1.
Introduction of Evolution
Evolution
Is changes in the inherited trait (allele frequency) in population over time
There are two areas of evolutionary study:
Microevolution:
Describes how populations of organisms change from generation to generation &
how new sps originate
Is small scale changes in gene frequency in a population from one generation to
the next
The basis for macro evolution
Macroevolution:
• Describes patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad period
of geological time
Is large scale evolution
The descent of different species from a common ancestor over many
generations= Phylogeny
1.1. Concept and scope of evolution
Organic/Biological evolution
Is the modification of living organisms during their descent, generation by
generation, from common ancestors
States that all living things on earth are here as a result of descent/ancestor with
modifications from a common ancestor
Refer to population not to individuals
i.e. populations can evolve but individuals do not
Is a process that results in heritable changes in a population which must spread
over many generations
Biological evolution is not simply a matter of change over time
The development or ontogeny of an individual organism is not considered
evolution
The change in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are
heritable via the genetic material from one generation to the next
Evolution: any change in the frequency of alleles within a gene pool from one
generation to the next
Gene pool: is the group of all different genes of a population
Central idea of Biological Evolution is all life on earth shares a common ancestor
Organic evolution includes two major processes:
Anagenesis: the alteration of the genetic properties of a single linage over time
Cladogenesis/branching: a single linage splits into two/more distinct linages that
continue to change anagenetically
Is Evolution a Theory?
Evolution is a scientific theory that was proposed by Charles Darwin
A scientific theory gives explanations & predictions for naturally occurring
phenomena based on observation & experimentations
1.2. Unity & diversity of life
Unity of life : all organisms on earth are descended from a single common
ancestor
All life forms on earth have a common system:
Universal genetic code (triplets coding for same amino acid)
Universal usage of DNA to store genetic information
Ribosome for protein synthesis from 20 amino acids
Membranes
Energy transformation
Diversity of life
Is the variability among living organisms on the earth in number & variety.
Including the variability within & b/n species/ ecosystem
It can range from species up to kingdom in three domain of life on earth
(Archae, Bacteria and Eukaryote)
The Six Kingdoms of Life (viruses not included)
Scientists & philosophers recognized that organisms can be organized according to
similarities and differences
The most basic difference b/n organism is the distinction b/n prokaryotes & eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Most advanced
Simplest
May be single celled like amoebas & paramecia
Most primitive kinds of single
May be complex , multicellular like human
celled organism
Contain nucleus & organelles
Lack nucleus Larger than prokaryotic cells
Bacteria & blue green algae All living thing excluding bacteria & blue green algae
The tree of life is organized from the most general (kingdoms) down to the most
specific level (species)
Kingdom -> Phyla-> Classes-> Orders-> Families-> Genus-> Species
e.g Human belongs to:
Kingdom –Animalia
Phylum-chordata
Class –mammalia
Order-primates
Family-Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species-Homo sapiens
1.3. Fixity and Mutability of species
Fixity of species = all species remained unchanged throughout the history of the
earth
This belief is not accepted in present time
Religious scholar accepted Aristotel theory of the fixity of sps.
They believed that God had created each sps independently at the beginning of
time, and each sps then remained exactly the same up to the present
Darwin believed the religious view that God created all the sps specifically for
their env.t
After his study on the Galapagos island in w/c he observed many e.g. of sps w/c
did not remain unchanged as his religious belief suggested
He rejected this view along with religion all together
Mutability of species
Means that animals, plants and humans had evolved or changed over millions
of years through d/t pattern of evolution
1.4. Pattern of Evolution
• Evolution of species categorized into four patterns
1. Divergent evolution
2/more species originating from a common ancestor and become increasingly d/t over
time by adaptive radiation
Accumulation of differences b/n groups lead to formation of new species
Usually a result of diffusion of the same species to different and isolated env.t which
block the gene flow among distinct population
Closely related species living in different environments and facing different
environmental challenges sometimes evolve dissimilar characteristics
Homologues structure –same structure but different function
2. Convergent evolution
Describes two unrelated species that share similar traits
Occur when dissimilar species gradually become more similar
Organisms with very d/t ancestors become more alike due to a common env.t
Evolution of similar traits in distantly related sps b/c they live in similar env.t
The similarities arise not b/c the species share a common ancestor, but b/c each
species has independently adapted to similar ecological conditions or lifestyle
Unrelated species living in similar environments and facing similar
environmental challenges sometimes evolve similar characteristics
The trait that resemble one another =analogus traits
Analogus structure: d/t structure but same function
Unrelated species living in similar environments and facing similar
environmental challenges sometimes evolve similar characteristics
The trait that resemble one another =analogus traits
Analogus structure: d/t structure but same function
3. Parallel evolution
Two related species or two related linage that have made similar evolutionary
changes after their divergence from a common ancestor
• Occur when 2 species evolve independently of each other
E.g. the forms of leaves, where very similar patterns have appeared again
and again in separate genera and families.
4. Co-evolution
Is the tit-for- tat evolution of one species in response to new adaptations
that appear in another species
A process in which one species evolves in response to the evolution of
another species
E.g.
an evolutionary change in the morphology of a plant might affect the
morphology of herbivore
Co evolution b/n prey & predator, plant and plant eating insects, Pollinator &
flowering plants, parasite & host
Cladograms & Phylogenetic Trees
• Biologists use cladogram & phylogenetic tree to illustrate relationship among
organisms & evolutionary relationships for organisms with a shared common
ancestor
• Both cladogram & phylogenetic tree show for relationship among organisms
Cladogram
Arrange organisms on d/t branches but the branches are not representative of the
change /evolutionary tree
Does not necessarily show exact relationship b/n ancestors & descendants
Phylogenetic tree
Describes an evolutionary history by showing how ancestors are related to their
descendants and how much those descendants have changed over time
The branches on a phylogenetic tree proportional to amount of change /
evolutionary time
