Stone Age: Ancient History
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Timeline Key Developments
4.6 billion years ago Formation of Earth
3.8 billion years ago Life began on Earth
2–3 million years ago Homo habilis emerged in Africa around (early Pleistocene)
1.8 million years ago Homo erectus emerged
2,00,000 to 3,00,000 years ago Homo sapiens emerged in Southern Africa
2.6 million years ago to 10,000 BCE Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Age)
2 million years ago to 10,000 BCE Palaeolithic Period
6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE Palaeolithic Period in India
10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE Mesolithic Period
7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE Neolithic Period in India
7,000–6,000 BCE Beginning of agriculture
6,000 BCE Agriculture villages started developing
5,000 BCE Earliest evidence of domestication of animals in India
The Stone Age
• The Stone Age is a prehistoric time before writing was invented.
• It began around 2 million years ago when Homo habilis made and used the first stone
tools.
• It ended when humans started using metal tools.
• The Stone Age began and ended at different times in different regions of the world.
• It is divided into three main periods based on:
o The type of stone tools used.
o The level of skill or technology used to make them.
1. Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)
• Duration: 2 million years ago to 10,000 BCE globally.
In India: 6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.
• Tools: Large and hand-held stone tools.
• This period covers 99% of human history.
2. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
• Duration: 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE.
• Climate: Major climate changes happened during this time.
• Tools: Small and sharp stone tools called microliths.
3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
• In India: 7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE.
• Tools: Smooth and polished stone tools.
• This period saw the beginning of agriculture and settled life.
Period Time Frame in India Stone Tools
Palaeolithic 6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE Hand-sized and large stone tools
Mesolithic 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE Microliths (Tiny stone tools)
Neolithic 7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE Polished stone tools
Palaeolithic Age: Hunters and Food Gatherers
(2 million years ago – 10,000 BCE)
• Beginning:
o In Africa: Started around 2 million years ago.
o In India: Began around 6,00,000 BCE (Middle Pleistocene), based on earliest
stone tools.
• Tools:
o Made of stone, especially large hand-sized
pebbles chipped to create sharp edges.
o Also used wooden and bone tools.
o Large pebbles often found near river terraces.
• Occupation:
o Nomadic hunter-gatherers.
o Collected wild plants, roots, and tubers.
o Hunted animals and did fishing.
o Moved from place to place based on seasonal availability of food and water.
• Shelter:
o Lived in rock shelters, caves, and temporary huts made of wood, grass, or
bones.
• Clothing:
o Wore clothes made from animal skins and tree bark.
• Use of Fire:
o Ash found in Kurnool caves suggests knowledge of fire.
o Fire was used for light, cooking (roasting meat), and protection from wild
animals.
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Robert Bruce Foote – Father of Indian Prehistory
• Born: British geologist and archaeologist.
• Joined GSI: 1858, posted to Madras.
• Major Contribution: Discovered India’s first Palaeolithic tool in 1863 at Pallavaram
(Chennai).
• Known as the “Father of Indian Prehistory” for this discovery.
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Geological Survey of India (GSI)
• Established: In 1851, mainly to find coal deposits for the Indian Railways.
• Initial Focus: Exploration of coal, oil reserves, and ore deposits.
• Present Status: Functions as an attached office under the Ministry of Mines,
Government of India.
• Headquarters: Located in Kolkata.
• Regional Offices: Six regional centres in:
o Lucknow, Jaipur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Shillong, and Kolkata.
• State Presence: Has State Unit offices in almost all Indian states.
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Important Palaeolithic Sites in India
Region Site
Punjab (now in Pakistan) Soan river valley
Rajasthan Desert area of Didwana
Uttar Pradesh Belan Valley in Mirzapur district
Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka and Adamgarh hills
Maharashtra Bori and Chirki Nevasa
Karnataka Hunsagi
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda and Kurnool
Tamil Nadu Attirampakkam near Chennai
Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders (10,000 BCE – 4,000 BCE)
• Climate Change:
o The Ice Age ended around 10,000 BCE, making the climate warm and dry.
o During the Pleistocene, ice covered much of the earth except tropical regions
and mountains.
• Environmental Impact:
o New grasslands developed, increasing animals like deer, antelope, goat, sheep,
and cattle.
o Humans started following these animals, learning their habits and breeding
cycles.
• Domestication:
o This knowledge led to herding and animal rearing.
o The first animal tamed was the wild ancestor of the
dog.
o Sites like Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Bagor
(Rajasthan) show early evidence of animal
domestication (c. 5000 BCE).
• Agriculture:
o Wild grain-bearing grasses (like wheat, barley, and
rice) grew naturally.
o This led people to try primitive cultivation.
o Fishing became an important activity.
• Tools:
o Used microliths (tiny stone tools, often under 5 cm).
o These were fitted with wood to make more advanced tools.
• Occupation:
o Lived by hunting, gathering, fishing, domesticating animals, and primitive
farming.
o Shifted from hunting big animals to small animals and fishing.
o Used bows and arrows for hunting.
• Shelter:
o Lived in rock shelters, caves, and temporary wood, grass, and bone huts.
• Clothing:
o Wore clothes made from animal skin and tree bark.
Important Mesolithic Sites in India
State Site(s)
- Mahadaha
Uttar Pradesh - Sarai Nahar Rai (in the Ganga Valley)
- Morhana Pahar and Baghai Khor (in Belan Valley)
Gujarat - Langhnaj
Madhya Pradesh - Bhimbetka and Adamgarh hills
Rajasthan - Bagor
Neolithic Age: Food Producers (7000 BCE – 1000 BCE in India)
• Timeline:
o Began globally around 10,000–9000 BCE.
o In India, it started around 7000 BCE and lasted till 1000 BCE.
• Early Site:
o Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, Pakistan) is the oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent,
dated to 7000 BCE.
Tools and Technology
• Used polished stone tools, especially stone axes for hunting and cutting trees.
• Also used microlithic blades.
• Mortars and pestles used for grinding grain.
Occupation and Agriculture
• Became early farmers and herders.
• Used stone hoes to till land.
• Grew wheat, barley, rice, and millets (varied by region).
• Barley and wheat were grown in Mehrgarh by 6000 BCE. (Earliest Evidence of
Agriculture)
• Practiced subsistence agriculture (just enough to survive).
Lifestyle and Settlements
• Settled in one place to care for crops — began sedentary village life.
• Built mud-brick houses instead of temporary huts.
Clothing
• Knew weaving.
• Wore clothes made of cotton and wool.
Pottery
• Developed to store grains and cook food.
• Early stage: Handmade pottery.
• Later stage: Pottery made using the wheel.
• Types included:
o Black-burnished ware
o Grey ware
o Mat-impressed ware
• Mortars and pestles used alongside pottery.
✓ Note: Jomon Culture (Japan) is the only Mesolithic culture known for early pottery.
Elsewhere, pottery began in the Neolithic period.
Technological Progress
• Advanced in:
o Weaving
o Pottery-making
o House-building
• Improved farming techniques.
• Shifted fully from hunting-gathering to agriculture and animal domestication.
Transition
• The Neolithic Age gradually transitioned into the metal-using age, marking the end of the
Stone Age.
Mehrgarh – Early Neolithic Site
• Location: Baluchistan, Pakistan.
• Significance:
o Only Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent dated to 7000 BCE.
o Among the earliest sites of farming (barley and wheat) around 6000 BCE.
• Housing:
o People lived in square or rectangular mud-brick houses.
• Animal Remains:
o Many animal bones were discovered, showing early domestication.
• Burials:
o Several burial sites found.
o In one case, a person was buried with goats, likely as food for the afterlife.
Neolithic Revolution
• The Neolithic Age marked a major change in human life.
• Humans shifted from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled farming.
• People started living in permanent villages.
• This slow transition laid the foundation for:
o Agriculture
o Animal domestication
o Technological innovations
o The rise of civilisation
Important Neolithic Sites in India and Nearby Regions
State / Region Site(s)
Baluchistan (Pakistan) Mehrgarh
Kashmir Burzahom
Bihar Chirand
Uttar Pradesh Koldihwa and Mahagara (in the Belan Valley)
Assam Daojali Hading
Karnataka Hallur, Maski, and Brahmagiri
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda and Utnur
Tamil Nadu Paiyampalli
Limitations of Stone Age People
• Depended mainly on stone tools and weapons.
• Could not settle far from hilly areas, as stones were their main resource.
• Lived mostly on hill slopes, in rock shelters, and near river valleys.
• Despite efforts, they produced only enough food to survive — no surplus.
Rock Paintings in India
• The earliest rock paintings in India date back to the Upper Palaeolithic period.
Bhimbetka Rock Paintings
• Location: Foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains, Madhya Pradesh.
• Paintings are found on cave walls and rock surfaces.
• Timeline: Spans from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period, and even to recent times.
• Majority of paintings belong to the Mesolithic period.
Themes and Features
• Depicts humans, animals, and geometric patterns.
• Colors used: White, black, and red ochre.
• Humans shown as stick figures.
• Common designs:
o Wavy lines
o Rectangles filled with patterns
o Dot clusters
o Hand-linked dancing figures
Important Discoveries
• 1867–68:
o Archibald Carlleyle, an English archaeologist (ASI), discovered India’s first rock
paintings at Sohagighat, Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.
• 1957–58:
o V. S. Wakankar, Indian archaeologist, discovered the Bhimbetka caves.
Summary – Stone Age
Aspect Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age
Hand-sized and flaked-off
Stone Tools Microliths Polished stone tools
large pebbles
✓ Hunting, food
gathering, and fishing Agriculture and
Hunting, food gathering,
Occupation domestication of animals was
and fishing ✓ Primitive cultivation important
& domestication
Rock shelters, caves, and
Shelter temporary huts (wood, Same as Palaeolithic Lived in mud-brick houses
grass)
Aspect Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age
Wore cotton and woolen
Clothing Animal skin and tree bark Same as Palaeolithic
clothes
Started making and using
Pottery No No
pottery
