II PUC PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Name :
Roll. No : Class :

EXPERIMENT PAGE

1. RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF A WIRE 3

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE

2. 5
(USING OHM’S LAW)

3. FIGURE OF MERIT OF A GALVANOMETER 8

4. VOLTMETER (GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER) 11

5. AMMETER (GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER) 13

6. FREQUENCY OF AC 16

7. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS 19

8. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR 21

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS USING

9. 24
CONVEX LENS

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR USING

10. 27
CONVEX LENS

11. ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION 30

12. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS 32

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER USING CONCAVE

13. 35
MIRROR

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER USING CONCVEX

14 37
LENS AND PLANE MIRROR

15 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE 39

1
 PLANE SIDE RULED SIDE
1. Diagram 1. Aim
2. Observation 2. Apparatus
3. Tabular column 3. Principle
4. Graph 4. Formula
5. Calculations 5. Procedure
6. Result (in the last page of the exp)

PRACTICAL EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS

Duration of examination 2 hours

Maximum marks allotted 30 marks
SCHEME OF VALUATION
SL. NO. PARTICULARS MARKS
1. Performing the Experiment 20
2. Viva-Voce 04
3. Practical Record 06
TOTAL 30
DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS FOR EXPERIMENT
SL. NO. PARTICULARS MARKS
1. Writing the principle of the experiment 2
2. Writing the formula and explaining the terms 2
Writing the diagram/ figure/ circuit with labelling and
3. 2
sample graph
Writing the observation and tabular column with
4. 2
relevant units
5. Constructing the experimental set up/ circuit 3
Performing the experiment and entering the readings
6. 4
into the tabular column
Substitution and calculation with units/ plotting
7. 3
graph
8. Result with units (SI) 2
TOTAL 20

2
Ex. No. 1 Date: __________

RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH

Aim: Determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of
Current versus potential difference.
Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, plug key, battery, rheostat, Voltmeter.
Ammeter and meter scale.
Principle: Ohm's law: The electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
physical conditions remains constant.
1
Formula: 1. Resistance of the wire, 𝑅 =
𝑚

Where, R = resistance of the wire,

m = slope of the I vs V graph.
𝑅
2. Resistance per unit length =
𝐿

Where, L = length of the experimental wire.

Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The rheostat is adjusted for a particular value of voltage (V) and the
corresponding value of current (I) is noted.
3. The experiment is repeated for different values of V (in steps of 0.1V) and
the readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted between I and V, taking I on the y-axis and V on the x-
axis. The slope m of the graph is found
5. The reciprocal of the slope is calculated which gives the resistance of the
wire.
6. The length of the resistance wire is measured.
𝑅
7. The resistance per unit length of the wire, is calculated.
𝐿

Result:
The resistance per unit length of the wire is 𝛺𝑚−1 .
3
Circuit Diagram Graph

Ba – Battery, K – Key, A – Ammeter, V – Voltmeter, Rh – Rheostat,

R – Resistance wire.
Observation: Length of the wire, L = 1 m
Tabular Column

Trial No. V (Volt) I (Ampere)

Calculations:
𝐴𝐵 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 = = =
𝐵𝐶 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

1
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = = __________ = __________𝛺
𝑚
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, = = _______________𝛺𝑚−1
𝐿
4
EXP NO - 2 Date: ____________

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE

Aim: Determine resistivity of the material of the given wire by using Ohms law.
Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, plug key, battery, rheostat, Voltmeter.
Ammeter and meter scale.
Principle: Ohm's law: The electric current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the
physical conditions remains constant.
Resistivity: The resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit area of
cross section.
Formula: 1. Resistance of the wire,
𝑽
𝑹= (𝛀)
𝑰
Where, V = Voltage
I = current.
2. Resistivity of the wire,
𝝅 𝒓𝟐 𝑹
𝝆= (𝛀𝐦)
𝑳
Where, r = radius of the wire,
R = resistance of the wire
L = length of the experimental wire.
Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The rheostat is adjusted for a particular value of voltage (V) and the
corresponding value of current (I) is noted.
𝑉
3. The resistance is calculated using the formula, 𝑅 =
𝐼
4. The experiment is repeated for different values of V (in steps of 0.1V)
and the readings are tabulated.
5. The radius of the wire and length of the wire is measured.
6. The resistivity of the wire is calculated using the formula
𝜋 𝑟2𝑅
𝜌=
𝐿

Result:
The resistivity of the material of the wire is 𝛺𝑚.
5
Circuit Diagram

Ba – Battery, K – Key, A – Ammeter, V – Voltmeter, Rh – Rheostat,

R – Resistance wire.
Observation: Length of the wire, L = 1 m
Radius of the given wire = × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 m
Tabular Column

Trial 𝑽
No.
V (Volt) I (Ampere) 𝑹= (𝛀)
𝑰

Calculations:

𝑅1 =

𝑅2 =

𝑅3 =

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 =
3

6
𝑅=

𝑅 = ______________𝛺

Resistivity of the material of the wire is,

𝜋 𝑟2𝑅
𝜌=
𝐿

𝜌 = ______________𝛺𝑚

𝑅
Block Diagram: Resistance Per Unit Length ( ) and Resistivity (𝜌)
𝐿

+ –

–
+
7
EXP NO - 3 Date: ____________

FIGURE OF MERIT

Aim: Determination of resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method

and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, cell, resistance boxes and keys.
Principle: Deflection in a galvanometer is directly proportional to the current
through the galvanometer
𝑰 = 𝒌𝜽
Where, K is the figure of merit of the galvanometer.
Formula: 1. Resistance of the galvanometer,
𝑹𝑺
𝑮= (𝛀)
𝑹−𝑺
Where, R = resistance in series with the galvanometer
S = Shunt resistance
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer,
𝑬
𝒌= (𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗)
(𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
Where, E= emf of the cell,
R = resistance in series with the galvanometer
G = galvanometer resistance.
𝜃 = deflection in the galvanometer
Procedure:
1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) The key k is opened. A suitable resistance R is unplugged to get even
deflection 𝜃 in the galvanometer.
3) The key k is closed (galvanometer goes to zero) and suitable resistance S is
𝜃
unplugged so that the deflection becomes . Then the resistance of the
2
𝑅𝑆
galvanometer g is calculated using the formula, 𝐺 =
𝑅−𝑆

4) The experiment is repeated for different values of 𝜃 and the average value of G
is found.
5) The emf E of the cell is measured using a voltmeter.
𝐸
6) The figure of merit is calculated in each case using the formula,𝐾 =
(𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

7) The experiment is repeated for different values of R and value of K is found.

8
 Circuit Diagram

G - galvanometer
E - cell
R & S - resistance boxes
k - key

Observation:
Emf of the battery, E = V
Tabular Column

𝜽 𝑬
Trial 𝜽 𝑺 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝑺 𝑲=
R in 𝛀 𝟐 𝑮= (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
No. in div 𝑹−𝑺
in 𝛀 in 𝛀 𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗
1

Average G = 𝛀

Average k = 𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗
Calculations:

𝑹𝑺
𝑮𝟏 = =
𝑹−𝑺

𝑹𝑺
𝑮𝟐 = =
𝑹−𝑺

𝑹𝑺
𝑮𝟑 = =
𝑹−𝑺

9
 𝑮𝟏 + 𝑮𝟐 + 𝑮𝟑
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝑮, 𝑮=
𝟑

𝑮=

𝑬
𝑲𝟏 = =
(𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽

𝑬
𝑲𝟏 = =
(𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽

𝑬
𝑲𝟏 = =
(𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽

𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏, 𝑲 =
𝟑

Result:
The resistance of the galvanometer is 𝜴.
The figure of merit the pointer galvanometer is 𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗.
Block Diagram:

Ba

10
EXP NO – 4 VOLTMETER Date: ____________

Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of desired range (0-
3V) and verify the same.
Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, battery, voltmeter, resistance box, key and
rheostat.
Principle: Galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting
suitable high resistance in series with it, so that very small current flows through
the galvanometer.
Formula: 1) Current required for full-scale deflection,
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾
Where N - Number of divisions on either side of zero of the
galvanometer
K - Figure of merit of the galvanometer.
2) High resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer,
𝑉
𝑅= −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
Where G - Galvanometer resistance
V - Maximum voltage to be measured
Procedure:
𝑉
1. The value of resistance is calculated using the formula, 𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔

2. The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

3. The calculated high resistance, R is unplugged in the standard resistance
box and the rheostat is adjusted so that the voltage shown in the voltmeter is
equal to the desired range (say 3V).
4. Resistance from the resistance box is adjusted such that the galvanometer
shows full-scale deflection. Then R' from the resistance box is noted.
5. R' is equal to or nearly equal to R. Hence conversion is verified.
Result:
The value of the calculated series resistance, R = Ω
The value of the observed series resistance, R' = Ω
11
 Circuit Diagram

Ba - Battery
Rh - Rheostat
G - Galvanometer
R - Resistance box
V - Voltmeter

Observation:
1. Resistance of the galvanometer, G (given) = Ω
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer, K (given) = A/div
3. Number of divisions on either side of the galvanometer scale, N = 30 div
4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾= A
5. Maximum voltage to be measured, V (say 3V) = V
Calculation:

𝑽
𝑹= −𝑮=
𝑰𝒈

Block Diagram Ba
Rh

R
G

V
12
EXP NO - 5 Date: ____________

AMMETER
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of desired range (0-
30mA) and verify the same.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, battery, ammeter, resistor, key, and rheostat.

Principle: A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a

suitable low resistance in parallel with it, so that a very small current flows
through the galvanometer.

Formula: 1) Current required for full-scale deflection,

𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾

Where N = Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer

K = Figure of merit of the galvanometer
2) Shunt resistance,
𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆=
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔
Where G = Galvanometer resistance
I = Range of converted galvanometer
Procedure:

1. The current for full-scale deflection in the galvanometer, 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝐾, is calculated.

𝐼𝑔 𝐺
2. The shunt resistance S is calculated using the formula, 𝑆 =
𝐼−𝐼𝑔

3. With the given values of radius r and resistivity ρ of the wire, the length l of the
𝑆𝜋𝑟 2
wire is calculated using the formula, 𝑙 =
𝜌

4. The wire of slightly longer length than the calculated length is connected in
parallel with the galvanometer and connections are made as shown in the circuit
diagram.
5. The rheostat is adjusted for 30mA current in ammeter.
13
6. The length of the wire is adjusted for full-scale deflection in the galvanometer
and its length l' is measured.
𝑝𝑙 ′
7. Shunt resistant S' is calculated using the formula,𝑆 ′ =
𝜋𝑟 2

8. S' is equal to or nearly equal to S, and hence conversion is verified.

Observation:
1)Resistance of the galvanometer, G (given) = ... Ω

2) Figure of merit of the galvanometer, K (given) = A/div.

3) Number of divisions on either side of the galvanometer scale, N = 30 div.

4) Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions,

𝐼𝑔 = NK = A

5) Maximum current to be measured, I (say 30mA) = A

6) Radius of the given wire, r = m

7) Observed length of the wire, l’ = m

Tabular column:

Ba - Battery
Rh - Rheostat
G - Galvanometer
R – Shunt Resistance
A - Ammeter

Calculation
𝑰𝒈 𝑮
𝑺= =
𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
14
 𝑺𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑳= =
𝝆

′
𝝆𝒍′
𝑺 = =
𝝅𝒓𝟐

Result:
Theoretical value of shunt resistance, S = Ω
Experimental value of shunt resistance, S' = Ω

Block Diagram:

15
EXP NO - 6 Date: ____________

FREQUENCY OF A.C
Aim: Determination of the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and
an electromagnet.
Apparatus: Sonometer with wire, an electromagnet, slotted weights with hanger.
Principle: In each cycle of A.C., the sonometer string is pulled and released
twice.
At resonance, the frequency of alternating current is equal to half of the frequency
of fundamental mode of vibration of the stretched string.
Formula: Frequency of alternating current,
1
𝑓=
4√𝑚 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Where m = mass per unit length of the string.
Slope = Slope of the graph of l² versus T
Procedure:

1) Suitable mass is attached to the string and the tension T is found.

2) One pole of the electromagnet is placed close to the middle of sonometer
wire.
3) The alternating current supply is switched on and the length of the vibrating
portion PQ is adjusted by moving wedges such that the amplitude of the
vibrating string is maximum. (By paper rider method)
4) The resonating length l is noted.
5) The experiment is repeated for different values of T and readings are
tabulated.
6) A graph is plotted between T and l², taking T on x-axis and l² on y-axis. The
slope of the graph is found.
1
7) The frequency of AC is calculated using the formula,𝑓 =
4√𝑚×𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

16
Diagram:

E
E - Electromagnet
P l Q P & Q - Wedges
l – Resonating length
T - Tension

T = mg

Graph:

Observations:
1) Mass per unit length, m (given) = 0.0018 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1
2) Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 −2

Tabular Column

Trial Mass attached to the Tension Resonating

l2 in m2
No string (M) in Kg T = Mg in N Length (l) in m
1 0.5
2 1.0
3 1.5
4 2.0
5 2.5
6 3.0

17
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔:

𝑨𝑩 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = = =
𝑩𝑪 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟏
𝒇= =
𝟒√𝒎 × 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆

Result: The frequency of Alternating current, f =_____________________ Hz

Block Diagram:

18
EXP NO - 7 Date: ____________

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: Determine the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph of u vs v.
Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, convex lens of less than 20 cm
focal length, three uprights with clamps and meter scale.
Principle: 1. The object distance must be greater than the focal length of the
convex lens to get real and inverted image.
2. When object distance is equal to twice the focal length of the convex
lens the image distance will be equal to twice the focal length.
Formula: The focal length of convex lens
𝑶𝑨 + 𝑶𝑩
𝒇=
𝟒
Where, OA = image distance
OB = object distance
Procedure:
1. The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp
image of the distant tree on the white sheet of paper kept vertically behind
the lens. The distance between the lens and white sheet of paper is
measured. This is the approximate focal length (f) of the convex lens.
2. The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2 are
placed on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3. The heights of the object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2 are adjusted such that
their tips lie on the principal axis of the lens.
4. The position of the object pin 𝑃1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance
u which is greater than f of the lens.
5. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin 𝑃1 , the position of
the image pin 𝑃2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image
without parallax. Then the distance between the convex lens and image pin
𝑃2 becomes image distance v.
6. Experiment is repeated for differed values of u and readings are tabulated.

19
 7. A graph is plotted between u and v, taking u on x-axis and v on y-axis. The
angular bisector OZ is drawn and OA & OB are measured.
𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
8. The focal length of the lens is calculated using the formula, 𝑓 =
4

Diagram:

𝑃1 - Object pin, 𝑃2 - Image pin, I – Image, L – Convex lens

Observation:
The focal length of the convex lens by distant method is _________cm
Tabular column:

Trial no. Object distance (u) in cm Image distance (v) in cm

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Calculations:

𝑶𝑨 + 𝑶𝑩
𝒇= =
𝟒

Result: The focal length of convex lens, f = cm = m

20
EXP NO - 8 Date: ____________

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a concave mirror by finding the values
of v for different values of u.
Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, concave mirror of focal length
less than 20 cm, three uprights with clamps and metre scale.
Principle: 1. Focal length is the distance between the pole and the principle focus
of the mirror.
2. The object distance must be greater than the focal length of the
concave mirror to get a real and inverted image.
Formula: The focal length of convex lens
𝒖𝒗
𝒇=
𝒖+𝒗
Where, v = image distance
u = object distance
Procedure:
1. The given concave mirror is moved forward and backward to obtain the
sharp image of the distant object on the white sheet of paper kept vertically
before the mirror. Then the distance between the mirror and the sheet of
white paper gives the approximate focal length f of the concave mirror.
2. The uprights mounted with concave mirror, object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2
are placed on one side of the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3. The heights of the object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2 are adjusted such that
their tips lie on the principal axis of the mirror.
4. The position of the object pin 𝑃1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance
u which is greater than f.
5. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin 𝑃1 from the other
side of the optical bench, the position of the image pin 𝑃2 is adjusted so that

21
 its tip coincides with the tip of the image without parallax. Then the distance
between the concave mirror and image pin 𝑃2 becomes image distance v.
6. The focal length f of the concave mirror is calculated using the formula,
𝑢𝑣
𝑓 =
𝑢+𝑣
7. Experiment is repeated for different values of u and readings are tabulated
and average focal length is found.

Diagram:

𝑃1 - Object pin, 𝑃2 - Image pin, I – Image, M – Concave Mirror

Observation:
The focal length of the concave mirror by distant method is ________cm
Tabular Column:

Trial 𝒖𝒗
Object distance (u) in cm Image distance (v) in cm 𝒇=
No. 𝒖+𝒗
in cm
1.

2.

3.

22
Calculations:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟏 =
𝒖+𝒗

𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟐 =
𝒖+𝒗

𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟑 =
𝒖+𝒗

𝒇𝟏 + 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒇𝟑
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏, 𝒇 =
𝟑

Result: The focal length of the concave mirror, f = _______________cm

23
EXP NO - 7 Date: ____________

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS USING CONVEX LENS

Aim: Determine the focal length of a concave lens using convex lens by u-v
method.

Apparatus: Optical bench, with uprights for holding the lenses and pins, a thin
concave lens, a convex lens of focal length (~15 cm) smaller than that
of the concave lens and meter scale.

Principle: The object distance must be greater than the focal length of the convex
lens to get a real and inverted image. This image acts as a virtual
object for the concave lens. The concave lens forms a real image for
this virtual object.

Formula: The focal length of concave lens

𝒖𝒗
𝒇=
𝒖−𝒗
Where, v = image distance
u = object distance
Procedure:
1. The uprights mounted with convex lens, object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2 are
placed on the optical bench as shown in the figure.
2. The heights of the object pin 𝑃1 and image pin 𝑃2 are adjusted such that their
tips lie on the principal axis of the lens.
3. The position of the object pin 𝑃1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance
which is greater than the focal length of the convex lens.
4. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin 𝑃1 , the position of the
image pin 𝑃2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image of 𝑃1
without parallax. Then position Y of the image pin 𝑃2 is noted.
5. Concave lens is introduced between convex lens and image pin P₂ as shown in
the figure.
24
6. The position of the image pin P₂ is adjusted such that its tip coincides with the
tip of the object pin P₁ without parallax. The position Z of the image pin P₂ is
noted.
7. Then position X of the concave lens is also noted.
8. Y-X gives object distance u and Z-X gives image distance v.
9. The focal length of the concave lens is calculated using the formula,
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢−𝑣
10. Experiment is repeated by changing the distance between the convex lens and
the object pin P₁. Readings are tabulated and average focal length of concave
lens f is found.

Diagram:

𝑃1 - Object pin, 𝑃2 - Image pin, 𝐿1 – Convex lens 𝐿2 - Concave lens

𝐼1 – Virtual Image, 𝐼2 – Real image.

25
Tabular Column:

Trial Object distance (u) Image distance (v) 𝒖𝒗

𝒇=
No. in cm in cm 𝒖−𝒗
in cm
1.

2.

3.

Mean focal length, f = _________________cm

Calculations:
𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟏 =
𝒖−𝒗

𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟐 =
𝒖−𝒗

𝒖𝒗
𝒇𝟑 =
𝒖−𝒗

𝒇𝟏 + 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒇𝟑
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 , 𝒇=
𝟑

Result: The focal length of the concave lens, f = _______________cm

26
EXP NO - 10 Date: ____________

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR

Aim: Determination of focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp-edged pins, convex mirror of less than 20
cm focal length, four uprights with clamps, and a meter scale.

Principle: The object distance must be greater than the focal length of the convex
lens to get a real and inverted image.

The reflected ray from a convex mirror appears to be coming from its center of
curvature for normal incidence.

Formula: The focal length of a convex mirror

𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
Where, R = radius of curvature.
Procedure:
1. The uprights mounted with a convex lens, object pin P₁, and image pin P₂
are placed on the optical bench as shown in the figure.
2. The heights of the object pin P₁ and image pin P₂ are adjusted such that their
tips lie on the principal axis of the lens.
3. The position of the object pin P₁ is adjusted such that it will be at a distance
which is greater than the focal length of the convex lens.
4. Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P₁, the position of
the image pin P₂ is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image
of P₁ without parallax. The position C of the pin P₂ is noted.
5. The given convex mirror is introduced between the lens and image pin P₂ as
shown in the figure.
6. The position of the mirror is adjusted such that the pin P₁ coincides with the
tip of its image. The position M of the mirror is noted.
27
 7. The distance between the position of the convex mirror and the position C is
measured, which is equal to the radius of curvature R of the convex mirror.
8. Focal length of the convex mirror is calculated using the formula,
𝑹
𝒇 =
𝟐
9. The experiment is repeated by changing the distance between object pin P₁
and the lens. The average value of the focal length of the convex mirror f is
found.

Diagram:

𝑃1 - Object pin, 𝑃2 - Image pin, 𝐿 – Convex lens 𝑀- Convex Mirror

𝐼 - Image, R – Radius of curvature of convex mirror,
C – Center of curvature of convex mirror

28
Tabular column:
Position of
Position of Position of Radius of
convex 𝑹
Trial convex lens image from curvature. 𝒇=
mirror from 𝟐
No. from source source R = Y– Z
source in cm
X in cm Y in cm in cm
Z in cm
1.

2.

3.

Mean focal length, f = ____________cm

Calculations:
𝒇𝟏 =

𝒇𝟐 =

𝒇𝟑 =

Mean f,

𝒇𝟏 + 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒇𝟑
𝒇=
𝟑

Result:
The focal length of the convex mirror using convex lens is ___________cm

29
EXP NO - 11 Date: ____________

MINIMUM DEVIATION

Aim: Determination of angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by plotting a

graph between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, triangular glass prism, drawing pins and white paper
sheets.
Principle: The angle of deviation is the angle between the incident ray and the
emergent ray. At minimum deviation, the light ray passes through the prism
symmetrically. Hence, angle of incidence = angle of emergence.
Procedure:
1. A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing
board.
2. The points O₁, O₂, O₃, O₄, and O₅ are marked on XY at distances of about
10cm apart.
3. A normal N₁O₁ is drawn to XY at O₁ and a straight-line D₁O₁ is drawn to
represent ray of incidence which makes an angle of 35° (i) with N₁O₁.
4. The prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in the figure and its boundary
is drawn.
5. Two pins P₁ and Q₁ are vertically fixed about 5cm apart on the ray of
incidence D₁O₁.
6. While seeing the images of pins P₁ and Q₁ through BC, two more pins R₁ and
S₁ are fixed on the side of BC so that images of tips of pins P₁ and Q₁, R₁ and
S₁ will be collinear.
7. Pins are removed and their pricks are encircled. A straight line is drawn
through pin pricks of R₁ and S₁ to obtain ray of emergence.
8. Rays of incidence and emergence are extended as shown in the figure to find
angle of deviation (d).
9. Experiment is repeated for different values of angle of incidence 40°, 45°, 50°,
55°, 60° and readings are tabulated.
10. A graph is plotted between angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation (d),
taking i on x-axis and d on y-axis. The angle of minimum deviation dm is
found from the graph.

30
Diagram: Graph:

Observation:
Trial no Angle of incidence (i) in Angle of deviation (d) in
degree degree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Result: The angle of minimum deviation, 𝑑𝑚 = .

Block Diagram:

31
EXP NO - 12 Date: ____________

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.
Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab.
Principle: The refractive index of the glass with respect to air is the ratio of real
depth to the apparent depth.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Formula:
1. Refractive index of the glass with respect to air,
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝒏𝒈 =
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐
Where,𝑅1 - Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through air.
𝑅2 - Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through
glass slab.
𝑅3 - Reading of the microscope when focused on the chalk dust on the
upper surface of the glass slab.
2. Total reading of TM,
R = MSR + (CVD x LC)
Where, MSR - Main scale reading, CVD - coincide vernier division
LC - Least count
Procedure:
1. The least count of the travelling microscope is calculated.
2. A sheet of white paper is placed on the base of travelling microscope and ink
mark is made on it.
3. The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper. MSR and
CVD are noted in vertical scale and reading 𝑅1 is calculated using the
formula, R = MSR + (CVD x LC)
4. Glass slab is placed on the paper and the microscope is raised to focus on the
ink mark through glass slab and corresponding reading R₂ is found.
5. Chalk dust is sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab and microscope
is again raised to focus on the chalk dust and corresponding reading R₃ is
found.
6. Refractive index of glass is calculated using the formula,

32
 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
𝑛𝑔 =
𝑅3 − 𝑅2
7. The experiment is repeated for different positions of the glass slab and average
refractive index is found.
Diagram:

TM – Travelling microscope
G – Glass slab
O – ink mark
I – virtual image of ink mark
C – chalk powder

Observation:

1. Value of one MSD, S = cm .

2. Number of divisions on the vernier scale, N = div .
3. Least count of the travelling microscope,
𝑺
𝑳𝑪 = = = _________________𝒄𝒎
𝑵
Tabular column:

R1 in cm R2 in cm R3 in cm
Trial 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝒏𝒈 =
No MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

Calculation:
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑪𝑽𝑫 × 𝑳𝑪) =

𝑹𝟐 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑪𝑽𝑫 × 𝑳𝑪) =

𝑹𝟑 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑪𝑽𝑫 × 𝑳𝑪) =

33
 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝒏𝒈 = =
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

Result: The refractive index of glass slab = ______________.

Block Diagram:

Graph sheet (𝑅1 ) Graph through Glass (𝑅2 ) Chalk dust (𝑅3 )

34
EXP NO - 13 Date: ____________

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER USING CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of water using a concave mirror.
Apparatus: Concave mirror, water, a pin and a meter scale.
Principle:
1. The rays of light from the object incident normally on the concave mirror,
retrace their paths so that the image of the object forms by the side of the
object.
2. The bottom of the concave mirror containing water appears to be raised up
because of the refraction of light through water.
Formula:
Refractive index of water with respect to air,
𝑅
𝜇𝑤 =
𝑅′
Where R = Radius of curvature of concave mirror.
R' = Apparent radius of curvature of concave mirror with water.
Procedure:
1. A concave mirror is placed on the base of the laboratory stand as shown in
the figure.
2. A sharp-edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the pole of
the mirror and clamped.
3. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides
exactly with the tip of its image A'B' without parallax.
4. The vertical distance R between the mirror and pin is measured.
5. Now a small quantity of water is poured into the concave mirror.
6. The position of the pin AB is lowered such that the tip of the pin coincides
with the tip of its image A''B'' without parallax.
7. Then vertical distance R' between the mirror and the pin is measured after
the removal of water.
8. Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula.

Result: The refractive index of water, 𝜇𝑤 = _______________.

35
Diagram:

AB – Object pin
A’B’ – Image by concave
mirror
A’’B’’ – Image by water filled
concave mirror
M M’ – Concave mirror

Observation:
1. Radius of curvature of the concave mirror, R = _____________cm
2. Radius of curvature of the concave mirror with water, 𝑅 ′ =____________cm
Calculation:
Refractive index of water with respect to air,
𝑅
𝜇𝑤 = =
𝑅′
Block Diagram:

1 2 3

4
Repeat the
5
first four
steps after
step 5.
36
EXP NO - 14 Date: ____________

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

USING CONVEX LENS AND PLANE MIRROR
Aim: Determination of the refractive index of liquid using a convex lens and
plane mirror.
Apparatus: Convex lens, plane mirror, water, illuminated object.
Principle: The rays of light from the object incident normally on the plane mirror,
retrace their paths so that the image of the object forms by the side of the object.
It is based on the relation between the radii of curvature of the equiconvex lens
and the effective focal length of the glass and water lenses.
Formula:
Focal length of the lens formed by water:
𝒇 𝒇′
𝒇𝒘 =
𝒇 − 𝒇′
Where: f = focal length of the convex lens
f' = focal length of the combination of glass lens and water lens
Refractive index of water:
𝑹
𝒏𝒘 = 𝟏 + ( )
𝒇𝒘
Where, R = radius of curvature of the equiconvex lens
𝑓𝑤 = magnitude of the focal length of the lens formed by water
Procedure:
1. A plane mirror is placed on the base of the laboratory stand, keeping its
reflecting surface upward.
2. A convex lens is placed on the plane mirror as shown in the figure.
3. A sharp-edged bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the optic center
(O) of the convex lens and clamped.
4. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that the tip of the pin coincides
exactly with the tip of its image A'B' without parallax.
5. The vertical distance between the convex lens and pin is measured and is equal
to focal length f of the convex lens.
6. A few drops of water is put under the lens with the help of dropper so that the
space between the mirror and lens is filled with water.

37
7. The position of the pin AB is raised such that the tip of the pin coincides with
tip of its image A"B" without parallax.
8. Then vertical distance between the convex lens and the pin AB is measured
which equals focal length f' of combination of convex lens & water lens.
𝒇 𝒇′
9. The focal length of water lens is calculated using the formula, 𝒇𝒘 =
𝒇−𝒇′
𝑹
10. Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula, 𝒏𝒘 = 𝟏 + ( )
𝒇𝒘

Diagram:

AB – Object pin
A’B’ – Image by concave
mirror
A’’B’’ – Image by
combination of
water lens and
convex mirror
M M’ – Plane mirror

Observation:
1. Radius of curvature of equiconvex lens (given), R =___________________cm
2. Focal length of convex lens, 𝑓 = ____________________𝑐𝑚
3. Focal length of lens combination, 𝑓′ = ___________________𝑐𝑚

Calculation:
Focal length of the lens formed by water:
𝒇 𝒇′
𝒇𝒘 = =
𝒇 − 𝒇′

Refractive index of water,

𝑹
𝒏𝒘 = 𝟏 + ( )=
𝒇𝒘

Result: The refractive index of water, 𝒏𝒘 = ___________________

38
EXP NO - 15 Date: ____________

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Aim: To draw the current (I) verses voltage (V) characteristic curve of a p-n
junction diode in forward bias and hence find cut-in voltage.
Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, milliammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.
Principle: When the diode is forward biased it offers very low resistance.
Cut-in voltage is the characteristic voltage at which diode current
increases exponentially even for a small increase in bias voltage,
when diode is in forward bias.
Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
2. Using the rheostat, the voltage is adjusted for suitable value V. The voltage V
and the corresponding current I are noted.
3. The voltage is increased in small steps. The values of V and I are noted in
each case and readings are tabulated.
4. A Graph is plotted between V and I, taking the voltage V along x-axis and
current I along y-axis.
5. Cut-in voltage is found.
Diagram: Graph:

Ba – Battery, Rh – Rheostat, mA – Milli-ammeter, V – Voltmeter

D – Semiconductor diode
39
Tabular column:

Voltage
V
in V
Current
I in mA

Result: The cut-in voltage of the given diode is ____________V

Block Diagram:

40