An Assignment

On
Lagrange’s Mechanics & Newtonian Mechanics

Course Code:0541 12 Math 3209

Course Title: Classical Mechanics

Submitted To:
Dr. Md. Haider Ali Biswas
Professor,
Mathematics Discipline,
Khulna University, Khulna
Submitted By:
Kaif Masud Siam
Student ID: 211220
Mathematics Discipline,
Khulna University, Khulna
Date of Submission: 18th August, 2025

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Laws of Mechanics:
Newton’s three laws of motion are known as the fundamental laws of physics (or mechanics)
which are formulated in terms of four crucial underlying concepts:

1. The notion of space

2. Time
3. Mass &
4. Force

Newton’s three laws of motion can be can be stated as follows:

 A body remain in uniform motion unless acted by a force.

 Force equals the rate of change of momentum:

dp
F p
dt

Where,
F is the force.
P is the momentum
p is the rate of change of momentum with respect to time.
 Any two bodies exert equal and opposite forces on each other.

The topic of classical mechanics is the description of the motion of massive macroscopic bodies,
namely, the kinematic; the geometrical form.

[The Lagrangian mechanics is based on generalized coordinate system and it deals with scalar
quantity. This implies the main advantages of Lagrangian Mechanics implies the main
advantages of Lagrangian Mechanics. So, it is comfortable for the calculation than those of
Newtonian.

Lagrangian Mechanics and it’s application:

In presence of forces of constraints, Newtonian mechanics becomes partially difficult. To
overcome this difficulty a reformulation of classical mechanics was introduced by Joseph Louis
Lagrange in 1788, which is known as Lagrangian Mechanics. The Lagrangian Mechanics is
based on generalized coordinates and it deals with scalar quantity. This implies the main

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advantages of Lagrangian Mechanics which is more suitable for the calculation those of
Newtonian Mechanics.

Lagrangian equation in cartesian co-ordinate:

In classical mechanics, the L is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy T and the
potential energy V of the system:

L( r , r , t )  T  V

For a particle of mass m moving in three-dimensional Cartesian space with position vector

r (t )  ( x(t ), y(t ), z (t ));

 Kinetic Energy:

1
T  m( x 2  y 2  z 2 )
2
 Potential Energy:

V  V ( x, y, z, t )

Where V is a scalar function representing conservative forces.

Thus, the Lagrangian in Cartesian coordinates is:

1
L  m( x 2  y 2  z 2 )  V ( x, y, z, t )
2

Euler–Lagrange Equations
Hamilton’s principle of stationary action:
t2

 S    Ldt  0
t1

Leads to the Euler-Lagrange equations:

d L L
( ) 0
dt qi qi

Where qi are the generalized coordinates.

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Application to Cartesian Coordinates:
For q1  x q2  y , q3  z

1. For x:
L d
 mx, (mx)  mx
x dt

L V

x x
V
 mx  0
x
2. For y:
V
my  0
y
3. For z :
V
mz  0
z

Vector Form:
The three scalar equations combine into :

mr  V (r , t )

Where:

V V V
V  ( , , )
x y z

 In Cartesian coordinates, the Lagrangian formalism reproduces Newton’s second law for
conservative forces. The Euler-Lagrange equations yield:

mr  F , F  V

Providing a coordinate-based yet variational route to the equations of motion.

Consider a system of particles. Let, xi , yi , zi be the Cartesian co-ordinates of the ith particle with
mass mi .Then Newton’s equations for n particles are:

mi xi  X i , mi yi  Yi , mi zi  Zi

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Where, X i , Yi , Zi are the three components of force acting on the ith particle and

d 2x
x
dt 2

the acceleration . Define kinetic energy T (for Cartesian Coordinates) by the quantity

1 n
T  mi ( x2  y 2  z 2 )
2 i 1

Then the equation may be written in the form

d L L
( )  0, i  1, 2,..., n
dt ri ri

These are the Lagrange’s equation of motion referred to rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates.

D’Alembert Principle:
This method is based on the principle of virtual work. The system is subjected to an infinitesimal
displacement consistent with the forces and constraints imposed on the system at the given
instant t. This change in the configuration of the system is not associated with a change in time,
i.e., there is no actual displacement during which forces and constraints may change and hence
the displacement is termed as virtual displacement.

Statement: The reversed effective forces acting on each particle of the body and the impressed

(external) forces of the system are in equilibrium.

Proof: In order to explain D’Alembert’s principle, let us take any number of forces be applied to
the ith particle of a system at any instant of time.

Now, suppose the system is in equilibrium , i.e. the total force Fi on every particle is zero. Then
work done by this force in a small virtual displacement  ri will also vanish, i.e., for whole
system for N particles
N

 F . r  0
i 1
i i

Let this total force be expressed as sum of applied force Fi a and forces of constraints f i . Then
above equation takes the form

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 F
i
i
a
. ri   fi . ri  0
i

We now consider the system for which the virtual work of the forces of constraints is zero. An
example of such a system can be that of a particle which is constrained to move on a smooth
surface so that the forces of constraints are perpendicular to the surface while virtual
displacement is tangential to it. In such a situation virtual work done by forces of constraints will
be zero.

Thus F
i
i
a
. ri  0 ...(1)

The equation is termed as principle of virtual work. To interpret the equilibrium of the system,
D’Alembert adopted an idea of a reversed force. He conceived that a system will remain in
equilibrium under the action of a force equal to the actual force Fi plus reversed effective force
pi . Thus

Fi  ( pi )  0

Or Fi  pi  0

Where  pi appears as an effective force called reversed force of inertia on the ith particle,
supplementing the already existing externally applied force Fi .

Thus the principle of virtual work takes the form

 (F  p ). r  0
i
i i i

Again writing

Fi  Fi a  f i ,

 (F
i
i
a
 pi ). ri   fi . ri  0.
i

Since forces of constraints are no more in picture, it is better to drop superscript a. Thus

 (F  p ). r  0,
i
i i i ...(2)

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Which is called D’Alembert’s Principle. The key point is that in eq.(2) we get rid of forces of
constraints. To satisfy eq. (2) , we can not equate the coefficients of  ri to zero since  ri are
not independent of each other and hence it is necessary to transform  ri changes into the changes
of generalized co-ordinates,  q j , which are independent of each other . The coefficient of every
 q j will then be equated to zero.

Thus we note that, as this principle does not involve forces of constraints in any way, it is
sufficient to specify all the applied forces only. Further it is valid for all rheonomic and
scleronomic systems that are either holonomic or homogeneous non-holonomic. The inertial
force  Pi is introduced to reduce the problem of dynamics to one of statics. This force can be
regarded as an inertial force arising in an accelerated frame of reference e.g. in a freely falling
accelerated frame Fi  pi  0 , gravity is nullified by the inertial force even though the whole
system is in motion and not in either static or dynamic equilibrium.

Lagrange’s Equations from D’Alembert’s Principle:

The co-ordinate transformation equations are

ri  ri (q1, q2 ,..., qn , t ),

So that

dri ri dq1 ri dq2 r dt

   ...  i
dt q1 dt q2 dt t dt

ri r
vi   qj  i ...(3)
j q j t

Further infinitesimal displacement  ri can be connected with  q j as

ri r
 ri    qj  i t
i q j t

But last term is zero since in virtual displacement only co-ordinate displacement is considered
and so that of time. Therefore

ri
 ri    qj
j q j

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 ri
Now we write eq. (2) as  ( F  p ). q
i
i i
j
 q j  0,
j

ri ri
 F . q  q   p . q
ij
i j
ij
i  qj  0
j j

We define the term

ri
 F . q
i
i  Qj ,
j

the components of the generalized force. As discussed under ‘generalised force’ q’s need not
have the dimensions of force, but it is necessary that the product Q j q j must have the
dimensions of work. Thus above equation takes the form

ri
 Q  q   p . q  q
j
j j
ij
i j 0 ...(4)
j

Let us evaluate the second term of above eq. (4):

ri ri
 p. q
ij
 q j   mi ri .
ij q j
 qj
j

d r d r
 { (mi ri . i )  mi ri . ( i )} q j
ij dt q j dt q j

d r d r
 { (mi vi . i )  mi vi . ( i )} q j ...(5)
ij dt q j dt q j

Further

d ri  ri dqk  ri dt

( ) ( )  ( )
dt q j k qk q j dt t q j dt

 2 ri  2 ri
 qk 
k qk q j tq j

 2 ri  2 ri
 qk 
k q j qk q j t

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  dri v
 ( ) i ...(6)
q j dt q j

Also differentiating eq. (3) with respect to q j , we get

vi r
 i ...(7)
q j q j

Putting eqns. (6) and (7) in eq. (5), we get

ri d vi v
 p . q
ij
i  q j  { (mi vi .
ij dt q j
)  mi vi . i } q j
q j
j

d    1 
   1 
   ( mi vi2 )     mi vi2  q j
  q j i 2
j  dt   q j  i 2
 

With this substitution, eqn (4) becomes

d T T
 Q  q  [ dt ( q
j
j j
j
)
q j
] q j  0
j

d T T
Or [ dt ( q
j
)
q j
 Q j ] q j  0
j

1
Where for  2 m v ,T
j
2
i i is written since it represents the total kinetic energy of the system.

Since the constraints are holonomic , qj are independent of each other and hence to satisfy above
equation the coefficient of each  q j should separately vanish, I,e.,

 d  T  T 
      Qj ...(8)
 dt  q j  q j 

As j ranges from 1 to N, there will be N such second order equations.

Case I. Conservative System:

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 We consider a conservative system and use above set of equations (8) to obtain Lagrange’s
equations of motion. For a conservative system, forces Fi are derivable from potential function
V, which is the function of coordinates only. That is V=V(r). Then

Fi  i V

V

ri

Then generalized force can be expressed as

ri r
Q j   Fi .   i V . i
i q j i q j

V ri
  .
i ri q j

V

q j

Eqs. (8) are now

 d  T  T  V
    
 dt  q j  q j  q j

 d  T  (T  V ) 
Or     0
 dt  q j  q j 

 d  (T  V )  (T  V ) 
Or      0,
 dt  q j  q j 

since V is not a function of q j . Recognising (T-V) as L, thr Lagrangian for the conservative
system, equations become

 d  L  L 
      0, j  1, 2,...n ...(9)
 dt  q j  q j 

Which is known as Lagrange’s equations of motion ( of the second kind) for conservative
system.

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Case II. Non-conservative System:
If potentials are velocity dependent, called generalized potentials, then though the system is not
conservative, yet the above form of Lagrange’s equations can be retained provided Q j , the
components of generalized force, are obtained from a function U  q j , q j  called generalized
potential, such that

U d U
Qj    ( ) ...(10)
q j dt q j

Putting this value of Q j in equation (8), we get

 d  T  T  U d U
    =  ( )
 dt  q j  q j 
 q j dt q j

d  (T  V )  (T  V )
Or   0
dt  q j  q j

If we put Lagrangian L=T-U then above equation becomes

 d  L  L 
  dt  q  0
j   j  q j 

Which is exactly of the same form as eq.(9).

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