula is used in round tubes to

determine the coefficient λ:

64
λ=
Re (4.27)

In the turbulent regime, to determine the coefficient λ, the Prandtl-Nikuradze

formula:

k1
=0
for smooth pipes (at d )
1
√λ
=2 lg
Re √ λ
2 , 51 ( ) (4.28)

for quite rough pipes(at Re=∞ )

1
λ=

[ ( )]
2
1
1 ,74 +2 lg
ε (4.29)

The formula of A.A. Altshul

[ ]
0 ,25
k 68
λ=0 , 11 1 +
d Re (4.30)

In the field of "hydraulic smooth tubes," the Blasius formula

0 ,3165
λ= 4
=0 ,3165 Re−0, 25
√ Re (4.31)

In the quadratic region of completely roughened tubes, the formula of

B.L.Shifrinson

( )
0 , 25
k
λ=0 , 11 1
d (4.32)

Local resistances.
 70

When moving a real fluid, in addition to losses due to friction along the
length of the flow, local head losses can occur. The cause of local losses in
pipelines are various structural insertions (knees, tees, narrowing and expansion of
the pipeline, gate valves, globe valves etc.), the necessity of which is caused by the
conditions of construction and operation of the pipeline.

Local resistance causes a change in the velocity of the fluid in value

(narrowing and expansion), direction (knee) or value and direction at the same time
(tee). In practical calculations, local losses are determined by a formula expressing
loss in proportion to the high-speed head.

v2
hl . r.=ζ
2g (4.33)

where v is the average fluid velocity in the flow cross-section behind the
local resistance; ζ is a dimensionless coefficient called the local resistance
coefficient. The value of ζ is established experimentally.

If the loss of the head is expressed in terms of the speed before the local
resistance, it is necessary to perform the local resistance coefficient recalculation
using the relation

( )
2
ζ1 F
= 1
ζ2 F2
(4.34)

where ζ1, ζ2 are the local resistance coefficients corresponding to sections F1 and
F2.

The main types of local pressure losses can be conditionally divided into the
following groups:
1. Losses associated with changing the cross-section of the flow (or its
average velocity). This includes various cases of sudden or gradual expansion,
narrowing the flow.
 71

2. Losses caused by a change in the flow direction (angles, bends used on

pipelines).

3. Losses associated with the flow of liquid through the valves of various
types (valves, taps, check valves, grids, selections, throttle valves, etc.).

Losses associated with the separation of one part of the flow from the other
or the merger of two flows into one common. This includes, for example, tees,
crosses and holes in the side walls of pipelines in the presence of transit flow.

Equivalent length in local resistances.

In some cases, it is convenient to determine the local resistance by an
equivalent length. Such a length of a straight section of a pipe of a given diameter
at which the loss of frictional pressure along the length hfr is equal to (equivalent
to) the loss of head hl.r. caused by the corresponding local resistance. The
equivalent length Le can be found from the equation of the loss of pressure along

the length, determined by the Darcy-Weisbach formula

h fr =λ ( )( )
Lэ
d
v2
2 g , and local

v2
hl . r.=ζ
pressure losses, accounted for by formula 2 g . Equating the right-hand sides
of these formulas, we find

l eqv =( ζλ ) d (4.35)

where ζ – is the local resistance coefficient;

λ – is the coefficient of resistance expended on friction along the length of the

pipeline;

d – the diameter of the pipeline.

Suddenly extended flow

 72

Let us consider the case of local resistance in the form of a sudden expansion
of the pipeline, when the cross section sharply increases from F 1 to F2 (Fig.4.8
(4.25)).

Fig.4.10

The particles of the liquid, having crossed the section 1-1 with some velocity,
tend to move further in the same direction at the same speed. However, they are
retained by particles that are in front and have (by virtue of the increase in the
cross section) lower velocities, as though they bump and strike against them, and
so they obtain displacements in the transverse direction, which causes the jet to
expand. In some section 2-2, spaced a short distance from the first, the fluid flow
fills the entire section of the pipe. At the beginning of a larger diameter pipe, a
vortex region is formed at the corners, which is an annular space A filled with a
fluid that does not participate in the main translational movement in the direction
of the pipeline axis. Due to friction on the boundary surfaces, this liquid is here in
a rotational, vortex motion, causing significant energy losses.

In a horizontal fluid flow, we select the volume between sections 1-1 and 2-2
(Fig. 4.10) and apply to it the increment of the momentum, according to which the
increment in the amount of motion is equal to the momentum of the projections of
all the forces acting on the direction of motion.
 73

The specified volume will move to a new position in a certain time, limited
by sections 1'-1 'and 2'-2'. In order to determine the increment in the amount of
motion, it is sufficient to consider the mass of liquid m of volumes between the
sections 1-1, 1'-1 'and 2-2, 2'-2', since the amount of volume movement between
sections 1-1 and 2-2 remains unchanged.

In this case, for the desired increment of the momentum, we obtain

m ( α '2 v 2 −α '1 v 1 )= ρ Qdt ( v 2 −v 1 )

(а)

where Q is the flow rate; ρ is the density of the liquid; the Boussinesq coefficients,
which are corrections to the quantity of motion due to the nonuniformity of the
velocity distribution in the cross sections of the flow (we will assume that the
coefficients are the same and equal to unity).

Since the hydrodynamic pressures p 1 and p2 in these sections are uniformly

distributed over the entire area F2, we obtain for these forces:

P1 =p 1 F2 ; P2 = p2 F 2 .

The frictional forces can be neglected, in view of the small length of the
spreading region l. The sum of the projections of the force pulses on the direction
of motion (i.e., the flow axis) will be

( p1 − p2 ) F 2 dt (b)

Equating (a) and (b) we obtain

ρ Qdt ( v 2 −v 1 ) =( p1 −p 2 ) F 2 dt
.

The resulting expression, dividing by ρg and replacing it Q=v 2 F 2 will look like:
v 2 F 2 ( v 2−v 1 ) F 2 ( p1 −p 2 )
=
g ρg

or
 74

( p1 − p2 ) v 22 v 2 v 1
= −
ρg g g

For the same two sections, we compose the Bernoulli equation in its usual form
p 1 v 21 p 2 v 22
z1+ + =z 2 + + +h
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 1−2 , from which we find the expression for the
loss of head when suddenly expanding:

(
h s. ex . .=
p1
ρg
+
v12
2g )(
−
p2
ρg
+
v 22
2g )
=
( p1 −p 2 ) ( v12−v 22 )
ρg
+
2g

( p1 −p 2 )
Converting this expression and substituting it in place of ρg previously set
v 22 v 2 v 1 v 21 v 22 v 21 2 v 1 v 2 v 22
h s. ex .= − + − = − +
its value (b). We get 2g g 2g 2g 2 g 2g 2g

or finally
( v 1−v 2 )2
h s. ex .=
2g (4.36)

those. loss of head at sudden expansion is equal to the speed head

corresponding to the lost speed (v1 - v2). This result is known as the theorem, or
the Borda formula, and is well confirmed by experimental data under turbulent
conditions.

Coefficient of resistance of the system.

The local resistance coefficient ζ depends not only on the form of the local
resistance itself, but also on the nature of the fluid motion regime, i.e. of the
Reynolds number.
 75

At very low values of the Reynolds number (Re <10), this coefficient is
A
ζ=
inversely proportional to Re: Re .For large values of the Reynolds number in
the laminar regime, the dependence of the local resistance coefficient on the
B
ζ=
Reynolds number has the form: Ren . A and B are numerical coefficients of
the kind of local resistance.

Altshul recommends that ζ be determined from a generalized formula

C
ζ= +ζk
applicable to both laminar and turbulent conditions: Re , where C is a
coefficient depending on the type of local resistance; ζk is the coefficient of local
resistance in the quadratic region of the turbulent regime.

Under turbulent conditions, changes in the local resistance coefficient ζ,

depending on the Reynolds number, are so insignificant that they can be neglected,
and for practical calculations, ζ is considered to be dependent only on the nature
and design of the local resistance (sudden expansion, gradual expansion, sudden
narrowing, gradual narrowing, diaphragm, pipe joints, pipe entry, elbows and
roundings, tees, flap and cork, latch, suction box).

Interference of local resistances

In practice, often there are such hydraulic systems, which include a large
number of different local resistances, installed at very short distances from each
other. This is observed in the pipelines of oil and gas wellheads, manifolds of oil
pump stations and some shaped pipeline parts.
The effect of one resistance on the other begins to be affected, the flow
regime with a steady velocity field is violated, and the conditions of the fluid
approach to each subsequent local resistance change. The total coefficient of
resistance of such systems can significantly differ from the arithmetic sum of the
values of the coefficients of individual "isolated" resistances and, depending on the
 76

distance between them, may be much larger or smaller than this sum. In this case,
they speak of interference; the mutual influence of local resistance.
As the main characteristic of interference, the so-called influence length is
taken to mean the length of a straight section of the pipeline after a local resistance,
within which the disturbing effect of the resistance on the flow ceases. In general,
the length of the influence depends on the type (geometry) of the local resistance,
the Reynolds number, the diameter and the relative roughness of the pipeline.
According to Altshul, the influence length for the whole region of the
0 ,5 dζ k
Lвл =
turbulent regime can be determined by the formula λ , where d is the
diameter of the pipeline, ζk is the coefficient of the local resistance in question in
the quadratic region; λ is the coefficient of hydraulic resistance of the pipeline. For
large Reynolds numbers, for an approximate estimate of the influence length, we

can approximately take it Lвл =( 20÷50 ) d .

The phenomenon of cavitation.

Cavitation (from the Latin word "cavitas" - a cavity) is the formation in the
moving liquid of strips filled with steam or air (gas). Cavitation occurs when the
pressure in any places of the flow falls so that it becomes lower than the saturation
pressure, i.e. pressure corresponding to the boiling of the liquid at a given
temperature.

The phenomenon of cavitation can be observed in the suction lines of

pumping plants and siphon pipelines, where its appearance is caused by the
geometric configuration and the principle of the pipeline itself, the bulk of which is
under atmospheric pressure.
 77

Cavitation can also occur during operation of high-speed hydraulic turbines,

centrifugal pumps and propellers. In such cases, its cause is the occurrence of large
local velocities leading to a decrease in pressure. If, in this case, the pressure is
below the saturated vapor pressure, rapid evaporation of the liquid begins at the
appropriate places. The liquid begins to boil, and in it cavitation cavities are
formed, consisting of vapor bubbles.

Cavitation phenomena lead to a marked increase in the coefficients of local

resistance and, consequently, local pressure losses. Cavitation properties of local
2( p1 − pкр )
χ=
resistances are determined by the number of cavitations: ρv 21

where p1, v1 - pressure and speed in front of the local resistance; pcr is the
minimum pressure at which cavitation occurs (usually equal to the saturation
pressure).
Unconventional working conditions of local resistance are provided when
χ ¿¿ . For local resistances causing a change in the velocity of the fluid
(narrowing and widening of the flow), the critical value of the cavitation number

is: χ кр=ζ +2 √ ζ , where ζ is the local resistance coefficient and in the cavity-free
regime.

Expiration from the bottom hole in a thin wall.

Expiration of fluid from the holes is one of the main tasks of hydraulics, which
reduces to determining the flow rate and the flow rate of the flowing liquid. Let us
consider the case of the outflow of liquid from a horizontal hole in the bottom of
the vessel (bottom hole) (Fig. 4.11).
 78

Fig. 4.11

Suppose, in the general case, that the pressure on the free surface of the
liquid in the vessel and the pressure in the medium into which the outflow occurs
differ from the atmospheric one and are equal to p1 and p. In the vessel, all the
time, the amount of liquid that comes out of it through the aperture arrives; The
level of the liquid in the vessel is kept constant and, consequently, the fluid motion
will be steady. Let us consider the flow of an ideal fluid, we will formulate the
Bernoulli equation for two sections: sections 1-1 on the free surface of a liquid in a
vessel and sections 2-2 over an aperture. We denote the area of sections by F and f,
p 1 v 21 2
p v2
H+ + = +
respectively. We have ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

where v1 and v2 are the average velocities of the fluid in the indicated sections.

The equation of constancy of flow for the same sections gives Q=v 1 F=v 2 f ,
v2 f
v 1=
whence F . Substituting this value, we get:

( )( ) p1 p v 22
( )[ ( ) ]
2
p1 v 22 f 2 p v2
2
f
H+ + = + H+ − = 1−
ρg 2g F ρg 2 g или ρg ρg 2 g F

From here
 79

√ [ ( ) ( )]
p1 p
2g H+ −
ρg ρg
v T =v 2=
( )
2
f
1−
F

v2 = vT is the theoretical speed. In practice, the area F is much larger than the area

( )
2
f
f, therefore, in most cases, the quantity F can be neglected. Then

√
vT= 2 g H + ( p1
ρg
−
p
)
ρg . When p1 = p = ratm (the vessel is open and the

discharge occurs into the atmosphere), v T =√ 2 gH . This expression is Torricelli's

formula. Flow rate Q T =v T f .

Let us write the Bernoulli equation for the flow of a real liquid

p 1 v 21 2 2
p v Д ζv Д
H+ + = + +
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 g

where vD is the actual flow velocity; ζ is the coefficient of resistance at the

expiration. From here

√ [ ( ) ( )] p1 p
2g H+ −
ρg ρg
v Д=
( )
2
f
1+ ζ −
F

( ) √
2

or, if we neglect the quantity

f
F ,
v Д=
1
√1+ ζ (
2g H+
p1
ρg
−
p
)
ρg .

1
v Д= √ 2 gH
When р1 = р = ратм , √1+ ζ .
 80

The ratio of the actual flow rate to the theoretical velocity is called the
vД 1
ϕ= =
velocity coefficient φ. Consequently, vТ √1+ζ , from which the coefficient
1
ζ=
of resistance ζ is expressed in terms of the velocity coefficient ϕ 2−1 .
Expiration through the nozzles.

Expiration from a hole in a thin wall, equipped with a short tube of the
same diameter as the hole, and having a length equal to the wall thickness (the wall
is considered thin if its thickness is δ<0.2d, where d is the hole diameter). Such
tubes are called nozzles, they are widely used.

Fig.4.12

The most common types of attachments are:

1) cylindrical - external (Fig. 4.12a) and internal (Fig. 4.12b);

2) conical - converging (Fig. 4.12c) and divergent (Fig. 4.12g);

3) conoidal curvilinear outlines, having the form of a compressed jet (Fig. 4.12d).

Fig.4.13

Let us consider the outflow of liquid through an external cylindrical nozzle

(Fig.4.13), which is a short (l = (3 ÷ 4) d) cylindrical tube attached to an opening in
 81

the wall of the vessel. The liquid stream after exiting the vessel and entering such a
nozzle undergoes some compression (ds ≈ 0.8d), then gradually expands and fills
the entire cross section of the nozzle. Compression of the jet occurs only inside the
nozzle (internal compression), the output section of the nozzle works completely,
so the compression ratio, referred to the output section, is ε = 1. When the liquid
flows through the nozzles, the value of the flow coefficient μ = 0.82 (this
coefficient depends on the ratio). Comparing this value with the value of the flow
μнас 0 , 82 4
= ≈
coefficient when flowing out of a hole in a thin wall, we obtain μ отв 0 ,62 3 .

Consequently, the flow rate of the liquid when flowing through the nozzles
will be approximately 4/3 times greater than when flowing out of the hole in the
thin wall. And since in this case ε = 1, the coefficient of speed φ = μ = 0,82, i.е.
much less than when flowing out of the hole. Thus, the outer cylindrical nozzle,
increasing the flow rate, significantly reduces the flow rate, because in the mete of
the compressed section of the jet, an annular vortex region a is formed (Fig. 4.13)
filled with a liquid in a vortex, circular motion. The presence of a vortex region in
combination with the phenomena of compression and subsequent expansion of the
jet is the main reason for an increase in head losses and, consequently, a decrease
in the exhaust velocity.

If the outflow occurs in the atmosphere, then as a result of the compression

of the jet at the beginning of the nozzle, the pressure in the vortex region turns out
to be less than the atmospheric pressure and a vacuum (vacuum) is created in it,
facilitating the release of dissolved air from the liquid. We apply the Bernoulli
equation for two sections: compressed 1-1 and output 2-2 at the end of the nozzle.
p 1 v 21 p2 v 22
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ∑ 1−2 .
+ = + + h

Due to the insignificant length of the nozzle, the frictional losses along the
length between the cross sections are small, they are not taken into account and
 82

pressure losses are determined only as local ones for the sudden expansion of the
jet.

( )
F2 2 v 22 F2 1
h м . п .= =
F 1−1 2 g ε ' , where ε΄ - coefficient of internal compression
as F 1
2 v2 v 22
(for a cylindrical nozzle 0,64), получим ε
1
h м . п .= ' −1
( 2g
2
)
=0 , 31
2g
. By the
F2 v2 v2
v 1=v 2 = =
equation of constant flow F 1 v 1 =F2 v 2 we find F1 ε' 0 , 64 . Thus, we

v 22
( )
p 1 p2 v 2 1 p2
= + 1+0 ,31− = −1 , 12
ρg ρg 2 g 0 , 64 2 ρg 2g
obtain . At the outflow to the
atmosphere, p2 = patm, and p1, is always less than p2.

Consequently, there is indeed a vacuum in the outer cylindrical nozzle:

p вак pатм p1 v 22
= − =1 ,12
ρg ρg ρg 2g

p вак 2
=1 , 12 ϕ H
Flow rate v 2=ϕ √ 2 gH ,then ρg . Substituting the value φ =
p вак
≈0 ,75 H
0,82, we get ρg .

Expiration at variable head

The problem of flow at variable head is reduced to determining the time of

emptying or filling of all or some part of the vessel, depending on the initial filling,
the shape and dimensions of the vessel and the opening.
Consider the simplest example of the flow of liquid into the atmosphere
through a bottom hole of area f from an open vertically cylindrical vessel of the
same cross-section F along the entire height (Fig. 4.14).
 83

Рис.4.14

The elementary volume of liquid that has passed through the hole in an

infinitesimal time interval will be dQ=μfvdt=μf √ 2gH dt

where Н –the depth of the liquid in the vessel for a certain position of its level,
which can be approximately assumed constant;

μ –coefficient of flow (varying depending on the head, shape and size of the hole).

In fact, during this time the liquid level in the vessel will drop to dH and the
volume of the liquid in it will change to dV =−FdH .

Because of the continuity of motion dQ=−FdH ( With the passage of time,

H decreases, therefore, dH will be negative), or μf √2 gH dt=−FdH whence
FdH
dt=−
μf √2 gH .
The total emptying time of the vessel is determined as a result of integration
t 0
FdH
∫ dt =− ∫ μf √ 2 gH
0 HH
,

where НН - the depth of the liquid in the vessel before the outflow. Changing the
limits of integration on the right-hand side of the equation, taking μ=const,
HH
F dH
t= ∫
and taking the constants, we have for the integral sign: μf √ 2 g 0 H 1/ 2 ,
 84

2 F √H H
t=
which after integration leads to the following final expression: μf √ 2 g .
If it is necessary to determine the time necessary to lower the liquid level in the
vessel by a certain amount from H1 to H2, proceed from the fact that the integration
2 F ( √ H 1− √ H 2
t=
is carried out in the range from H1 to H2. Wherein μf √2 g .

Pipeline and its description

Pipelines are used to move various liquids (water, oil, clay solutions, etc.),
made from a variety of materials (metal, concrete, wood). Depending on the
geometric configuration and methods of hydraulic calculation, simple and complex
pipelines are distinguished.

Simple (Fig. 5.1) consist of one line of pipes that do not have lateral
branches, i.e. Pipeline with the same flow rate on the entire path of fluid movement
from the point of its intake to the point of consumption B.

Fig.5.1

Complex pipelines consist of a main line and a number of branches that

branch off from it. They are divided into the main types: a) parallel pipelines, when
one or several pipes are connected in parallel to the main M (Fig. 5.2a);

Fig.5.2
 85

b) branched pipelines, in which liquid from the main line M is fed into the
lateral branches; back to the highway it does not arrive (Fig.5.2b);

c) annular pipelines, which are a closed network (ring), fed from the main
line M (Fig.5.2c).

In complex pipelines, the transit flow transmitted along the main line is
distinguished, and the track (or associated), taken from the main line at a number
of intermediate points along the path of the fluid.

The flow is called concentrated if the selection points are at a considerable

distance from each other and continuous if these points are very close to each
other.

There are also pressure and non-pressure. In pressure pipelines, the liquid is
under excessive pressure and completely fills the entire cross section. Non-pressure
pipelines operate in an incomplete section and are characterized by the presence of
a free surface, usually exposed to atmospheric pressure.

Three tasks of hydraulic calculation of the pipeline

With the hydraulic calculation of pipelines, the following particular tasks are
encountered: 1) determination of the head difference needed to pass the specified
flow rate of the liquid through the pipeline;

2) determination of the flow rate of the liquid along a given pipeline for a
given pressure drop;

3) Determination of the required diameter of the pipeline to pass this flow at

a known pressure difference.

Continuous flow of the pipeline

Consider the problem of determining the head losses in the pipeline, in the section
AB of which there is a continuous path flow (Fig. 5.3). The length of this section
will be denoted by L, the transit flow passing through it - QТ, the way flow - QП.
 86

Fig.5.3

We assume that Qn is uniformly distributed over the entire length L, i.e.

QП
q=
per unit length of the section AB L .

The flow in some arbitrary section of this section of C, located at a distance

x from the initial section A, will be less than the flow in section A equal to QT +
QP by the amount of selection on the length x - qx and will be
QП x
Q x=( Q T +Q П ) −
L

We confine ourselves to the case when the motion of the liquid occurs in the
quadratic region of the turbulent regime. Then, to reduce the friction pressure on an
elementary pipeline section of length dx in the cross section C, we obtain

( )
2
Q x
Q T +Q П − П dx
Q 2x L
dh тр= dx=
K2 K2

We integrate in the range from 0 to L, we obtain the formula for determining

the head loss on the entire length of the pipeline L with a continuous travel flow
rate:

( QT + QП −
QП x 2
)
[ ]
dx
L
K 1
L
2 ( Q T +Q П ) Q П x Q П x
2 2
h тр= ∫ K2
= 2 ∫ ( Q T +Q П ) −
K 0
2
L
+
L
dx
0
or finally
 87

( )
2
L QП
h тр= 2 Q 2T +Q T Q П +
K 3 .

In the particular case, when the whole flow is taken in the section L, i.e.
2
1 QП
h тр= L
transit flow QT = 0, pressure loss will be 3 K 2
-this is the Dupuis
formula. It follows that the head loss in the pipeline with a continuous travel cost is
three times less than the head loss, which would be in the absence of the hand
distribution and at the same flow rate, completely concentrated at the end of the
pipeline.

Calculation of a simple pipeline.

Suppose the liquid flows from the upper tank A to the lower B, through a pipeline of
length l and diameter d (Fig. 5.4).

Рис.5.4

It is required to determine the necessary head, for the flow of this liquid
through this pipeline. In tanks, the pressure, respectively, pA and pB. For sections
1-1 and 2-2 in tanks A and B, we form the Bernoulli equation, with respect to the
surface 0-0 taken along the tube axis.

Then

p A α 1 v 2A pB α 2 v 2B
H 1+ + =H 2 + + + h1−2
γ 2g γ 2g .
 88

In view of the fact that the cross-sections 1-1 and 2-2 in the tanks are large,
and the velocities vA and vB are very small, we can take vA = vB.

p A− p B
H 1 −H 2 + =h1−2
Then γ

p A− p B
ΔH + =h1−2
γ

h1-2 –total head loss between sections.

As is known:
h1−2=hтр +h м .п .

( )
n n
l v2 v2 l v2
h тр=λ ; h м . п.=∑ ζ i ; h1−2 = λ + ∑ ζ i
d 2g i =1 2g d i =1 2g

If we accept
p A =p B ,, then to ensure the flow rate of liquid Q, the difference in liquid

( )
n
l v2 Q 4Q
ΔH = λ +∑ ζ i v= = 2
levels in the tanks
d i=1 2g
. S πd - the velocity of the liquid

( )
n
l 8 Q2
ΔH = λ + ∑ ζ i 2 4
d i=1 π d g.
in the pipe. Substituting, we get

Suppose that the loss of pressure of local resistances is replaced by an

l18 Q2
ΔH =λ
equivalent length: π 2 d 5 g ; l 1 =l+l Э , l1, l, lЭ – calculated, real and

equivalent length.
ΔH =
l1 Q2
K2
; K=
8λ√
π2 d5 g

K - flow module or flow characteristic (has dimension Q). In the general

case of loss:
∑ h= 2
8
π gd 4
λ
l
d (
+ ∑ ζ i Q2 =K o Q2 )
To do this, depending on Q, the speed v and Re is determined. Depending on
Re and the roughness of the pipeline, Δ is determined by λ. ζ - are located under
the directory, depending on the type of local resistance.
 89

Consistently connected pipeline

Suppose there is a series-connected pipeline with different diameters and pipe lengths
- (1,2,3) and with 4, 5 and 6 - local resistances (Fig.5.5). It is known that, because of the non-
compressibility of the liquid, at all places of this pipeline, the flow rate will be the same: Q1 = Q2
= Q5 = Q, and the total loss of head is the sum of the head loss in each pipe and the connected

∑ h A−B =∑ h1 + ∑ h2 + ∑ h3
pipeline.

Рис.5.5

On the basis of equation

∑ h= 8
λ
π 2 gd 4 d (
l
+ ∑ ζ i Q 2
=K o Q)2

, write:
3

∑ h A−B =Q ( K 0 + K 0 + K 0 ) =Q ∑ K 0
2
1 2 3
2
i
i=1

K0 =
1
2
8
4
π gd 1
λ1
l1
d1(+ζ 1
)
K0 =
2
2
8
4
π gd 2
λ2
l2
d2(+ζ 2
)
K0 =
3
2
8
4
π gd 3
λ 3 (
l3
d3
+ζ 3
)
In the general case, the initial and final velocities are different in the
pipeline. If we take α1 = α2 = 1, then for the sections A and B, Bernoulli's equation
will be:
p A −p B v 2A −v 2B
z A −z B + + =∑ h A−B
γ 2g

pA pB v 2B −v 2A
=z B −z A + + =∑ h A−B
γ γ 2g
 90

( )
pA Q2 1 1
Q
v A= ; v B=
Q =H c + − =∑ h A−B
SA SB γ 2 g S2B S2A

pA
=H C +CQ 2 + K 0 Qn
In the general case, the head loss will be: γ

p
H C =z B −z A + B
γ ;
C=
1 1
( −
1
2 g S 2B S 2A ) ; ∑ h=K o Qn
When the laminar mode is n = 1, in turbulent mode 1 <n ≤ 2.
Parallelly connected pipeline

Consider the parallel connection of the pipeline between points A and B

(Fig. 5.6). For simplicity, we take the pipeline located horizontally. 1, 2, 3 -
pipelines, 4, 5, 6 - local resistance.

Рис.5.6

Denote: the total head HA and HB at points A and B, the total flow rate Q,
in parallel lines of head loss - Σh1¸ Σh2 and Σh3, respectively, Q1¸Q2 and Q3.

In this case Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 In each pipeline, the head loss:

∑h1 = HA - HB; ∑h2 = HA - HB; ∑h3 = HA - HB.

Then ∑h1 =∑h2 = ∑h3 .

These head losses can be expressed through the flow rate Q:

∑ h1=K o Qn1 ; ∑ h2= K o Qn2 ; ∑ h3=K o Qn3

1 2 3

K0i и n – depends on the driving mode.

 91

n n n n
K o 1 Q 1 =K o2 Q 2 K o 2 Q 2 =K o3 Q 3
;

Thus, to build the total characteristic of a complex pipeline, it is necessary to

combine the characteristics of individual sections with a series connection (Fig.
5.7) vertically, and with parallel connection (Fig.5.8) horizontally.

Fig.5.7

FIg.5.8

Siphon pipeline

Siphon is called a gravity pipeline, part of which is located above the level
of liquid in the vessel (reservoir), from which the supply of liquid. The simplest
scheme of the siphon pipeline (siphon) is a curved overturned U-shaped pipe
connecting the vessels A and B (Fig. 5.9). The movement of the liquid in the pipe
from the upper vessel A to the lower B is due to the difference in the Δz levels.
 92

Fig.5.9

Siphon pipelines are used as water catchments for hydraulic structures, for
draining petroleum products from tanks, for evacuation of reservoirs, for the laying
of waterways through elevations, etc.

To bring the siphon into operation, it is necessary to remove the air from it
first, and to create in it an initial discharge. The liquid from the vessel A rises
along the left suction branch of the siphon and flows into V. The siphon continues
to function as a pipeline and ensures the uninterrupted flow of fluid from one
vessel to another.

Siphon pipeline - a pipeline opesrating under vacuum (vacuum). We

formulate the Bernoulli equation for the cross sections a-a and b-c, coinciding with
the free surfaces of the liquid in the vessels A and B:

p A v 2A p B v 2B
ρg 2 g ∑ A− B
zA+ + =z B + + + h
ρg 2 g

If we neglect high-speed heads, then ΔH =Δz = z A −z B =∑ h A−B

Consumption Q=μ c f √ 2 gΔH , and if local losses are neglected, then

Q=K
√ ΔH
L .

The pressure in the siphon pipelines is also checked using the conventional
hydraulics equations. Pressure in any section, for example x-x, can be determined
 93

by compiling the Bernoulli equation for this section and the cross section of the
liquid that coincides with the free surface in vessel A:

p A v 2A p x v 2x
+ =z x + + + ∑ h a− x
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
p x p A v 2A v 2x
= + −z x − −∑ h a− x
ρg ρg 2 g 2g
Neglecting high-speed heads because of their smallness in comparison with
px p A
= −z x −∑ ha− x
other quantities: ρg ρg

Theoretically, to operate the siphon pipeline, it is necessary that the

minimum pressure in it pmin is always higher than the saturated vapor pressure of
py
At =
the liquid at a given temperature: [At is the saturated vapor pressure ρg ].