Contents Part I Chapter 1 MEASUREMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS 1 1.1 Measurements 11} 1.9. Functions of instruments and 1.2 Significance of Meesurements 1 Measurement Systems 6 15 Methods of Measurements 1 1.10 Applications of Measurement Systems 6 1.34 Direct Methods 1 1.11 Types of instrumentation Systems 7 1.3.27 Indirect Methods 2 1.12 _ Information and Signal Processing, ? 1.4 Instruments and Measurement Systems 2 1.15 Elements of a Generalized 1.5 Mechanical, Electrical and Measurement System 2 Electronic instruments 2 113.1. Primary Sensing Element. 8 151 Mechanical instruments 2 113.2 Variable Conversion Element 8 15.2 Electrical Instrumente 2 : 1.13.3 Variable Menipulaion lement & 153 Electronic Instruments. 2 113.4 Data Presentation Hlement. 9 1.6 Classification of Instruments 1.14 Input-Output Configurations of Measuring, 1.7 Deflection and Mull Type Instruments Instruments and Measurement Systems 10 1.74 Deflection Type 4 z 1.14.1 Desired Inputs 10 1.7.2 Mull Type « i 1.14.2 Interfering Inputs 10 1.7.3 Comparison of Deflection and Null 1.14.3 Modifying Tnputs 10 Type Instruments. 5 1.15 Methods of Correction for 1.8 Analog & Digital Modes of Operation ss Interfering and Modifying inputs. 12 CZnapter 2 (CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SysTeMs 19 2.1 Measurement System Performance 19) 2.12.5 Noise Factor and Noise Figure 24 2.2 Static Calibration 19. 2.15 Accuracyand Precision 26 25 Static Characteristics 19 2131 Accuracy 26 2.4 Errors in Measurement .~ 19 itacee eens a Serge 39. 2.14 Indications of Precision 27 Be acuee oo 213. Significant Figures 27 2.7 Static Correction “ 20 2:16 Range of Doubt or Possible Errors, 28 ‘Scale Range and Scale Span 21 Ree aoe ee gee 2.17 Static Sensitivity 29 2.9 — Error Calibration Curve 21 2.18 Linearity a 2.10 Reproducibility and Drift 21 Es 2.19 Hysteresis 31 a 2.11 Repeatability 22 212. Noise 22 2.20 Threshold 32 2.12.1. Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N) 22 eile bese ine: 32 2122 Sources of Noise 23 2.22 Dead Zone 35 2.12.3. Johonson Noise. 26 2.23. Resolution or Discrimination 33 ) 2.12.4 Poner Spectrum Density 24 2.24 Loading fects 33 a2.25. Inputand output impedenes> 2.25.1 ‘Inpu 2.26 Loading Effects Connected Ins! Crapter 3 A 3.1 _ Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors) 3.2. Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error 3.3 Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors, 3.4 Known Errors. 5.5 Typesof Errors 3,6 Gross Errors 3.7 Systematic Errors 3.7.1. Instrumental Errors “54 12 Environmental Errors “56 3.7.3 Observational Errors %56 Random (Residual) Errors Central Value ) Statistical Treatment of Data 110.1 Histogram °57 11 ts due to Series struments “4 ance and Loading Effect Connected Ins Generalized IMPe' 2.28 Stiffness Concepts 39 2.29 Static stifiness and Static Compliance 40 2.30 Impedance Matching and Maximum Power Transfer 42 SAND THEIR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 49 3.10.2 Arithmetic Mean 58 3.10.3 Measure of Dispersion from the Mean 58 3.10.4 Range 5B 3.10.5 Deviation ‘58 3.10.6 Average Deviation ‘58 3.10.7 Standard Deviation (S.D.) 59 3.10.8 Variance 59 3.10.9 Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors 59 3.10.10 Precision Index ‘60 3.10.11 Probable Error (61 3.10.12 Average Deviation for the Normal Curve (61 3.10.13. Standard Deviation for the Normal Curve ‘61 : 3.10.14 Probable Error of a Finite Number of Readings (61 3.10.15 Standard Deviation of Mean ‘62 43.10.16 Standard Deviation of Standard Deviation 162 : Probability Tables iS‘The fneasurement of 4 given quantity is essen tially-an act or the result ‘of comparison between the quantity. (whose maghitude is unknown) and a prede- ed standard. Siice two quantities are compared, the / result is expressed in ouimterical. values. Intact, < mieasurementis'the process by which one can convert “physical ‘parameters’.to. meaningful numbers. ‘The measuring process iS one in which the property of an ‘Object. or systems Ainder cofsideration is compared to _ an accepted standard unit, a'standard defined for that particiilar property. The number of times the unit, siandagd fits into the quantity “being, measured is the _umietical measuire. The numerical measure is meaning- “Jess unless followed by a unit ‘sed>since it (unit) j % /Adentifies the characteristic ‘or property measured. In order that ‘the resilts of the measurerent are Meaningful, there are tio basic requirements: () the standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be “ “commonly accepted, and. >, (ii) the apparatus used and the method igh J must be provable i he ee The importance of measurement is iy andy, cea ‘expressed in the following stafement of the ‘of Science and Technology is ae in measurement Measurements and Measurement Systems and Technology ‘move ahead, new phenomena and relationships are discov and these advances make ew types of measurements imperative. New discove- Ties are-not of any practical utility unless the results are Backed by actual’ measurements, The”meastre ments, no doubt, confirm the validity of « hypothesis but also: add to its understanding.“This results in an unending. chain which leads to new discoveries that require more, new and, sophisticated, measurement techniques. Hence modern Science and Technology are associated with sophisticated methods of measurement ‘There are ft00 major functions of all branches of engineering : (d_ Design of equipment and processes, and (i) Proper operation and “maintenance equipiiient and processes. of Both these functions tequire measurements. This is because proper. and economical design, operation .and maintenance require a feedback of information. Measurements play a significant role in achieving Aoals and objectives of Engineering because of the feedback information supplied by them METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS ‘The metticds of measurements may be broadly “classified into. tea categories (i). Direct Methods and (ii) Indirect Methods. 1.3.1, Direct Methods» % In these methods, the unknown quantity. (also called the treasurand) is direcly compared against a standard. The result is expressed as. a’ numerical number and» uit The standard that fsa physical embodiment of a uitit. Ne Direct methods’ are quite a and time: Suppose we want << ose a Z measurement of physical quant i> Like Jeng, mass“chronic Measurem, 2 dlecrical ond Electronic Measuromeny, truments wor tines these ins 8 date even Abarissomary aves Theearliest scientific instrumey . on our sane gnake essential clements 25° our mane o ‘Aut ye about These elements are i map fort fi), a detector, ate measurements. The (00) apyintermediate transter doy, sment_of length can be (ily an indicator, recorder or 4..." Stora The history. of development efcompasses tree phases of instning, 2 Bat of masé the problem becomes % ‘human i Yn 7 (iy 7mechanical instruments (i) electrical instruments, anc Ji soe sph seals D-PeSHOnICnsioumen sok a is are < lee ‘Those méthods in 1.5.1. Mechanical Instruments ecase fey nvote These instruments ae ver celabi itive. Hence > stable conditions. But they sufer fre anf raiywied disadvantage which is because, they of ent Systems respond rapidly to: measurements of Yoga ct methiods for transient conditions. ‘This » * instruments have moving parts that are 4 Wy me and bulky and consequently have a | a AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS. resents inertia problems and hence these instimey olvethe use ofinstrumentsasa_ cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which RingquanGtiesorvatables, involved in dynamic measurcments Thosina Sian extension of human’ virtually impossible to measure a 50 Ho vi. determine the valtie. using a mechanical instrument but it is relate to measure-a slowly: varying pressure using hee instruments. Another disadvantage of mechinia ‘instruments is that most of them are a potental ~0f noise and, cause noise pollution, 2 Electrical Instruments Electrical methods of indicating the 0 etectors are more rapid than mechanical methods fortuniate that an electrical. system sory *Ads “upon a mechanical meter mover hhence, frequency) response ample trical recorders can give Faense 8 2, the majority of industrial wom “have responses: 15-24 5, Some galvanomet sagt 30 Hz variations, but even these at!” day requirements of fast measure™ j Sort sti ‘most of the scientific and in, quire very “fast: Pons trical instruments 2° ‘requirements Oe of and also the 3 ie inp: rameters, whi? an) ‘order of ms #4~ Measurements and Measurement Systems 3. times, us have led to the design of today’s electronie instruments and. their associated »circuitry.. These instruments require use. of semi-conductor devices. Since in ‘electronic devices, the. only “movenient involved is that of electrons, the resporise time is extremely small on. acount of very sthall inertia of el nso example, aCathode ray oscilloscope “( fapable of following. dynamic and transient changes of the order of a tew,ns-(10-"s) Blectfonieally controlled power supplies are used >to provide Stable voltages for studies in the field of Ghemical’ reactions,and_nuiclear instrumentation. <, Hleetronie“instranients are steadily’ becoming. more reliable on accdant of improvements in design and * (9 Absolute Instruments, and (i) Secondary Instruments 1. Absolute instrunients. “These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms:of physical constants of the" instrument. The examples. of this class of ‘instruments are. Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh’s Current Balance. 2. Secondary instruments. These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can’ only be measured by observing the output indicated ir tse is limited’, -by-the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by ntrol applications like sérvo-systems/~ "eomparison: with an absolute instrument or another. lary. instrument which has. already been calibiated against an absolute instriment. 1g With absolute instruments for routine ime consuming sifice. every. time a measurementismade, it takes a lot of time to compute the ‘magnitude 0 the quantity under ‘measurement. nts are seldom used ile. secondar AX are typical ae: of Second instruments. instruments are most commonly. ~ re of measurementsA > ass thermometer‘and a pressure gauge. *“VT Deflection Type The instruments of this type, the deflection of the ister provides/ay Kasia lor’ determining the: _ ‘quantity uinder measurement. The measured quantity "produces some’ physical. effect with deflects or ‘produces a mechanical displacement Of the moving system of the instrumerit. An opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection of the mechanical displacement of the moving system. ‘The opposing effect is closely related to the deflection for mechanical displacement which cany-be directly ‘observed. The opposing effect is so designed that-its __ Magnitude increases with the increase of deflection or ‘mechanical displacement of. the moving ‘system taken, Sx Uantity which is a'continuous function) The/Mmajonity. of present day’ instrament "are |. malee ype, The importance of digital instruments re [A ieteasing, mainly because ‘of the increasing use of | Aigtabceinpaers in both data'procesing eee mabe contol systems. Since digital computes warts OS, only with dig signals any intonnane supplied to Dea ME in Sglaform. The computers beter alse in’ digital foriR Th ‘Computer af either the in Ase digital sighals. is measured [Link] One treading persists (unlike: the “analog most Of our present day measursimeny and _ssttrol “apparatus procluse signals of analog Die aot necessary:to have both Analog to Pisital (A/D) Converters at the ‘AnpUttd the compiiter and Digital to Analog (D/A) ‘Converters atthe output of the computer, < SOs ED runctions of INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS. There is Another Way in which \eht systems. May be classi based upon the functions 7A nt ne HS pained ban gy 1 Indicating function, Instruments, use different kinds of etl a stems hod for stpplying Cae, fication is, ! 14, This classi: hee ain, the inst commonly. “known ay ‘example; the deflection, indicates the A pressure g nen peconge indkating poe Speed OF he automobile at ane alige is Used for indi function. in 6 Electrical and Electronic Mecsuremer, pinstruments or they pextorm: the: ally. @’ monitoring functicn. They sini indicate: the MS hd Ing gainst time or against sornd ot against i instru ent peiforms. a” recording. Same 4 potettiontc type op Iinterng Aempptatre sects ie ni sale a emperatues one dh 3. Controlling function: this ig inperoptnatons especialy sine fonive roses Ini as, hein ot bye instrument or the system tosann measured quantity This there are three main group, off fe largest rou has he idcaing un line is the group of instrament fh The list and performs a ‘cord b indicating and or récording functic falls into a special category functions, i¢., indicating, re in this text, main emphasis is aid ui ments ‘whose functions are_ mainly indicaigg 4, Fesording. ‘especially those. instruments used for engineering analysis function will be analyz, trolling enters purposes The’ ed in those cases whe itegral part of the indicatin, instrumentation. The examp instruments are” thermoita eontrol and floats for liquid level con HEEU) appuications o MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS In order to. bui detailed stua, controlling. temperature, Beate ee OUs ways these instrumihie ac pls use. The way the instrume ents and measurement sj feMs are Used for different applications areas under & Monitoring of processes and operations A Controt of processes and ‘operations, and A> Experimental Engineering, analysis. LMonitorin SreCertain appli WE essenti "8S Of Processes-and operations. Thee Ieations of measuring instruments tha! , der Vahie of condition of parameter u Aes aed thn ings do not serve any Sa indicts, Bor SAP ah ammeter or a vl Fae HK, alue “oan ce wltage Hees ed “(mheastired) at. 4 articular wor ly, Water and electric ergy metersinsalled it oSaC ne? BAS OF conimodiy sed oo that ate iy Fogo) oe omputed tobe rea from the us" TO Of races ce opcitionsA me jor “astruments ic sh genet There’ has. been a. very’ Stween measurement and nro Oe x SOSGo rcanenh oid Maccureiept asters 5. In ofdler that process variables like temperatute pressure, humidity, ete. may be-controlled, the prerequisite is: that they. can: be measured af the desired location in-the individual plants. Same is true of -servo-systems, connected with ‘measurement of position, velocity and acceleration. systems {A block diagram°of a°simple control system is p shown in Fig 14 Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical and. the control action is through electrical means. The input is : reference which corresponds to the desired value of the outputs The input is compared with the output | With the help-of a’comparator. The output is a non- electrical quantity and is converted into a torre ~ ponding electrical form by a transducer connected in “the feedback loop. In case the input and output differ, thete is @ resultant error signal. This error signal is amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces ‘power fo-ttive the controlled circuitry. BIDE diagram of6 siple-control system tion goes on till the output is at /*/the same level as the input which corresponds to the 7 desired output, At this slage, there is no error, signal ‘and hence there is no input\to the actuator and. the trol action stops’. ‘elemént) senses the room temperature, thus the information necessary the control system. (ii) Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices. (ivy For development in important ‘spheres, of study where there is ample scope of study Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies. (EGEDD TvPEs OF INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS The adyent of, microprocessors has. completely revolutionized the field of instrumentation and control. Microprocessor based systems are increasingly being, used for dedicated appliéations. in process instra= The inteoduction. of microprocessors classification of instrumentation sy @ mentation. Is anew tems, and these are AC Intelligent Instrumentation systems, and A Dumb Instrumentation systems 1: Intelligent instrumentation. This term has to come mean the use of an instrumentation system to evaluate a physical. variable employing”a digital computer: to perform all or nearly. all signal and information processing. In this system after’ a ‘measurement has been. made of the variable, further processing whether in digital or analog form is carried ‘out to refine the data, for the purpose of presentation [Link] observer or to Gther computers. 2. Dumb instrumentation. ln this system once the measurements made, the data must be processed by the observer. (EREEXINFORMATION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING The two terms “Information” and “Signals” are usually considered. as synonymous. However, they Shave precisely different definitions. = “SA Information. It is the data or details relating, Xto-an object or event, A. Signals. They carry the information about ‘magnitude or time ‘relating to an object or event ie. a Physical quantify, <>___Fémmains Constant. On the other hand, the performance’ “of ameasurement system can be described in terms of Static and dynamic characteristics, Tt is: possible‘ and desirable“to describe the “Operation of a measuring instrument or a system in a generalized ‘manner. without resorting. to. intricate details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument ora system. The whole operation can be described in tetms of functional elements: Most of the ‘measuirement systems contain three ‘main furietional elemeists, They are 1. Primary sensing element, 2. Variable conversion element, and, 3. _Data presentation element. Each functional eleinent is made up of a distinct component oF groups of components which perform she required and definite steps in the measurement, These may be taken as basic elements, whose scope is determined By. their functioning ¥ather than their construction. 1.13.1 Primory Sensing Element ‘The quantity. under theasurement makes its first ¥ Contact With the primary sensing elément of a miea- surement system. tn other words, the measurand is first detected by primary. sensor>-This-act is then immediately followed by the conversion of measurand nto an analogous electrical signal. This i s done by a transducer. A transducer in general, is defined asa ‘gy from. one form to device which converts et @nother: But in Electrical measurement systems, “this definition is limited in scope. A transducers definedusa © device hich comoerts a physical quantity into an electrical ~ quantity. The physical quantity to be measured, in the first place’is sensed and cletected by an element 2 transducer. This is true of most ofthe cases but is fot true for all: In many cases the physical quantity is» directly ‘converted into an electrical quantity. by, ment system Becca ahd Elecronic Meosurements og ny _ Bives the output in-a different analogous farm. This Ast discussed ‘earlier, the output of transducer ouitput is then converted into an electrical signalby a ~ conta 1.13.2. Variable Conversion Eig oD The output of the be electrical signal of any form It mar frequency or some other eles Sometimes this output is os HOt Suited tothe yeaa” n the desired functins this output 26, son preeeg m the eystem acrepts inpit signals only in eg ard hee a8 WD comers on for converting signals from Used dip th nbescecpble renee’ a Routan elec wale ie variable conversion element the instrument to perform be necessary. to convert suitable form” while content of the original si analog to ed any variay, TS need more than oy 1.13.3. Variable Manipulation Element The function of this element is to manipult dy Signal presented to it preserving the original native the signal, Manipulation here means only a change in numerical value of the’ signal For example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input-and produices an output signal which is also voltage but of greater. magnitude. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. is ‘ot necessary-that a variable manipulation element should follow: the ariable’ conversion element as shown. in Fig. 15. Tt may precede the variable conversion element in many cases. Incase, the voltage 4s too: high; attenuators’ are used which lower the voltage or power for the subsequent stages of the ‘system. Further the impedance of the attenuator tobe “matched to the input and output circuits and forther for multi ratio attenuator these impedance ratios a ‘comistant irrespective of the ratio setting, tains information needed for further processing bY ike bystem aid se output signals usally lO OF some other form of electrical signal: The (v0 Most “important properties of Vollage are its magnitude =” frequency though polaity-may be a consideration ® some tases, Many transducers develop low voltage the order. of mV and some even VA fundamentl CP SOS ey probles by unwan source wh signal. An distorted which an before it be linear different linear prc filterin performe tobe ac system, Conditio element Signal Wh physical data fro this fui For ex from th sent compli Th 113 v meas andl contr perso This! need