C H A p T E R

Electroma3netic , .I
~ '

t
Waves a ..

8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 MAXWELL'S DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

A brief survey of the electromagnetic waves. We 1. Discuss the inconsistency in Ampere's circuital
have learnt that an electric current produces a mag- law. What modification was made by Maxwell in th'is
netic field. Also a magnetic field changing with time law ? What is displacement current ? Conduction and
produces an electric field. Can an electric field displacement currents are individually discontinuous,
changing with time produce a magnetic field ? James but their sum is continuous. Comment.
Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), argued that this was indeed Inconsistency of Ampere's circuital law. According
the case-an electric field changing with time produces a to Ampere's circuital law, the line integral of the
magnetic field. Maxwell noticed that Ampere's ➔
magnetic field B along any closed loop C is proportional to
circuital law is inconsistent namely, makes non-unique
predictions for the magnetic field in situations where the current I passing through the closed loop, i.e.,
electric current changes with time. He showed that
consistency requires an additional source of magnetic f [Link] =µoI ...(1)
field, this is called displacement current. This made the C
laws of electricity and magnetism symmetrical. In 1864, Maxwell showed that the equation (1) is
Maxwell formulated a set of four equations, called logically inconsistent. To prove this inconsistency, we
Maxwell's equations. With the help of these equations, consider a parallel plate capacitor being charged by a
he predicted that electric and magnetic fields battery as shown in Fig. 8.l(a). As the charging
dependent on time and space propagate as transverse Capacitor plates
waves, called electromagnetic waves. His discovery that
electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light
led him to a remarkable conclusion that light is an
I A~
_,c,,A◊A- I I
- I
-
electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hert, in 1865,
successfully demonstrated the existence of electro-
~
I
ill
magnetic waves. A few years later, Guglielmo Marconi 111 -
of Italy succeeded in transmitting electromagnetic Battery Key
(a)
waves over distances of several kilometres. His
experiments brought a revolution in communication Fig. 8.1 Aparallel
,,[Link] we are witnessing even today. charged
(8.1)
 PHYSICS-XII
8.2 Unlike the conducti on current, thc dis
, t I flows through. t11eTI·co. nnectingt • th . 1
, U"S a curn:: n "'nges with time. 11s
curren current exists whenever ~thele~tnc field andPhdcen,ent
con I m .. ,• J10 f course ch " ca pa citor. electric flu x is changing
tune • Th us acco enc e •L
h
wires, w ,c etic field around t1,e the Maxwell, the sourc e of a
W1 d· lite
r ing fo
8
gn loops cI and r""2, C1
jus t left of
• n electric curre ma gnetic f 1 . .
produces ao ml ,
'th d uct10 t d to fl 1e d. rs not Jus t •L
'd tw p anarbetween t11e capacitor plates w1 co n • n ue ow ing ch ar "1e
C
Cons,·toerr and 2 m . eJ t .
e-varying ec nc field H ges, bUt
cse plates. • aJso the tun . • en ce th
capaa nes paraJJel to t11 ded by
th
current I is the sum of e condu cr10n current e tota
l
their pla
l, t I flo
ws across the area boun . • placement current I
dis
Ic and
~w ~c um nnecting wire passes through it. d

loo c becausepere's Jaw, we have d~:..

Co
Am I = IC + Id = IC + "<-0-.::
p fr1
dt
Hence om ...(2) .
f B. d1 = µo I Cons1stency of modified Am pere's la
. flux (th _
• no electric w. For lo op
c, C1, there 1s ' e, fron,
'f£ -0). Th ereror
• •
by C2 lies in the region equation (5) we have
But tl,e area bounded no curre nt flo ws
capacitor plates, so f
B.J/ =µ 0 I
between the C .. ,(6)
across it. ... (3)
I
nc
For loop . C2, conductio urrent / -O b
- . ut Id ~ o'
arying elect . fi
to because a time-v nc eld exist • the
C2
ne the loops c; an d c; to be infinitesirnaJJy dose • n between the capacitor pl at es. Hence s m
Im agi have reg10
. 8.l(b). TI1en we must
each other, as shown in Fig
.. ,( s.J! =µ o eo ~
f
f B. til = fB. til 4)
C2
dt ...(7)
C2
C1 tes and
eq ua tions (2) If A be the area of the capacitor pla r
t wi th the t t d be the
This result is inconsisten wa s fel t d1 arg e on the plates at any instan
ying Ampe re's law
the electric field m. thunng the
and (3). So a need for modif charging process, then e gap Will
by Maxwell . be
Ampere's law : Dis-
Maxwell's modification of pere's law, Maxwell E= _!I_
dify Am
placement current. To mo law , e0A
ideration. By Faraday's
followed a symmetry cons induces an electric field,
ld
a changing magnetic fie s~ ind uc e a magnetic or
EA=!]_
ctric fie ld mu
hence a changing ele ual so urc es of magnetic
So
are the us
field. As currents with or Flux
, a chan ging electr ic fie ld must be associated
fields the
led this current as
a current. Maxwell cal fro m the us ua l
tinguish it
displacement current to dis the drift of electrons.
by
conduction current caused
current which comes into
Displacement current is that
duction current, whenever
existence, in addition to the con
electric flux changes with or
the electric field and hence the
time.
sional consistency, the equation (6), proving
the
To maintain the dimen ~ s agrees with the
en the form : (5).
displacement current is giv consistency of the Am
pere's modified law
th
. The sum (Ic + 1d ) has e
Id= eo d4>t; Property of continuity
dt along any dosed
ctric flu x
•
un po rta nt pr operty of. continuity
where 4i, = electric field x
area= EA, is the ele / and Id may not be
pa th even when individually c
across the loop. current Jc enters
Fig. 8.1, for example, a
•
loop conti nu ou s. In tor.
:. Total current across the
closed other plate of the capaci
one plate and leaves the
= le + Id = I + eo d4't: The conduction current
C dt
of the Ampere's law is
Hence the modified form
...(5) is not con •
J B. Jt ~µo [1, +<o :~ ] charge is ti
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8 .J
current Id is zero outside the capacitor plates and in the indeed induced (say at a point Q) between the
gap, it has the value capacitor plates and has same magnitude as that just

&0 -d~ = &0 -d (EA)= & -d[ql -

0 dt & = ~
- ... (8)
outside (say at point P).
dt dt 0
dt £
In Fig. 8.2(a), the direction of is from the positive
which is exactly the value of the conduction current in plate to the negative, whereas the direction of Bat Qis
the lead wires. Thus the displacement current satisfies
perpendicular to the plane of paper. Fig. 8.2(b) shows a
the basic condition that the cµrrent is continuous.
cross-sectional loop parallel to the plane of the plates.
The sum Ic + &0 d4t has the same value along the The field is directed normally into the plane paper,
£
dt
➔
entire path (both inside and outside the capacitor as shown by crosses. The induced field B is clockwise
plates), although individually the two currents are
along the tangents on a circle in this cross-sectional
discontinuous. Clearly, outside the capacitor plates,
plane.
we have only conduction current Ic =I, and there is no
displacement current ( Id =O} While inside the capa- 3. State the important consequences of displacement
citor plates, there is (?nly displacement current Id = I, current.
and there is no conduction current Uc =0} But in any Consequences of displacement current. The
general medium, both Ic and Id are present. However, concept of displacement current has made the laws of
Ic is larger than Id in a conducting medium while Id is electricity and magnetism symmetrical. According to
larger than Ic in an insulating medium. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the
2. Is a displacement current associated with a magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change
magnetic field ? Or, can a changing electric flux induce a magnetic flux. But the emf between two points is the
magnetic field ? Explain it with the help of an example. work done in taking a unit charge from one point to
Induced magnetic field. A displacement curre~t another against the electrostatic forces. This implies
produces the same physical effects as the coijduction the existence of an electric field in the region. So
current. Like a conduction current, a displacement • Faraday's law simply states that a time varying
current is also associated with a magnetic field. magnetic field gives rise to an electric field.
Consider, for example, the charging of a parallel plate By symmetry, a time varying electric field should
capacitor by a constant current I in the connecting give rise to a magnetic field. This is an important
wires [Fig. 8.2(a)]. This increases the charges on the
consequence of displacement current which is a source
capacitor plates at a steady rate. Consequently, the
of magnetic field.
electric field between the plates also increases at a
steady rate. Between the capacitor plates, there exists a Another very important consequence of the
displacement current due to time varying electric field. symmetry of electricity and magnetism is the existence
In such a region, we expect a magnetic field though of electromagnetic waves, so important for modern
there is no source of conduction current nearby. communication.

Experiments have shown that a magnetic field B is

➔
4. State the important properties of displacement
current.
Important properties of displacement current.
These are as follows :
➔ I - 1. Displacement current exists whenever there is a
B
+' I - change of electric flux. Unlike conduction
i(t)
+, I current, it_ does not exist under steady conditions.
+ I I - 2. It is not a current. It only adds to current density
+ I I
- C
in Ampere's circuital law. As it produces
+ II
+ u -' magnetic field, so it is called a current.
3. The magnitude of displacement current is equal
(a) (b) to the rate of displacement of charge from one
capacitor plate to the other.
➔ ➔

Fig. 8.2 (a) Electric and magnetic fields E and Bat any 4. Together with the conduction
point Q between the capacitor plates. displacement current satisfies the
(b) A cross-sectional view of Fig. 8.2(a) continuity.
8.4 PHYSICS-XII

Example 3. A parallel plate capacitor of area so Ctrt

Examples based on plate separation 3.0 mm is charged initially to 80 µC, D atid
Displacement Current and Modified radioactive source nearby, the medium between the plate Ile to
Ampere's Circuital Law slightly conducting and the plate loses charge initially sgets
rate of1.5 x 10-8 cs-1. What is the magnitude and di at ~he
Formulae Used • h . rect,on
d,pE
•
ofdisplaceme nt current ? urvi'hat is t emagneticfield betuJ
1. Displacement current, Io = Eo dt ~~~? ~

d dE Solution. Due to leaking, there is a flow of

,Also 10 = Eo dt (EA)= Eo A dt charge from the +ve plate to the-ve plate (or the fl+ve
= A!!_ (V)
= Eo A dV = C dV
of -ve charge in the reverse direction). Thus ~t
Eo dt d d dt dt conduction current within the plates is from the +vee
plate to the -ve plate. Now the displacernent
.
2. Modified Ampere's circuital law, current 1s
d~ dE
f B·,jf = µ oUc + 1o) Io = Eo dt = Eo A dt
Units Used = EoA dt
d( q J
A = Eo A Eo A dt
1 dq
1
Electric field Eis in _vm - , voltage _v in volt, area I Eo

A in m2, distance dm m, current / m ampere and 8

or ID -- dq - • X 10- Cs-l •
dt -15
field Bin Wb m- 2 or tesla.
I
1
Constants Used The direction of displacement current is opposite to
-12(211.r-l -21
that of electric field E and hence opposite to the
Permittivity constant, Eo = 8.85 x 10 m
i'\j
conduction current. But its magnitude is same as that
10-7 T A-1 I
. •
Permeability constant, µ 0 = 41t x m . , of the conduction current. The net current between the
plates is zero.
Example 1. A parallel plate capacitor has circular plates, Using Ampere's law (with I0 there replaced by
each of radius 5.0 cm It is being charged so that electric field I= le + 1 =0), 0
in the gap between its plates rises steadily at the rate of
1012 vm-1 s-1. What is the displacement current ? f B·Jt = µo 1= µoUc + Io)= µox D=0
2
Solution. Here r = 5 cm = 5x 10- m, So the magnetic field within the plates is zero at all
dE-_ 1012 Vms -1 -1 points.
-
dt Example 4. Refer to Fig. 8.3. Use modified Ampere's
Displacement current, circuital law and the symmetry in the problem to calculate
magnetic field between the _--- -_
ID = Eo d ~ = Eo A dE = Eo . nr2 dE plates at a point (i) on the
dt dt dt
2 12
axis (ii) 6.5 cm from the axis I
\
\

= 8.85 x 10-12 x 1t x (5 x 10- ) x 10 A= 0.07 A. (iii) 15 cm from the axis.

I
' I
I

Example 2. The voltage between the plates of a (iv) At what distance from
parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance 1.0 µF is changing at the axis is the magnetic
the rate of 5 vs- 1. What is the displacement current in the field due to displa
capacitor? current greatest ? 0
Solution. Here C= 1.0 µF = 1.0 x 10-6 F, the maximum value
field.
dV-_ 5 Vs-1
-
dt
Displacement current, between the p
centre lies on
lo=Eo d~ =Eo!!_(EA)=Eo!!_(VA) normal to the
dt dt dt d
B is tangential to
= E0 A dV =C dV magnitude over
d dt dt
= 1.0 x 10-6 x 5 A= 5.0 µA
p

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.5

As the conduction current, I= 0 in the region Solution. Here r = 1 m, C = 1 nF = 10-9 F
between the plates, therefore, from modified Ampere's R = 1 Mn= 106 n, v =2 v, t = 10-3 s
law
Time constant of the RC circuit is
! -;t d-;t -21trB-µ
ytj,1/- -od I ,,.• = RC =10 6 x 10-9 --10-3 s

= µ 0r.0 x Rate of change of electric QR=lm - - - - - - - ,

flux through the area 1tr2. PQ=l m
2
Wiren 1' ~ R. Let %: be the flux through area 1t R2.
Then flux through area 1t? (which is less than 1t R2) R
.. - - - Q
- ◄- -
p
7t r2 r2
=%; 7t R2 =%; R2 I
:. Rate of change of flux through the area 1t r2
- d%;
-dt.
r2
R2
Lr IMO
Fig. 8.4
Hence, Charge on the capacitor plate at any instant t
d4t r2 r2 during charging is given by
21trB=µoEodt· R2=ld. R2
:. For r ~ R, q(t)=CV[ 1-,-:c ]=10-9 x2 [1-,- 1;_,l
B= µo rid ...(a) The electric field in between the plates at time tis
2nR 2
E=q(t)= q(t) =q(t) ... (l)
Wlien r ~ R. In this case the capacitor plates are s0A s0nr2 s01t
totally enclosed by the area m-2 of the larger circle, so
the total current through the area nr2 is Id. Thus Now consider a circular loop of radius 1/2 m
parallel to the plates passing through P. The magnetic
21trB=µ 0 Id
field Bat all points on this loop is along the loop and of
:. For r ~ R, the same value.
µo Id ...(b) The flux 4t through ~s loop is
B=-
21tr
4t = E x area of the loop
(21)
(i) From equation (a), the magnetic field on the axis 2
(r=O)is = Ex nx = 1tE = qEo [Using (1)]
4 4
B=O
The displacement current is
(ii) Here r =6.5 cm and R = 12 cm, i.e., r < R. Again
using equation (a), we get I =EO d4t' =EO!!._ (_!J_J
d dt dt 4s0
B= 41t x 10-7 x 6.5 x 10-2 x 0.15
2 7tX (12 X 10-2 )2 =.!. dq =.!. !!_ [ 2 x 10-9(1- e- 1:-3 ) ]
4 dt 4 dt
1.35 x 10-7T
= [Id =0.15 A]
3 1
(iii) Bis maximum at r = R. From (a) or (b), we have =_.!_x2 x 10-9.e-t/10- .(---)
4 10-3
7 3
B = µOld = 41t x 10- x 0.15 = 0.5 X10-6 e- t/l0-
max 21t R 27t x 12 x 10-2
7
At t =10-3 s, Id =0.5 x 10-6e-1
= 2.5 x 10- T.
• Applying Ampere's circuital law to this loop, we get
Example 5. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates
of radius 1 m has a capacitance of 1 nF. At t = 0, it is B.2 1t x .!. =µ 0 (I, + Id ) = µ 0 (0 + 0.5 x 10-6e-1)
2
connected for charging in series with a resistance R =1 Mn 6 7
B= µo X0.Sxl0- = 41tx10- [Link]-6
across 2 V battery. Calculate the magnetic field at a point P, in
between the plates and half way between the centre and the 1t e 1tX 2.718
periphery of the plates, after 10-3 s. [NCERTJ • =0.74 x 10-13 T.
8.6 PHYSICS XII
_ dq _ d (CV) _ C dV _ r1l A . dV
J. 1 di Jt dt d di
lj'"')roblcms For Practice
dV Id
1. 1 low w1,uld y(111 e<-t,1bli.,h a di-,pl,,cl·nwnt current o( =---
rlt r1l A
2.0 A in the c;p,1cc bC'l\\'t'C.'11 the tw1) p,u,11ld pl,1tcs of
100x10 3 x2xJ0 3
1pf n1p,1ritor 7
lAns. Uy d1l'l11ging p.d. arross the [Link],1dt~r = 8.85 x 10-ii x0.30x0.15
6
plntl'S ot the r,1tc of 2 x 10 Vs )
= 5 xl08 vs- 1 .
2. TI1e displaccnwnt current of 4.425 ~1A is developed
7
in the space bl'lwccn the ploles of parnllcl pl,1te 4. Here C = 0.1 µF = 10- F, w = 500 rad s·I
c,Tt1citnr when vollt1ge ic; ch,mging al a r?tc ~( [rm~ = 1 mA = 10-3 A '
10 vs- 1. TI,e nrea of each plate of the capac1lor 1s 1
40cm 2. Find the dist,mce between the plates of the v,,IIS = Xe. 1rmi = we. !rm~
cap.:icitor. (Pcrmillivit( o( free space,
2
r'O = 8.85 x 10 12 C2N- m - ) UEE Main June 22] = ] x 10-3 - 20 V
(Ans. 8mm) 500 X 10-7 - •

3. A paralll'I plate capacitor has two metal pl.:ites of 5. Here R = 10cm = 0.10 m,
size 30 cm x 15 cm and separated by 2.0 mm. The C= 200 pF = 2 x 10··10 F, Vrms = 200 V
capacitor is being charged so that the chilrging
w = 200 rad s-1, r = 2.0 x 10-2 m
current has a steady value of 100 mA. Calculate the
rate of chnnge of potential difference between the
(i) I = Vrms = Vrms = w C V
capacitor plates. What is the displacement current nus Xe 1/ wC rms
in the region between the capacitor plates ?
= 200x2x10-10 x200
(Ans. 5 x 108 vs-1 , 100 mA)
= 8 x 10-6 A = 8 µA.
4. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C = 0.1 ~1F is
connected across an a.c. source of (angular) (ii) Yes, because I O = I
frequency 500 rad s-1. The value of conduction (iii) 10 = ✓2 lrms = ✓2 x 8 x 10-6
current is 1 mA. \i\'hat is the rn,s value of the voltage
= 11.312 x 10-6 A
from the source ? What is the displacement current
across the capacitor plates ? (Ans. 20 V, 1 mA) =11.312µA.
5. A parallel capacitor made of circular plates of (iv) Consider a circular loop of radius r be
radius 10.0 cm has a capacitance of 200 pF. The the plates and co-axial with them Are twfeen
I 2 • aothe
capacitor is connected to a 200 a.c. supply with an oop, ~•=rt,. By symmetry, Bis tangentia]
angular frequency of 200 rad s-1, the mc\e at every point and is e 1 ~o
. d qua •n
(i) What is the r.m.s. value of conduction current? magn1tu e over the circle. Here only a
the displacement current I O threads the ::rt of
(ii) Is the conduction current equal to displace- area A'. Pof
ment current ?
(iii) Find peak value of displacement current ? :. Current through area A'
(iv) Determine the amplitude of magnetic field at a I r2
= RD2 xm-2=[Link]
point 2.0 cm from the axis between the plates. rt R
12
[Ans. (1) 8 µA (i1) Yes (iii) 11.312 µA (iv) 4.525 x 10- Tl Using modified Ampere's circuital Jaw,
HINTS f B. ifl = µ 0 x Current through area A'
l. As proved in Example 2, ,2
B. 2nr= µ 0 2 I 0
lo=CdV dV =~~ 2.0 = 2 xl06Vs-l. R
dt dt C 10-6
B=µolor
2 I = I = dq =~(CV)= &cJAdV 2n R2
• D c dt di d dt
12 4 6 _ 4n xl0-7 xll.312x10-6 x2x10-2
d= &cJA dV =8.85x10- x40x10- x10 , 2rt x(0.1)2
-
I O • dt 4.425 x 10-6
= 4.525 x 10-12 T.
= 8xl0-3 m = 8 mm.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8. 7
8.3 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS 8. 4 MAXWELL'S PREDICTION OF
Maxwell found that all the basic principles of electro- ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
magnetism can be formulated in terms of four funda- 5. Explain clearly /,ow Maxwell was led to predict the
mental equations called Maxwell's equations. Assuming existence of electromngnetic
. waves. How can these
,,. waves
that no magnetic or dielectric material is present, the be represe11ted 111nthemat1cally ?
four basic equations can be stated as follows : Maxwell's prediction of electromagnetic waves. In
1865, Maxwell theoretically predicted the existence of
1. Gauss law of electrostatics. This law states that electromagnetic waves. According to Faraday's law of
the electric flux tlirougli a closed surface S is _!___ times tlze electromagnetic induction :
f:0
total charge q enclosed by tl1e swface S. A time-varying magnetic field is a source of changing
electric field.
i.e., f E .dS = !}_ 8
... (9) On the basis of his theoretical studies, Maxwell
S 0
argued that
Important consequences of this law are that (i) the
A time-varying electric field is a source of changing
charge on an insulated conductor resides only on its
magnetic field.
outer surface, and (ii) the electrostatic force between
two charges is inversely proportional to the square of This means that the change in either field
the distance between them. (electric/magnetic) produces the other field. Maxwell
further showed that these variations in· electric and
2. Gauss law of magnetism. According to this law,
magnetic fields occur in mutually perpendicular
the magnetic flux through any closed surface is always
directions and have wave like properties. He was thus
zero.
led to the idea that a wave of electric and magnetic
i.e., f [Link] =0 ... (10) fields both varying with space and time should exist,
one providing the source of the other. Such a wave is
s
called an electromagnetic wave and it indeed exists.
This law implies that isolated magnetic poles or
magnetic charges do not exist, i.e_., it explains the An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an
absence of magnetic monopoles. . accelerated charge and which propagates through space
3. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. as coupled electric and magnetic _fields, oscillating
This law tells that a changing magnetic field induces perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
an electric field. According to this law, the induced emf • propagation of the wave.
set up in a closed cirruit C is equal to the rate of change
of magnetic flux linked with the closed circuit. • Mathematical representation of electromagnetic
waves. Figure 8.5 shows a plane electromagnetic wave
.
z.e., f E➔ . d➔l =- d4>s ➔
travelling along X-axis. The electric field E oscillates
C
dt ➔
along Y-axis while the magnetic field B oscillates
· or t=--
d[ ➔ ➔i
f [Link] ...(11) along Z-axis.
dt C y

4. Modified Ampere's law. This law states that the

E B E B
line integral of the magnetic field around any closed
circuit C is equal to µ 0 times the total current (the sum
of conduction and displacement currents) threading
the closed circuit.

1.e.,
C
f [Link] =µoUc+Id]=µo[ 1c+eo d~]
dt
... (12) Direction of propagation _ .

Fig. 8.5 A plane electromagnetic wave

This law implies the fact that not only a con-
travelling along X-axis.
duction current but a displacement current, asso-
ciated with a changing electric field, also produces a The v~ues of electric and magnetic fields shown in
magnetic field. the above figure depend only on x and t. The electric
 8.8 PHYSICS-XII

field vector can be rcpresen tcd mathematically as wave. The emergence ~f the ~peed ~flight fro ,
follows: electromagnetic considerations 1s the
tn ~l.t
achievement of Maxwell's electromagncti
Cro\v~~l~
E= Ey j = Eo sin (kx - rnt) j" The speed of an e.m. wave in any c lhco t~
t;,, g
permeability ~l an d perm1·tr1v1ty
• e will
be med.·'[Link]
= fos m[2 •(i- v1) }l 1 1 1:11
V= --= r== == = C
.fi°µ ✓K Eo µ, µ--; ::: ~
= Eo sm [2•(i-f)} l ... (1)
where K is the dielectric constant of them
• permeab'l' ct· r
where k = 2 7t / "- is the propagation cons is its relative 11ty. • e 1ttrn and
tant of the . d .
wave and angular frequency, co= 2nv. As the electnc and. ma gnehc fields in an e ..._ ~ ' 1
t
are always perpen 1cu1ar to each oth
Clearly, Ex = Ez =0 ·•11. \v
[Link] to the d'[Link] of wave pr er a ave
TI1e magnetic field vector may be represen Od. aJ
ted as e.m. waves are transverse in nature.
opagation,:
➔
B = Bz k" = l3o sin (kx - cot) k"
8.5 SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
= 8u sm f •(i-v1)} k WAVES
6. Briefly explain how is an accelerat ·
source of an electromagnetic wave. ing charge Q
= \sin[2x(i- ~)}k ...(2) An accelerating charge as a sou
•
Clearly, Bx = By =0. elec tromagnetic wave. A [Link] chargrce of an
only an electrostatic field while a charge~
pro~uces
Here £0 and Bo are the amplitudes of the elect
ric field motion produces a magnetic field that does in un1forll\
Eand magnetic field B, respectively. with time. Thus, neither stationary charges
not change
in unif. orm [Link] (or steady currents) nor cha
Equations (1) and (2) show that the varia ca rges
tions i11 electromagnetic waves. According to Mn produce
electric and magnetic fields are in same plins ' axwen
e, i.e., both acceleratmg cltarge produces electromagnet· ' a,i
attain their maxima and minima at the 'd
same instant Cons1 er a charge osc1·11atmg • harm
onically ic Wav
w·th
and at the same place (x). . es.
This is an example of an accelerating
char~e tirn~.
The magnitudes of Eand Bare related charge produces an oscillating electric
as field •. ~s
. neighbourhood. This field, in turn,
produ 10 •ts
.E. =c or Ea =c oscillating 1:1agnetic in the neighbourho
ots ~
B Bo process continues because the oscillating
• f' elect ri
magnetic 1elds act as sources of each othe
Maxwell also showed that the speed of
an e.m. electromagnetic r• He c and
wave depends on the permeability and per~ wave originates from the oscillnee an
ittivity of charge. The frequ atin
the medium through which it travels. The
e.m. wave in free space is given by
speed of an to the frequency of
ency of the electromagnetic wave is eq
oscillation of the charge. The ener;
1
carried by the wave comes from the sourc
1 makes the charge oscillating. e which
C= --= =
• .JµoE o From the above discussion, we may note
that in
Permeability of free space, orde r to generate an electromagnetic wave
of
frequency v, we need to set up an a.c. circu
7
it in which
µ 0 = 4n x 10- Ns C-2 •
2 the current oscillates at the frequency v.
Hence it is
Permittivity of free space, easier to generate low frequency e.m. wave
s, such as a
radiowave. However, it is not possible
to experi-
Eo = 8.85 X 10-12 c2N-1m-2 mentally demonstrate the existence of high
frequency
1 e.m. waves, such as visible light. For exam
C=- ;::: :== === === =:'= " ple, the
✓47t X 10-7 X 8.85 X 10-12 generation of yellow light • an oscillator of
frequency 6 x 1014 Hz, while
8
oscillators
= 3.0 X 10 IDS -1 have frequency hardly above
which is the speed of light in vacuum. In the next section, we
This fact led for demonstrating the exis•
Maxwell to predict that light is an elec
tromagnetic radiowaves.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8. 9
8.6 HERTZ'S EXPERIMENT The receiver or detector consists of an almost closed
circular stout wire terminating at the two ends in two
7. Describe Hertz's experiment for producing a11d detec- small polished brass spheres Si and s;. The electro-
ting elcctro111agnetic waves. How were the various pro- magnetic waves reaching the gap of the detector are
perties ofelectromagnetic waves demonstrated by Hertz ? associated with a sufficiently strong electric field
Hertz's experiment. Maxwell predicted the which sets up a high p.d. across the gap Si s;. This
existence of electromagnetic waves in 1865. This causes tiny sparks jumping across the gap, thereby
prediction had to wait for about 22 years before a proving the existence of e.m. waves.
German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, succeeded in experi- Hertz demonstrated the various properties of e.m.
mentally confirming the existence of electromagnetic waves as follows :
waves in 1887. 1. Hertz observed that maximum sparks are
In the oscillations of an LC- circuit, we know that produced across the detector gap when thfa gap is
the charge oscillates across the capacitor plates. Since parallel to the transmitter gap. When these two gaps
an oscillating charge has non-zero acceleration, it will are perpendicular to each other, no sparkes are
continuously emit electromagnetic waves. As shown produced across the detector gap i.e., no electro-
in Fig. 8.6, Hertz used an oscillatory LC-circuit for magnetic waves are detected. This means that electric
producing electromagnetic waves. field associated with the waves radiated from the
transmitter is parallel to the two gaps i.e., the direction
of the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of
Metal
plate
propagation of the e.m. wave. This clearly demon-
p strates that the e.m. waves are transverse in nature.
2. Hertz not only produced and detected electro-
lnput magnetic waves, but also demonstrated their properties
of reflection, refraction and interference and so
p Detector established beyond doubt that the e.m. radiation has a
Metal wave nature.
plate 3. Hertz allowed the e.m. waves to fall on a large
plane sheet of zinc. The reflected waves superimposed
on the incident waves, produced stationary e.m.
Fig. 8.6 Hertz's experimental set-up for producing . waves. The wavelength of these waves was deter-
and detecting e.m. waves. mined by measuring the distance between two nodes.
The transmitter consists of two large square metal The frequency of the wave was equal to that of the
(brass) plates with sides of length 40 cm. These are oscillator, i.e.,
placed in the same vertical plane with their centres 1
v=---
about 60 cm apart. The plates are connected to two 2rcJic
thick wires ending in highly polished brass spheres Hence the speed of the e.m. wave was determined
S1 and S2. The distance between the two spheres is 2 to by using the formula v =v A.· It was found that e.m.
3 cm. The two thick wires are connected to the
waves travel with the same speed as the speed of light.
secondary terminals of an induction coil.
Every time the current in the primary circuit of the 4. Electromagnetic waves can be polarised. To test
induction coil is interrupted, a large p.d. is set up across this fact, take a portable' AM radio provided with a
51 and S2 and the metal plates get charged. The high p.d. telescopic antenna. It responds to the electric
ionises the air in the gap and makes the gap conduc- component of the e.m. signal from the broadcasting
ting. The electrons and ions so produced oscillate back station. When the antenna is turned horizontal, the
and forth across the gap S1S2 . An oscillatory discharge signal is greatly diminished. The portable radios
of the plates occurs through the conducting gap. The having horizontal antenna inside them are sensitive to
process results in the production of e.m. waves. the magnetic component of e.m. wave. The signal is _
The metal plates form a capacitor of low best received when such a radio is held horizontal.
capacitance C and connecting wires offer a low In Hertz set-up, the frequency of the e.m. waves
7
inductance L The system generates e.m. waves of high produced was 5 x 10 Hz. So the wave length of the
frequency (v) given by e.m. waves produced is given by
1 A=~= 3 x 10s =6 m.
v=-~=
2rr Jic V 5 X 10
7
 8.10 PHYSICS-XII

We use Gauss's law to prove the transve

8.7 HISTORY OF THE OBSERVATION • waves. Consider the dos rse
of electromagnetic d na~re
OF EM WAVES enclosed by the parallelopiped ABCDEFGI{ ef ~i..rface
1
8. Give n brief histo,y of //1c observation of clectro-dy and dz. The total electric flux through ~i: des d:t,
mng11ctic wnvcs. surface must be zero as it does not enclose an cl0sed
History of the observation of electromagnetic ~~ y~~
waves. In 1865, Mal1vell predicted the existence of
electromagnetic waves purcJy from theoretical consi- f
[Link] =0
ABCDEFGH
derations. He showed that an accelerating charge
produces electromagnetic waves. Since an oscillating
d,arge is accelerated continuously, it would conti- or [
nuously produce e.m. waves of same frequency as that ABCD
f EFGH
f
[Link] + E. +[ [Link] + f -+
ABFE
Js] f DCGH E, dS
~i
of the osci1lating charge.
In 1887, Hertz succeeded in experimentally confir-
ming the existence of e.m. waves. He used an oscillatory
+[
AEHD
I
E•dS + E-ls] : :
BFGC
f 0
LC-circuit for producing these waves. He was able to The paired integrals are the contributions fr0
produce and detect e.m. waves of wavelength around 6 m. faces normal to X, Y and Z-ax1s, rn th
respectively s· e
.

In 1S95, Sir J.C. Bose succeeded in producing e.m. does not depend on y and z, the contributions •frorn Ince£
th
of much shorter wavelength (5 mm to 25 mm) with the faces normal to Y and Z-axis cancel out in pairs the
help of a self-designed radiator. He was able to above equation . becomes ,so e
transmit e.m. waves over a distance of about 20 m.
In 1896, G11glielmo Marconi, discovered that if one of f
[Link] + E. = O f ts ...(I)
ABCD EFGH
the spark gap terminals is connected to antenna and the
other terminal is earthed, then em. waves can be trans- Let Ex and E: be the x components of the electn
mitted over distances of several kilometers. He succeeded field at the faces ABCD and EFGH, respectively. Th~
in transmitting e.m. waves across the British Channel outward normals on these faces are opposite!
in 1899 and across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901. His experi- directed (along X-axis), therefore, y
ments marked the beginning of radio communication.
J [Link] = Ex . dy dz
8.8 TRANSVERSE NATURE OF ABCD

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ➔ ➔
E . dS = - E: dy dz
J
9. Prove mathematically that electromagnetic waves . EFGH
are transverse in nature. Hence equation (1) becomes
Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves. [Link]=0 or Ex=s •
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in
i.e., the component of the electric field along the
the X-direction. The associated wavefront lies in the
direction of propagation is constant. But a constant or
YZ-plane (a wavefront- is the locus of co~tinuous
static field cannot produce a wave, so this constant
points having same phase of vibration) and ABCD is a
must be equal to zero, i.e., Ex =0
portion of it at any time t. The electric and magnetic
fields at time twill be zero to the right of ABCD. To the Similarly, we can prove that Bx = 0. Thus the
left of ABCD, they depend on x and t, but not on y and electric or magnetic fields have no component along
z, as we are considering only a plane wave. the direction of propagation. Or, in an electromagnetic
y
wave both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to the direction of propagation, i.e., the electromagnetic
waves are transverse in nature.
8. 9 ENERGY DENSITY, INTEN
I\
I\ I
n----E'r I dy ----n MOMENTUM OF ELECTR
I D WAVES
)-------- ----x
,,," H dx 10. Obtain expression for the
A electromagnetic wave. In an ele
z that the average energy density
Fig. 8.7 Elementary parallelopiped ABCDEFGH average energy density of the B
chosen as a closed surface.
~
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.11
Energy density of an electromagnetic wave. Electro- Suppose a plane electromagnetic wave propa-
magnetic wa_ves carry_ energy as they travel through gates along X-axis with speed c. As shown in Fig. 8.8,
space and tl~1s ~nergy 1s shared e~ually by the electric consider a cylindrical volume with area of cross-
and magnetic fields. Energy de11s1ty of an e.m. wave is section A and length c M along the X-axis. The energy
the ellergy in unit volume of the space tlrrough which the
wave travels. , -----c6f----~
We know that energy is stored in space wherever --------------
' \
--""T""<
electric and magnetic fields are present. I

In free space, the energy density of a static field Eis I Area =A

I

1 E2 ------~'---- ------------ -·
11£ :: 2 Eo

Again in free space, the energy density of a static Fig. 8.8 Calculation of intensity.
magnetic field is
contained in this cylinder crosses the are·a A in time M
lis = _1_ If
2µo· as the wave propagates with speed c. The energy
contained is
The total energy density of the static electric and
magnetic fields·will be U = Average energy density x volume
1 2 .1 n2 =uxcMxA
u = 11E + u8 = - s0 E + - 1J
2 2µ0
Intensity of the wave,
But in an electromagnetic wave, both Eand. B fields
vary sinusoidally in space and time. The average I= Energy =.J!._=uc
energy density u of an e.m. wave can be obtained by Area x Time A ll.t
replacing E and B by their nns values in the above 1 2 2
equation. Thus • or I = - s0 E0 c = s0 Enns c
2
1 2 1 n2
u = - Eo Erms + - tr
1
2 2µ0 rms
Also, I = - "orile=_!_~rms c
2 µo µo
- n2 [·: E = ~
1
or u = ..!.4 E0 £02 + -4µ0 B - ~]
rms .Ji , rms - .Ji
"o Thus the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is
• 1 proportional to the square of the electric/magnetic field.
Moreover, £0 = cB0 and c2 = - - , therefore Conversely, the size of the electric/magnetic field of an
µo Eo
electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square
1 2 1 2
uE = 4Eo Eo = 4 Eo (c~) root of its intensity.
12. Write an expression for the momentum carried by
_1 85 - 1 ril_
--EO . - - - - "Q -UB
an e:m. wave.
4 µo Eo 4µo Momentum of an e.m. wave. An electromagnetic
Hence in an electromagnetic wave, the average energy of wave transports linear momentum as it travels
the Efield equals the average energy density of the Bfield. through space. If an electromagnetic wave transfers a
total energy U to a surface in time t, then total linear
It may be noted that
momentum delivered to the surface is
1 2 l 21 2 2
u = 4 Eo Eo + 4 Eo Eo = 2 Eo fo = Eo Erms u
p=-
Also, c
[For complete absorption of energy U]
U=-1 R+-1 R=-1 n2=_!_~
4µ0 o 4µ0 o 2µ0 "o µo rms If the wave is totally
delivered will be 2 UI~
11. Define intensity of an electromagnetic wave.
Obtain an expression for it. wave will change from p
Intensity of an electromagnetic wave. The energtJ 13. Write an expresskm
crossing per unit area per unit time in a direction perpen- electromagnetic wave.
dicular to the direction of propagation is called intensity of Pressure exerted by
Ifie wave. magnetic wave falls on a
 8.12 PHYSICS-XII

This pressure is rnlled [Link]

• t pres sure 111e radiation
•. 9. Electromagnetic waves obey the Prin .
pressure for an electromagnetic wave of mten . 1 . superposition. They show the pro CtpJe
s1ty JS
givrn by reflection, re fracti•on, inter
• f Pertt l'lf
erence, d'f es l'l
I and polarisation. 1
fracu~
p =-
r C 10. The electric field of an electromagne
r
It is because of the radiation pressure of responsible for its optical effects tc Wave
the solar i
radiation that the tails of comets point away from ~> >~ - ' bee s

8.10 PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES
the sun.
r ~or y~ur Knowledg:_,l
¾-

► An accelerating or oscillating charge is

14. Mention the various properties of a
electro- electromagneti.c waves. An electric.
charge sourc e
magnetic waves. . of
harmonically with frequency v, produceosc11l ti
a ng
Properties of electromagnetic waves. Thes magnetic waves of frequency v. An oscillatins electr
e are as o.
follows: dipole radfates electromagnetic waves.
~ electric
1. The electromagnetic waves are produ_ce ► All types of electromagnetic wave
d by s travel thr
accelerated charges and do not require vacuum with the same speed but they
travel~~
any different speeds in any material medium.
material medium for their propagation. 1
th
2. The directions of oscillations of E and ► The frequency of an electroma
B fields gnetic wave . .
11 u1erent charactensh. .c. Wh
•• I.

are perpendicular to each other as well en an electrom IS 1ts

as wave travels from one medmm .
perpendicular to the direction of propagat to [Link]
ion of wavelength changes but frequency remains er,
the wave. So the electromagnetic wav unch its
es are ► The ratio ro / cgives the magnitud angec t,
transverse in nature. e of the propa .
➔
vector k for an electromagnetic wave, gation
3. The oscillations of E and B fields are
in same
phase. k=2T C=(J )
4. All electromagnetic waves travel in A. C
free space ► The direction of propagation of an
with the same speed, electromagnetic
wave is same as that of the vector E x B
1 :. 3 x 108
c= --:
.
ms -1
..Jµaea ► The speed of an electromagneti
c wave through an
medium depends on its permeability
In a material medium, the electromagne µ an~
tic permittivity E.
waves travel with the speed,
1 1 C
V= --= --= =-
C C
~
V=-=--=-
Jµi, .Jµ,e, n M
where n is the refractive index of the med ► Half of the intensity of an elect
romagnetic wave is
ium. provided by its electric field and half by the
5. The amplitude ratio of the electric and magnetic
magnetic field. So the power delivered by the magn
fields is Ea = c= 1 etic field of
an electromagnetic wave is equal to the powe
Ba r delivered
..Jµaea by its electric • magnetic field strength is
6. The electromagnetic waves carry energy much weaker • eld strength. In fact,
as they
travel through space and this energy is
shared
equally by the electric and magnetic field
s. The
average energy density of an e.m. wave
is
U = UE + UB = -1 ( Eo Ev2 + -B~] from one
2 µo importance.
7. Electromagnetic waves transport stations to
linear sun to the
momentum as they travel through space
:
u
p= -.
C

8. Electromagnetic waves are not defle

cted by
electric and magnetic fields.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.13

~
Equation, Speed, Amplitude and Average
Example 6. Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium at a
speed of 2.0 x 108 ms-1. The relative permeability of the
Energy Density of Electromagnetic Waves medium is 1.0. Find the relative permittivity.
[JEE Main June 22)
formulae Used Solution. Speed of an e.m. wave in a medium is
, t. Wave velocity, c = v11. ' given by
he
2. Energy of photon, E= /1v = ~
. 1
3, Speed of e.m. wave m vacuum, c = -=--
.Jµ oco
V
2
=--
c2
4, Speed of e.m. wave in a material medium, c = _l_ ,
µ, E,
Jµc Hence relative permittivity,
s. For a wave of frequency v, wavelength \
propagating along x -<[Link], the equations for 1 E _ _{_ _ (3 X 108)2 = 2.25.
electric and magnetic fields are J ' - µ,v 2 - 1.0 x (2 x 108 )2

~ - E,, sin (kx - rot) =E,, si+• G:-~)] 1

Example 7. A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency
25 MHz travels in free space along the x-direction. At a

B,-Bo sin (kx-rot)= Bo sin [ 2• (f- ~)] particular point in space and time, E=6.3 J Vm-1•What is
• 6. Amplitude ratio of electric and magnetic fields, Bat this point ? [NCERT; CBSE o 06C; JEE Main 19)

f'o =C= 1
Solution. Magnitude of E, E = 6.3 Vm -l
Bo .JµoEo
Magnitude of B,
. 21t Ct)
7. Propagation constant, k = - =- 1
A C .B = i = 6•3 vm- =2.18 x 10--sT
8. Average energy density of E-field, c 3 x 108 ms-1
1 2 1 2 The direction of propagation of the e.m. wave is
UE =
4 EcJf'o = 2 EcJ E:rns I\ I\ I\

Ex B =.c
9. Average energy density of ~field,
I\ I\ I\

1 o2 1 2 j X B =i
UB = 4µo '-'() = 2µo Brms I\ I\

⇒ B =k
10. Average energy density of e.m. wave,
➔ I\

E2 B = Bk
So '""rms + - 1 rms =
1 .,:2 B2 B~s
uav = - Eo rms = - -
2 2µo µo
= 2.18 x 10~
8
kT.
1 2 1 21 2 1 2
or uav = - Eo fo + -4µ Bo = - Eo fo = - Bo Example 8. The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic
4 2 2µ 0
0 wave is given by
11. Momentum delivered by an e.m. wave. 7 3
BY =2 x 10- sin (0.5 x 10 x + 1.5 x 1011 t) T.
p=-
u (a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave ?
c , (b) Write an expression for the electric field. [NCERTJ
12. Intens1 o a wave = -Energy/
•ty f time ·Power
--="------ = - - Solution. Given
Area Area
7 11 3
or I = uav c = i,0 E~s c. BY =2 x 10- sin (0.5 x 10 x + 1.5 + 10 t) tesla

Units Used On comparing with the standard equation,

Wave velocity cis in ms-1, wavelength 11. in metre,

frequency v in Hz, field Ein Vm - 1, field Bin tesla,
energy densities uE' u 8 and uav • are in Jm-3,
we get, 21t =0.5 X 103
intensity I in wm-2. A,
 'L u»a»±

8. J4 PHYSICS-XII
The intensity at this distance is
:. Wavelength,
21t 2 X 3.14 I = Power = 2.5% of IO~
A. = 0.5 X 10 = 0.5 X 103
3 Area 113 m2
=0.022 wm-2
=1.26 x 10-2m = 1.26 cm.
21tV = 1.5 X 10
11 H~lf of this intensity is provided by th
Also,
field and half by the magnetic field. e electrjc
1.5 X 1011 1.5 X 10 11
v=---= But intensity of e.m. wave
2n 2x3.14
= Eo £;ms c
9
= 23.9 x 10 Hz = 23.9 GHz. 1 1 1
2
H =2 x 10-7 T
(b) vo - I= - Eo Erml =- x 0.002 Wrn-2
1
2 2 2 ·
8 7
:. Eo = cf\i =3 x 10 x 2 x 10- =60 vm- £2 =0.022 = 0.022
or
The electric field is perpendicular to the direction of rms e0c 8.85 x 10-12 x3 x108 :::8,286
propagation (x-axis) and the direction of magnetic field
·). so t11e expression
(y-axis .- for e1ectnc
• f'ield'1s or E,1115 =2.878=-2.9Vm-1
Ez =60 sin (0.5 x 103x + 1.5 x 1011 t) Vm-1. Peak value,
Example 9. Light with an energy jllu of 18 watts I cnt Ea = Ji Erms = 1.4l4 x 2.9 = 4.1 Vm -1
falls on a non-reflecting surface at normal incidence. If the The strength of the magnetic field,
surface has an area of20 01f ,find the average force exerted B = Erms _ 2.9 Vm -1
on the surface during a 30 minute time span. [NCERTJ rms c - x 108 ms-I = 9.6 x 10-s T
3
Solution. Energy flux
=18 W cm-2 =18 Js-1cm-2
Also, Ba= Ji Brms =1.414 x 9.6 x 10-s
Area =20 cm 2 =1.4x 10-7 T.
Time =30 min =1800 s It ~ay. be ~oted that although the power in the
Total energy falling on the surface magnetic field 1~ e~ual to the power in the electric field,
yet the magnetic field strength is very weak.
U =Energy flux x time x area
Exam pl~ 11 •. In a_plane el~ctromagnetic wave, the electric
=(18 Js-1cm-2)x 1800 sx 20 cm2 field vanes with time having an amplitude 1 vm-I The
=6.48 X 105 J frequency ?f wWhave 1~• 0.5 x 1015 Hz. The wave is propagating
•

The total momentum delivered to the surface, l

a ong z-ax1s. at is the average energy density of(i) electric
5
LJ 6.48 X 10 J
field (ii) magnetic field (iii) total field, and (iv) what is
p - - - - 8- - - amplitude of magnetic field ? .'
- c - 3 x 10 ms - 1
Solution.
=2.16 x 10:..3kgms-1
The average force exerted on the surface,
(i) UE =!4 Eo £~ =!4 X 8.85 x 10-12 x 12
3
F = E= 2.16 x 10- = 1.2 x 10-6 N
=2.21 X 10-12 )m-3.
t 1800 (ii) u8 = UE
In case, the surface is a perfect reflector, the change =2.21 X }0-l2 Jm -3,
of momentum
=p-(-p)=2 p (ii1) Uav =UE + UB =2 X 221 X 10-ll,
and F =2 x 1.2 x 10-6 = 2.4 x 10-6 N. =4.42 X 10-ll Jm -l,
Example 10. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields
produced by the radiation coming from a100 watt bulb at a
(iv) ~ =; = 3 X ~08

distance of 3 mAssume that the efficiency of the bulb is 2.5%

and it is a point source. [NCERTJ
,n e.m. wave is given by
Solution. The bulb, as a point source, radiates light
in all directions uniformly. At a distance of 3 m, the c-•
surface area of the surrounding sphere is
A= 4nr2 =47t(3)2 =113 m2
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.15
Solution. Here £0 = 50 NC-1 Example 15. A light beam travelling in the x-direction is
:. Average energy density of the e.m. wave is described by the electric field : EY =270 sin ro( t - ~). An
1 2 1 12
uav = - EoEo = - x 8.55 x 10- x (50)2 electron is constrained to move along the y-direction with a
2 2
speed of 2.0x 107 ms-1. Find the maximum electric force
=1.1 X 10-8 Jm-3
and maximum magnetic force on the electron.
Volume of the cylinder,
Solution. Maximum electric field,
V =10 cm 2 x 50 cm = 500 cm 3 = 5 x 10-4 m 3
£ = 270 Vm-1
0
Energy contained in the cylinder is
Maximum magnetic field,
U = Volume x energy density
= 5 X 10-4 X 1.1 X 10-8 = 5.5 xlQ-ll J. R = Eo = 270 =9x 10-71,
"1) C 3 X 108
Example 13. A plane e.m. wave is propagating in the
x-direction has a wavelength of6.0 mm The electric field is directed along z-direction
in they-direction and its maximum magnitude is 33 vm-1. Maximum electric force on the electron,
Write suitable equations for the electric and magnetic fields
as afunction of x and t. Fe = q£0 = 1.6 x 10-19 x 270 = 4.32 x 10-17 N
Solution. Here 'A,= 6.0 mm = 6 x 10-3 m, Maximum magnetic force on the electron
. £0 =33 Vm-1 F,n = qvI3a = 1.6 X 10-19 X 2.0 X 10 7 X 9 X 10-7
27tC 2 7t X 3 X 108 11 1 = 2.88 X 10-ts N.
ro = 2 rrv = - = 3
= rr x 10 rad s -
A 6 X 10-
flroblems For Practice
R = £0 = 33 =l.lxl0-7T
"1) C 3 X 108
1. The maximum electric field in a plane electro-
The equation for the electric field along y-axis can magnetic wave is 600 Nc-1 . The wave is going in
be written as the x-direction and the electric field is in the
y-direction. Find the maximum magnetic field in
E = Ey = E0 sin ro ( t - ~) the wave and its direction.
(Ans. 2 x 10-6r, z-direction)
= 33 Sin 7t X 10
11
(t -~) Vm- 1
. 2. The frequencies of radio waves in the AM
broadcast band range from 0.55 x 106 Hz to
The equation for the magnetic field along z-axis 1.6 x 106 Hz. What are the longest and the shortest
can be written as wavelengths in this band ?
B= B2 =1b sin ro(t-f) (Ans. 5.45 x Ht m, 1.87 x la2 m)
3. A radio transmitter operates at a frequency of
11
= 1.1 x 10-7 sin 1t x 10 ( t - ~) tesla. 880 kHz and a power of 10 kW. Find the number of
photons emitted per second. (Ans. 1.71 x 1a31)
Example 14. A laser beam has intensity 2.5 x 1014 wm-2. 4. The permittivity and permeability of free space are
Find the amplitudes ofelectric and magneticfields in the beam. Eo =8.85 X10-12c2N-1m-2
Solution. The intensity of a plane e.m wave, and µ 0 = 41t x10-7 TmA-1, respectively.
1 2 Find the velocity of the electromagnetic wave.
I= uav .C=- EoEoc
2 (Ans.3xla8 ms-1)
:. Amplitude of electric field, 5. In a plane electromagnetic wave of frequency
~------ 1.0 x 1012 Hz, the amplitude of the magnetic field is
{II 2 X 2.5 X 1014 5.0 x 10-6T. (a) Calculate the amplitude of the
Eo = VE0 c = 8.85 x 10- 12 x 3 x 108 electric field. (b) What is the to
density of the e.m. wave ?
= 4.3 X 10 8 Vm-l
( Ans. 1.5 x 1a3 V
Amplitude of magnetic field,
6. The magnetic field in a plane e.
R = Eo = 4.3 x 108 = 1.44 T.
"1) C 3 X 108 B = (200 µT) sin (4.0xlO-s
 8.16 PHYSICS-XII
6. Here 4, =200 ~IT =2 x 10-4 T
. f Id a d the average
find the maximum electnc ,e • •1 . f Id fo =cl~= 3x108 x2xl0-4 = 6xJo4 Vrn-•
energy density corresponding lo the electric ,e _;
(Ans. 6 x 104 Vm -t, 0.008 Jm ) 11£ =41 Co '1J,:2 -4
- 1 8 85 10-12
X ' X X(6X]Q4)2

7. A millimetre wave has a wavlde

length of 2 00 mm
. ted. with it ==0.008 Jm -3
nnd the oscillating electric fie assoc1a . I C 3x108
hns an amp l1 • ·tude of 20 vm-1. Detcrmme t ,e 7. Frequency, v =i =2 x 10_ 3 =1.5 x 1()11 1-iz
•
frequency of oscillations of the electric and ma~1et1c
•
fl'elds of this elcctromagnellc wav •
e What 1s the
.
fo 20
Bo =~ =3 X 108 = 6.67 )( 108 T.
1·11. de of the magnetic field osc1·11 at·ions of t111s
amp , • II 67 10-8 T)
wave ? (Ans. 1.5 x10 Hz, 6. x 8. (i) Average energy density of the e.m. wave
8. n,e magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave
11
= BJ = (12x10-8)2 '
is given by: av 2µ 0 2 x4n x 10-7
B = 12 x10-8sin(l.20 x107 z + 3.60 x101s,) T 18x10-9 •
y = - - - =5.73 xto-9 Jm-3
Calculate: 3.14 •
(1) TI1e energy density associated with the electro- (ii) BY= 12 x10-8 sin(l.20xl07z + 3.60xl()ljt)
magnetic wave. BY= f3osin(kz+(J)t)
(ii) The speed of the wave. [CBSE SP IS)
(J) 3.60 X tol 5 8
[Ans.(,) 7.3x10-9Jm-3 (ii) 3xl0sms-t] c = - = - - - - =7- = 3 xlO ms-1
k 1.20x10 '
9. A plane electromagnetic wave travels !n a mcdi.u~,
9. B=µH =µ 0 µ,H
of relative permeability 1.61 and relative pernutll- C
vity 6.44. If magnitude of magnetic intensity i.s V=--
4.5 x10-2 Nm -I at a point, what will be the approxi- ,Jµ ,e,
mate magnitude of electric field intensity at that
point ? (Given : Pem1eability of free space
µ 0 = 41t x 10-7 NA-2, speed of light in vacuum
E=vB= ~xµ 0 µ,H=µ 0cH~
vµ,e, re:
c=3xl08 ms- 1) UEEMainJune22] = 41t x 10-7 x3 x108 x4.5 x 10-2 ✓ l.6l
(Ans. 8.48 vm- 1) 6.44
=41tx3x4.Sx10-1 x~vm-1
HINTS 2
= 27rrx10-1Vm-l =8.48 Vm-1.
n = fo = ~8 = 2 x10-6 T
1. "O C 3x10
8.11 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
. ➔ ➔

As the directions of £, B and direction of 15. What is electromagnetic spectrum ? Name the
propagation are mutually perpendicular, so B main parts of the electromagnetic spectrum giving their
➔

frequenClJ range and source of production. Also give their

should be along the z-direction. important properties and uses.
2. Proceed as in Exercise 8.5 on page 8.34. Electromagnetic spectrum. All the known
3. Here v = 880 kHz = 880 x 103 Hz, radiations form a big family of electromagnetic waves
P= 10 kW = 10 x 10 W 3 which stretch over a large range of wavelengths. The
orderly distribu lion of the electromagnetic waves in
Number of photons emitted per second,
accordance with their wavelength or frequenClJ into distinct
n=!._ 10x103 =1.71x103t. groups having widely differing properties is called
hv 6.6 x 10-34 x 880 x 103 electromagnetic spectrum. As shown in Fig. 8.9, the main
parts of the e.m. spectrum are y-rays, X-rays,
1.
4. Use c = .Jµ o&o ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, micro-
waves and radio waves in the order of increasing
5. (i) fo=cB0 =3x108 x5.0x10-6=1.5x10 3 vm-1. wavelength from 10-2 Aor 10-12 m to 106 m.
The various regions of the e.m. spectrum do not
(i1) "av = ~ &o ~ = 1x8.85 x 10- 12
x (1.5 x lQ3 ) 2 have sharply defined boundaries and they overlap.
=1.0 x10- 5 Jm-3 • The classification is based roughly on how the waves
are produced and/or detected.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.17
Frequency, Hz Wavelength
1023
-14 Violet
22 10 400nm
10
-13
1021 > - - - - Gamma
10
rays--- -.......-<
1020

10
19
10
10
- 12
- II

-10 /
//1 450nm
Indigo

18 ,___ _ _ _ X-rays - - - ~
10 10 I
-9 Blue
10'7 10 / 1 nm
10'6 1)58
> - - - - Ultraviolet -----<
15 -7
10 10 500nm
14 ---t--..., __ _ ___;V..::is::.:ib:.::le:...__ _ _ _---l 10-6
10 lµm Green
13 -5
10 >--- -- Infrared - - - - - < \ lO
10
12 ~o- 4 550nm
\_3
1~1 1~
> - - - Microwaves - - - - < lf t
10 1 cm Yellow
lO > - - - Short radio waves ----'""'" -( - 1\
109 10 \ 600nm
s } - Television and
10 FM radio - { 1 \lm
\ Orange
7 1
10 10
\
>------ AM radio -----<
106 1l \ 650nm
105 103 \
1 km\
4 Red
4
10 10 \
> - - - - Long radio waves ----< 105 \
103
700nm
102 106
107
10

Fig. 8.9 Electromagnetic spectrum.

We now describe the various regions of the electro- 2. Microwaves. They are the e.m. waves having
magnetic spectrum in the order of increasing frequency. wavele
ngths next smaller to radiow aves.
1. Radio waves. These are the e.m. waves of longest
wavele ngth and minimu m frequency. Wavelength range 0.3 m to 10- 3 m
- ----
_WaEeleni!!!_ r_a_nge 600 m to 0.1 m Frequency range 109 Hz to 1012 Hz
_!!!quencyJf!!1ge _ 500 kHz to 1000 MHz Source Oscillating currents in special
Source vacuum tubes like klystrons,
Accelerated motion of charges in con-
ducting wires or oscillating circuits. magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
-- - - - -
_I;)j_S£0__Eered!:/_ Marconi in 1895 Discovered by Marconi in 1895
Properties Reflection, diffraction Properties Reflection, refraction, diffraction
and polarisation. Due to their
Uses of radio waves : shorter wavelengths, they can
(,) In radio and television communication systems. travel as a beam in a signal.
(i1) In radioastronomy.
Uses of microw aves :
Table 8.1 Some important wireless
(1) In radar systems for aircraft navigation.
communication bonds
(ii) In long-distance communication systems via
Frequency band Service geostationary satellites.
540 - 1600 kHz Medium wave AM band (iii) In microwave ovens.
3-30M Hz Shortwave AM band
3. Infrare d waves. These radiatio ns lie close to
88-108 MHz FM broadcast the low-frequency or long-w aveleng th of the visible
54-890 MHz TV Waves spectrum. Infrared waves produce heating effect, so they
840-93 5MHz Cellular Mobile radio are also known as heat waves or tliennal radiation.
8.18 PHYSICS-XII

111c water molecules (and also CO2, NH3 molecules) 5. Ultraviolet light. This region f
0
present in different materials readily absorb infrared spectrum has wavelengths just shorte th the e
waves, increase the thermal motions and hence heat up light and can be detected just beyond th: v· an Visj~'
101
the materials and their surroundings. the solar spectrum. et end e
- - ~
' Wavcle11.~tl1 ra11~e 5 x 10-3 m to 10-6m Wavelength range 3.5 x 10-7 m to 1.5 ~;;-----..,
14
Ill
, Frcq11c11cy range 1011 Hz to 5 x 10 Hz Frequency range la1 6 Hz to 1()17 Hz ---
Source Hot bodies and molecules~ Source - - - -
High voltage gas dischar --- __ I
: Discovered by William Herschel in 1800. arcs of iron
- and _ mercu thetubes,
_ _ry, ge
Properties Heating effect, reflection, rcfr_ac- Discover~d by Ritter in 1800 ~
tion, diffraction and propagation
Properties Effect on p h o t ~ ; a ~
through fog.
rescence, ionisation, highr ate, Ouo.
_tanning of the ~u~n s?in~er&etic, I
Uses of infrared waves :
(i) In the remote control of a TV or VCR, the keypad
of which contains a small infrared transmitter. Uses of ultraviolet light :
-~
(i1) In green houses to keep the plants warm. (i) In food preservation.
(iii) In haze photography because infrared waves (ii) In the study of invisible writings forged
are less scattered than visible light by atmos- documents and finger prints. '
pheric particles. (iii) In the study of molecular structure.
(iv) Infrared lamps in the treatment of muscular The ultraviolet light in large quantities has harmful
complaints. effects on human beings. But fortunately, most f h
(v) In reading the secret writings on the ancient walls. ultraviolet light coming from the sun is absorb~d the
(v1) In knowing the molecular structure. the ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitud y
4. Visible light. It is a very small part of the e.m. about 40 - 50 km. e of
spectrum towards which the human retina is sensitive. 6. X-rays. These e.m. waves have wavelengths just
The visible light emitted or reflected from bodies shorter than ultraviolet light. As X-rays can pass
around us gives information about the world. through many forms of matter, so they have man
; ~velenxtJ, ranxe 8_x 10~7 f!l t<?_~ 10-~~-- - __ l useful medical and industrial applications. y

_Freque!_lc_y ranxe ___4_':l_(Y~Hz to 7 x la14 H_z_ _ ~] :_~avele_ngth range 100 Ato 0.1 A
--::-----------1
Source Radiated by excited atoms in I J'!qu~cy range. la1 8 Hz to 1020 Hz
ionised gas and incandescent I
bodies. _ _ _ _ _______ \ Source Sudden deceleration of fast moving I
electrons by a metal target.
!
I

Properties Reflection, refraction, interference, ·---,

I diffraction, polarisation, photo- Dis~ve.T_ed by__ Rontgen in 1895
II electric effect, photographic action,
sensation of sight.
I Properties Effect on photographic plate,
-------- ionisation of gases, photoelectric
Uses of visible light :
(1) It provides us the information of the world
around us.
L effect, fluorescence, more energetic ,
than UV rays.
- - - - ---·--· _
:
_,
Uses of X-rays :
(ii) It can cause chemical reactions. (I) In medical diagnosis because X-rays can pass
The approximate wavelength ranges for lights of through flesh but not through bones.
different colours are as follows : (ii) In the study of crystals structure because
X-rays can be reflected and diffracted by crysta1s.
Table 8.2 Visible Spectrum (iii) In engineering for detecting faults, aacks, flaws
Wavelength and holes in the finished ucts.
Colour Wavelength
range Colour (iv) In detective departments
range
Violet, indigo 4000 - 4500 A Yellow 5700 - 5900 A
diamond, gold, etc.
smugglers.
Blue 4500 - 5000 A Orange 5900 - 6200 A
(v) In radiotherapy to
Green 5000 - s100 A Red 6200 - 7500 A diseases and mall
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.19
7. Gamma rays. TI1ese are e.m. radiations of highest Uses of y-rnys :
frequency range and lowest wnvelength range. These
(i) ln radiotherapy for the treatment of malignant
are most pcnerating e.m. waves.
tumours.
- ----- ----- ---
Wnvelc11.~llr r1111ge 10 14 m to 10 10 m. (ii) In the manufacture of polyethylene from
Frcq11c11cy range 1018 Hz to 1022 Hz. ethylene.
Source Radioactive nuclei and nuclear (iii) To initiate some nuclear reactions.
reactions. Co - 60 is a pure y-ray (iv) To preserve food stuffs for a long time
source. because soft y-rays can kill micro-
l Discovered by
Properties
Henry Becqurcl in 1896
Effect on photographic plate, fluore-
organisms.
(v) To study the structure of atomic nuclei.
scence, ionisation, diffraction,
hiQl~ penetrating po~!~

Table 8.3 The electromagnetic spectrum

Frequency Wavelength I Main properties

Name
range (Hz) range I Production [Link] I and uses
Radiowavcs 10 4 to 108 >0.1 m Ropid occclerotion Receivers Different wavelengths find
and deaccelerotions aerials. specialised uses in radio
of electrons in communication.
oerials.
Microwaves I 109 to 1012 0.1 m to Klystron valve or Point contact (a) Radar communication.
I
1 mm magnetron valve. diodes. (b) Analysis of fine details of
I

molecular and atomic

I structure.
(c) Since A:: 3 x 10- 2 m, useful
for demonstration of all wave
I properties on macroscopic
- I
scale.
Infrared 1011 to 1 mm to Vibration of atoms Thermopiles (a) Useful for elucidating
5 X 1014 700 nm and molecules. Bolometer molecular structure.
Infrared (b) Less scattered than visible
photographic Light by atmospheric particles-
film. useful for haze photography .
Visible light I
4 X 1014 to 700 run to Electrons in atoms Human eye (a) Detected by stimulating
I 7 X 1014 400 run emit light when they Photocells nerve endings of human
move from one Photographic retina.
energy level to a film. (b) Can cause chemical reaction.
lower energy level.
-- -
Ultraviolet 1016 to 1017 400 run to Inner shell electrons Photocells (a) Absorbed by glass
I 1 run in atoms moving Photographic (b) Can cause many chemical
from one energy film. reactions, e.g., the tanning of
level to a lower level.
the human skin.
(c) Ionize atoms in atmosphere,
resulting in the ionosphere.
X-rays 10t6 to 1019 1 run to X-ray tubes or inner Photographic
I (a) Penetrate matter
I 10-3 run shell electrons. film, Geiger (e.g., radiography)
I tubes, Ionization (b) Ionize gases
chamber.
(c) Cause fluorescence
(d) Cause photoelectric emission
from metals.
(e) Reflected and diffracted by
crystals enabling ionic lattice
spacing and NA (or wave-
length) to be measured.
18
Gamma rays 10 to 1022 < 10-3 nm Radioactive decay of Photographic film, Similar to X-rays.
the nucleus. Geiger tubes,
Ionization chamber.
 8.20 PHYSICS-XII

r. For Y~~r Knowledge

11
► All clrctromagnetic waves travel through vacuum
Appleton layer
Kennellt I leaviside layer
Thermosphere
- Ap
~ Pr\
with the same speed. TI,ey differ basically in their %~
wavelengths or frequencies. As a result, different e.m. Mesopause
waves interact differently with matter. Mesosphere 8oklll
► TI,e e.m. waves interact with matter through their
Stralopnusc
electric and magnetic fields. TI,ese fields set into
oscillation the dmges present in the matter. The mode Stratosphere SO kill
of interaction (absorption, scattering, etc.) depends on Ozone layer
the wavelength of the e.m. wave and the nature of the 3ok111
atoms and molecules constituting the matter. IS k111
Tropopause
► The wavelength of the e.m. wave radiated by any
charge system depends on the size of that system. Troposphere 12 k111
14
Atomic nuclei radiate y-rays of wavelengths 10- to Sea
15
10- m. Heavy atoms emit X-rays. Electrons oscillating . . level
F19. 8.10 Vanous layers of earth'
in a circuit give rise to radiowaves. A transmitting s atmosph
ante1ma radiates most effectively the radiowaves of ere.
wavelength equal to the size of the antenna. 3. Mesosphere. This layer extends fro
► The infrared waves incident on a substance set into 80 km. Its upper boundary is called Ill Sok&
temperature of th1s . . mesop ··•~
oscillation all its electrons, atoms and molecules. TI,is region falls from 280 Q11se. l'I.
I< to l8Q .,
increases the internal energy and hence the 4. Ionospltere. This layer extend f
s rom 80
K
temperature of the substance. TI1at is why infrared 400 km. Its temper~ture increases with hei ~ ~
waves are also called heat waves. 180 K to 700 K. The 1onsophere is most! ght from
► Our eyes are most sensitive to the most intense wave- eIectr•ons and pos1't'1ve ions.• This ionisati y COll\1',\,._
. rv;:,ed Of
. I d. .
lengths of the solar spectrum. That is the centre of ultrav10 et ra 1ation and X-rays comm onf is cau5edh..
Th l · · g rom th vy
sensitivity of our eyes coincides with the centre of the e ower portion of the ionosphere extend· eSUit
L wavelength distribution of the solar radiation. km to 95 km is called thermosphere. The mg frorn&J
f l
o e ectrons (1.e., electron density) is found toconcentr
.
be ation
in a region beyond 110 km from the surfa vi large
8.12 EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE
which extends vertically for a few kilomcetro earth
16. Give. classification of earth's atmosphere into e es 1'1.,
1ayer of electrons is called Kennelly Heav,· 'd • ''US
. s1 e IQy
different layers. Beyond this layer, the electron density decrea er.
. . ses consi-
Earth's atmosphere. The thick envelope of air that derably until at a height of about 250 km a l
. . . . , ayer of
surrounds the earth is called earth's atmosphere. It extends e1ectrons 1s again met. This layer 1s called Appleton IQyer.
t~ about 400 km above the earth. As we go up, the air Except for the ionosphere, the rest of ~
pressure decreases gradually. Broadly, the earth's atmos- atmosphere is composed mostly of neutral molecules.
phere can be divided into the following layers or zones.
1. Troposphere. This layer extends to a height of Table 8.4 Salient features of earth's atmosphere
12 km from the earth's surface. Its upper boundary is Extent in Fall in density
called tropopause. As height increases, temperature Name of km in terms of Behaviour of
decreases from 290 K to 220 K. This layer contains a the layer above ground level temperature in
earth value the layer
large amount of water vapour and clouds are formed
in it. It is responsible for all the important wheather Troposphere 0 to 12 From Falls uniformly
phenomena that affect our environment. 1 to 10-1 from 290 Kto
220 K
2. Stratosphere. This layer extends from 12 km to
50 km and its upper boundary is called stratopause. Stratosphere 12 to 50 10-l From Rises uniformly
to 10-3 from 220 Kto
The lower portion of this layer contains a large 280 K
concentration of ozone, resulting from the dissociation
Mesosphere 50 to 80 From Falls uniformly
of molecular oxygen by solar ultraviolet radiation in 10-3 to 10-5 from 280 Kto
the upper atmosphere. This layer is called ozone layer 180 K
or ozonosphere and extends from 15 km to about Ionosphere 80 to From Rises uniformly
30 km. The temperature of stratosphere rises from 300 10-5 to 10-10 from 180 Kto
220 K to 280 K. 700 K
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.21
8.13 EFFECT OF EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ON
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Introduction
TI1e sun is the main source of the electromagnetic
Solar energy
heating earth
CO2 and other
Gases in lower
Atmosphere
J
Atmosphere reflects
Infrared rays

radiation that we receive on the earth. The atmosphere

is transparent to the visible radiation as we can see the
sun and the stars through it clear ly. However, the
other components such as infrared and ultraviolet
radiations from the sun are absorbed by different
layers of the atmosphere.
Infrared waves
radiated by earth
17. Wlrnt is Greenhouse effect for the atmosphere of
the earth and what is its importance ? Fig. 8.11 Greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse effect. Tlzis is tire phenomenon which 18. What is the importance of ozone layer in the
keeps the earth's surface warm at night. atmosphere ?
The radiation from the sun heats up the earth. Due Importance of ozone layer. The solar radiation
to its lower temperature, the earth re-radiates it mostly consists of ultraviolet and some other lower wave-
in the infrared region. TI1ese infrared radiations cannot length radiations which cause genetic damages to
pass through the lower atmosphere, they get reflected living cells. The ozone layer absorbs these radiations
back by gas molecules. Low lying clouds also reflect from the sun and prevent them from reaching the
them back to the earth. These radiations heat up the ~arth's surface and causing damage to life. Moreover,
objects on the earth's surface and so keep the earth's it also keeps the earth warm by trapping infrared
surface warm at night. radiation.

Very Short Answer Conceptual Problems~

--· ~

Problem 1. What is displacement current due to? Problem 4. If you find closed loops of Bin a region in
Solution. Displacement current exists due to a space, does it necessarily mean that actual charges. are
time-varying electric field or changing electric flux. flowing across the area bounded by the loops ?
Problem 2. Is the steady electric current the only Solution. Not necessarily. A displacement current
source of magnetic field ? Justify your answer. (such as that between the plates of a capacitor that is being
[CBSE D 13C) charged) can also produce loops of B, where charges do
Solution. No, displacement current also produces a not flow actually.
magnetic field between the capacitor plates. Problem 5. A variable frequency a.c. source is
Problem 3. A capacitor of capacitance C, is being connected to a capacitor. How will the displacement
charged up by connecting it across a d.c. voltage source current change with decrease in frequency ?
of voltage V. How do the conduction and displacement [Exemplar Problem ; CBSE OD lSC, 20]
currents, in this set-up compare with each other Solution. With the decrease in frequency, the
(a) during the charging up process ? 1 .
reactance Xc = - - mcreases.
(b) after the capacitor gets fully charged? 2nfC
[CBSE D 13] This decreases conduction current. As ID = le, the
Solution. By the property of continuity, displacement current will also decrease.
(a) Conduction current
Problem 6. Why is the quantity £ d <P!: called the
=Displacement current 0
dt
=anon-zero value, during the charging up process. displacement current ?
(b) Conduction current Solution. This is because the quantity £o d~E I dt has
=Displacement current the dimensions of current and this current exists due to
=0, after the capacitor gets fully charged. displacement of charges across the capacitor plates.