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■' f-. '

#
LINEAR
CIRCUITS
TIME DOMAIN, PHASOR, AND LAPLACE
TRANSrORM APPROACHES

THIRD EDITION

Raymond A. DeCarlo
Purdue University

Pen-Min Lin
Purdue University

Kendall Hunt
p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y
 o

n
o

Cover image (^^J^ikiaui ^ Used under license from Shutterstock, Inc.

Kendall Hunft
p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y

www.kendallhunt.cpm
Send all inquiries to:
4050 Westmark Drive
Dubuque, lA 52004-1840

Copyright © 2001, 2009 Raymond A. DeCarlo and Pen-Min Lin

Copyright © 1995 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ISBN 978-0-7575-6499-4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
r^
without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

O
TABLE OF CO N TEN TS

Preface......................................................................................................................................................................vii

Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and Ohm’s Law ............................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 • Kirchhoff’s Current & Voltage Laws and Series-Parallel Resistive C ircu its..............51

Chapter 3 • Nodal and Loop Analyses....................................................................................................... 107

Chapter 4 • T he Operational Amplifier..................................................................................................... 155

Chapter 5 * Linearity, Superposition, and Source Transform ation................................................... 191

Chapter 6 • Thevenin, Norton, and Maximum Power Transfer Theorems.................................... 227

Chapter 7 • Inductors and C apacitors....................................................................................................... 269

Chapter 8 • First Order RL and RC Circuits...........................................................................................321

Chapter 9 • Second Order Linear Circuits................................................................................................379

Chapter 10 • Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis by Phasor Methods .................................................431

Chapter 11 • Sinusoidal State State Power Calculations.......................................................................499

Chapter 12 • Laplace Transform Analysis L Basics................................................................................. 543

Chapter 13 • Laplace Transform Analysis II: Circuit Applications................................................... 603

Chapter 14 • Laplace Transform Analysis III; Transfer Function Applications.............................683

Chapter 15 * Time Domain Circuit Response Computations: The Convolution M ethod...... 763

Chapter 16 • Band-Pass Circuits and Resonance....................................................................................811

Chapter 17 * Magnetically Coupled Circuits and Transformers........................................................ 883

Chapter 18 • Tw o-Ports...................................................................................................................................959

Chapter 19 • Principles o f Basic Filtering ............................................................................................. 1031

Chapter 20 • Brief Introduction to Fourier Series .............................................................................. 1085

In d ex................................................................................................................................................................... 1119
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PREFACE

For the last several decades, EE/ECE departments o f US universities have typically required two
semesters o f linear circuits during the sophomore year for EE majors and one semester for other
engineering majors. Over the same time period discrete time system concepts and computer engi­
neering principles have become required fare for EE undergraduates. Thus we continue to use
Laplace transforms as a vehicle for understanding basic concepts such as impedance, admittance,
fdtering, and magnetic circuits. Further, software programs such as PSpice, MATLAB and its tool­
boxes, Mathematica, Maple, and a host o f other tools have streamlined the computational drudg­
ery o f engineering analysis and design. MATLAB remains a working tool in this 3'''^ edition o f
Linear Circuits.

In addition to a continuing extensive use o f MATLAB, we have removed much o f the more com­
plex material from the book and rewritten much o f the remaining book in an attempt to make the
text and the examples more illustrative and accessible. More importantly, many o f the more diffi­
cult homework exercises have been replaced with more routine problems often with numerical
answers or checks.

Our hope is that we have made the text more readable and understandable by today’s engineering
undergraduates.
C H A P T E R

Charge, Current, Voltage

and Ohm’s Law

CHAPTER O U TLIN E

1. Role and Importance o f Circuits in Engineering

2. Charge and Current
3. Voltage
4. Circuit Elements
5. Voltage, Current, Power, Energy, Relationships
6. Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
7. Resistance, Ohm’s Law, and Power (a Reprise)
8. V-I Characteristics o f Ideal Resistors, Constant Voltage, and
Constant Current Sources
Summary
Terms and Concepts
Problems

CHAPTER O B jEC TIV ES

1. Introduce and investigate three basic electrical quantities: charge, current, and voltage,
and the conventions for their reference directions.
2. Define a two-terminal circuit element.
3. Define and investigate power and energy conversion in electric circuits, and demonstrate
that these quantities are conserved.
4. Define independent and dependent voltage and current sources that act as energy or sig­
nal generators in a circuit.
5. Define Ohm’s law, v{t) = R i{t), for a resistor with resistance R.
6. Investigate power dissipation in a resistor.
7. Classify memoryless circuit elements by dieir terminal voltage-current relationships.
8. Explain the difference between a device and its circuit model.
 ch ap ter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

1. ROLE AND IM PORTANCE OF CIRCUITS IN ENGINEERING

Are you curious about how fuses blow? About the meaning o f different wattages on Hght bulbs?
About the heating elements in an oven? And how is the presence o f your car sensed at a stoplight?
Circuit theory, the focus o f this text, provides answers to all these questions.

W hen you learn basic circuit theory, you learn how to harness the power o f electricity, as is done,
for example, in
• an electric motor that runs the compressor in an air conditioner or the pump in a dish­
washer;
• a microwave oven;
• a radio, TV, or stereo;
• an iPod;
• a car heater.

In this text, we define and analyze common circuit elements and describe their interaction. Our
aim is to create a modular framework for analyzing circuit behavior, while simultaneously devel­
oping a set o f tools essential for circuit design. These skills are, o f course, crucial to every electri­
cal engineer. But they also have broad applicability in other fields. For instance, disciplines such
as bioengineering and mechanical engineering have similar patterns o f analysis and often utilize
circuit analogies.

W H A T IS A C IR C U IT ?

A circuit is an energy or signal/information processor. Each circuit consists o f interconnections o f

“simple” circuit elements, or devices. Each circuit element can, in turn, be thought o f as an ener­
gy or signal/information processor. For example, a circuit element called a “source” produces a
voltage or a current signal. This signal may serve as a power source for the circuit, or it may rep­
resent information. Information in the form o f voltage or current signals can be processed by the
circuit to produce new signals or new/different information. In a radio transmitter, electricity
powers the circuits that convert pictures, voices, or music (that is, information) into electromag­
netic energy. This energy then radi­
ates into the atmosphere or into
space from a transmitting antenna.
A satellite in space can pick up this
electromagnetic energy and trans­
mit it to locations all over the
world. Similarly, a T V reception
antenna or a satellite dish can pick
up and direct this energy to a T V
set. T h e T V contains circuits
(Figure 1.1) that reconvert the
information within the received
signal back into pictures with
sound. FIG U RE 1.1 Cathode ray tube with surrounding circuitry for
converting electrical signals into pictures.
Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

2. CH A RGE AND CU RREN T

CH A R G E

Charge is an electrical property o f matter. Matter consists o f atoms. Roughly speaking, an atom
contains a nucleus that is made up o f positively charged protons and neutrons (which have no
charge). T he nucleus is surrounded by a cloud o f negatively charged electrons. Th e accumulated
charge on 6.2415 x 10’^ electrons equals -1 coulomb (C). Thus, the charge on an electron is
-1 .6 0 2 1 7 6 X 10-19 C.

Particles with opposite charges attract each other, whereas those with similar charges repel. The
force o f attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is inversely proportional to the square
o f the distance between them, assuming the dimensions o f the bodies are very small compared
with the distance o f separation. Two equally charged particles 1 meter (m) apart in free space have
charges o f 1 C each if they repel each other with a force o f 10“^ c^ Newtons (N), where c = 3 x
10^ m/s is the speed o f light, by definition. The force is attractive if the particles have opposite
charges. Notationally, Q will denote a fixed charge, and q or q{t), a time-varying charge.

Exercise. How many electrons have a combined charge o f -5 3 .4 0 6 x 10 C?

AN SW ER; 333,3 9 1 ,5 9 7

Exercise. Sketch the time-dependent charge profile q{t) = 3 (l-^ ^ 0 C, ? > 0, present on a metal
plate. M ATLAB is a good tool for such sketches.

A conductor refers to a material in which electrons can move to neighboring atoms with relative
ease. Metals, carbon, and acids are common conductors. Copper wire is probably the most com­
mon conductor. An ideal conductor offers zero resistance to electron movement. Wires are
assumed to be ideal conductors, unless otherwise indicated.

Insulators oppose electron movement. Common insulators include dry air, dry wood, ceramic,
glass, and plastic. An ideal insulator offers infinite opposition to electron movement.

C U R R EN T

Current refers to the net flow o f charge across any cross section o f a conductor. T he net move­
ment o f 1 coulomb (1 C) o f charge through a cross section o f a conductor in 1 second (1 sec)
produces an electric current o f 1 ampere (1 A). The ampere is the basic unit o f electric current
and equals 1 C/s.

The direction o f current flow is taken by convention as opposite to the direction o f electron flow,
as illustrated in Figure 1.2. This is because early in the history o f electricity, scientists erroneously
believed that current was the movement o f only positive charges, as illustrated in Figure 1.3. In
metallic conductors, current consists solely o f the movement o f electrons. However, as our under­
standing o f device physics advanced, scientists learned that in ionized gases, in electrolytic solu­
 c h ap ter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

tions, and in some semiconductor materials, movement o f positive charges constitutes part or all
o f the total current flow.

One Ampere
of Current "

One ; ; Cloud o f \
se co n d ^ ....... |---- 6.24x10’® 1
later i ; k electrons J
Boundary

FIG U RE 1.2 A cloud o f negative charge moves past a cross section of an ideal conductor from right
to left. By convention, the positive current direction is taken as left to right.

One Ampere
of Current

One
Coulom b One
of positive 'second
charge later

Boundary

FIGURE 1.3 In the late nineteenth cenmry, current was thought to be the movement of a positive charge
past a cross section of a conduaor, giving rise to the conventional reference “direction of positive current flow.”

Both Figures 1.2 and 1.3 depict a current o f 1 A flowing from left to right. In circuit analysis, we
do not distinguish between these two cases: each is represented symbolically, as in Figure 1.4(a).
The arrowhead serves as a reference for determining the true direction o f the current. A positive
value o f current means the current flows in the same direction as the arrow. A current o f negative
value implies flow is in the opposite direction o f the arrow. For example, in both Figures 1.4a and
b, a current o f 1 A flows from left to right.

1A -1A

> <
(a) (b)
FIG U RE 1.4 1 A of current flows from left to right through a general circuit element.
Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

In Figure 1.4, the current is constant. The wall socket in a typical home is a source o f alternating
current, which changes its sign periodically, as we will describe shortly. In addition, a current direc­
tion may not be known a priori. These situations require the notion o f a negative current.

E X A M P L E 1.1.
Figure 1.5 shows a slab o f material in which the following is true:
1. Positive charge carriers move from left to right at the rate o f 0.2 C/s.
2. Negative charge carriers move from right to left at the rate o f 0.48 C/s.

Given these conditions,

a) Find and /^;
b) Describe the charge movement on the wire at the boundaries A and B.

A B
1 , © o
Connecting — 0 © 0 Connecting
wire wire
Sem iconductor iVlaterial

F IG U R E 1.5 Material through which positive and negative charges move.

S o lu tio n
a) The current from left to right, due to the movement o f the positive charges, is 0.2 A. The
current from left to right, due to the movement o f the negative charges, is 0.48 A.
Therefore, /^, the total current from left to right, is 0.2 + 0.48 = 0.68 A. Since ly is the
current from right to left, its value is then -0 .6 8 A.

b) T he wire is a metallic conductor in which only electrons move. Therefore, at boundaries

A and B, negative charges (carried by electrons) move from right to left at the rate o f 0.68
C/s.

Exercise. In Example 1.1, suppose positive-charge carriers move from right to left at the rate o f 0.5
C/s, and negative carriers move from left to right at the rate o f 0.4 C/s. Find and
AN SW ER: /, = - 0 .9 A; ^ = 0.9 A

If a net charge crosses a boundary in a short time frame o f At (in seconds), then the approxi­
mate current flow is
Aq
/=
At
( 1 . 1)

where I, in this case, is a constant. The instantaneous (time-dependent) current flow is the limit­
ing case o f Equation 1.1, i.e.,
 Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

dq{t)
dt
( 1. 2)

Here q{t) is the amount o f charge that has crossed the boundary in the time interval [tQ, t] . The
equivalent integral counterpart o f Equation 1.2 is

q{t) = J i{r)dr
(1.3)

E X A M P L E 1.2
The charge crossing a boundary in a wire is given in Figure 1.6(a) for ? > 0. Plot the current i{t)
through the wire.

(a)

(b)

FIG U RE 1.6 (a) Charge crossing a hypothetical boundary; (b) current flow
associated with the charge plot o f (a).
Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

S o lutio n
As per Equation 1.2, the current is the time derivative o f q{t). The slopes o f the straight-Une seg­
ments o f q{f} in Figure 1.6(a) determine the piecewise constant current plotted in Figure 1.6(b).

■ ■ • • l-cos(co?)
Exercise. The charge crossing a boundary in a wire varies as q[t) = ---------------- C, for t >Q.
Compute the current flow.
A N SW ER: sin(cof) A, for f > 0

Exercise. Repeat the preceding exercise if q{t) = 5e C, for t > 0 .

A N SW ER: A, for f > 0

E X A M PLE 1.3
Find q{t), the charge transported through a cross section o f a conductor over [0, f], and also the total
charge Q transported, if the current dirough the conductor is given by die waveform o f Figure 1.7(a).

-l-*-t(se c)

FIG U RE 1.7 (a) Square-wave current signal; (b) q{t) equal to the integral of i{t) given in (a).
 Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

S o lutio n
From Equation 1.3, for t>Q,

q{t)=p{T)clT

Thus, q{t) is the running area under the i{t) versus t curve. Since i{t) is piecevv'ise constant, the
integral is piecewise linear because the area either increases or decreases linearly with time, as
shown in Figure 1.7(b). Since q{t) is constant for ^ > 3, the total charge transported is Q = q{5) =
3 C.

Exercise. If the current flow through a cross section o f conductor is i{t) = cos(120jtf) A for ? > 0
and 0 otherwise, find q{t) for t>Qi.

AN SW ER: q{t) C for r > 0

‘ 120jt

Exercise. Suppose the current through a cross section o f conductor is given in Figure 1.8. Find
q{t) for t > 0 .

FIGURE 1.8

AN SW ER; q(t) = C for 0 < 1; q{t) = IC for r > I

T Y P ES OF C U R R EN T

There are two very important current types: direct current (do) and alternating current (ac).
Constant current (i.e., dqldt = / is constant) is called direct current, which is illustrated graphi­
cally m Figure 1.9(a). Figure 1.9(b) shows an alternating current, generally meaning a sinusoidal
waveform, i.e., current o f the form y4sin(w? + ()>), where A is the peak magnitude, co is the angu­
lar frequency, and (|) is the phase angle o f the sine wave. W ith alternating current, the instanta­
neous value o f the waveform changes periodically through negative and positive values, i.e., the
ch a p ter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O h m s Law

direction o f the current flow changes regularly as indicated by the + and - values in Figure 1.9(b).
Household current is ac.

Lastly, Figure 1.9(c) shows a current that is neither dc nor ac, but that nevertheless will appear in
later circuit analyses. There are many other types o f waveforms. Interestingly, currents inside com­
puters, C D players, TV s, and other entertainment devices are typically neither dc nor ac.

i(t) (A)

t(sec)
-H ----------------------1 - -I-----►
3

(a)

F IG U R E 1.9 (a) Direct current, or dc; i{t) = Iq\ (b) alternating current, or ac;

i{t) = 1 2 0-^ sin (1 2 0 ?) A; (c) neither ac nor dc.

 10 Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law

Because the value o f an ac waveform changes with time, ac is measured in different ways. Suppose
the instantaneous value o f the current at time t is A!sin(ci)i- + (j>). The term peak value refers to K
in K sin(co? + (j)). The peak-to-peak value is 2K. Another measure o f the alternating current,
indicative o f its heating effect, is the root mean square (rms), or effective value. The rms or effec­
tive value is related to the peak value by the formula

rms = X peak-value = Q .lO llK (i.4)

A derivation o f Equation 1.4 with an explanation o f its meaning will be given in Chapter 11.

A special instrument called an ammeter measures current. Some ammeters read the peak value,
whereas some others read the rms value. One type o f ammeter, based on the interaction between
the current and a permanent magnet, reads the average value o f a current. From calculus, Fave!
the average value o f any function y(^), over the time interval [0, 7] is given by

(1.5)

For a general ac waveform, the average value is zero. However, ac signals are often rectified, i.e.,
converted to their absolute values, in power-supply circuits. For such circuits, the average value o f
the rectified signal is important. From Equation 1.5, the average value o f the absolute value o f an
ac waveform over one complete cycle with T = 2jt/co, is

K ^ 2.K
Average Value = —^\s,m{wt)\dt = ----- J sin(cot)clt
0 ^ 0
0.5T
2K -cos{(ot) 2,K
— = 0.636K
T (O jt ( 1.6)

i.e., 0 .636 X peak value.

Exercise. Suppose i{t) - 169.7 sin(50jtr) A. Find the peak value, the peak-to-peak value, the rms
value o f i{t), and the average value o f
AN SW ER: 169.7, 339.4, 120, and 107.93 A, respectively

3. VO LTAG E

W hat causes current to flow? An analogous question might be. W hat causes water to flow in a pipe
or a hose? W ithout pressure from either a pump or gravity, water in a pipe is still. Pressure from
a water tower, a pressured bug sprayer tank, or a pump on a fire truck will force water flow In
electrical circuits, the “pressure” that forces electrons to flow, i.e., produces a current in a wire or
a device, is called voltage. Strictly speaking, water flows from a point o f higher pressure— say,
p o in ts — to a point o f lower pressure— say, point 5 — along a pipe. Between the two points and
B, there is said to be a pressure drop. In electrical circuits, a voltage drop from point A to point B
Chapter 1 • Charge, Current, Voltage and O hm ’s Law 11

along a conductor will force current to flow from point A to point B; there is said to be a voltage
drop from point A to point B in such cases.

Gravity forces the water to flow from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. An analogous phe­
nomenon occurs in an electric field, as illustrated in Figure 1.10(a). Figure 1.10(a) shows two con­
ducting plates separated by a vacuum. O n the top plate is a fixed amount o f positive static charge.
On the bottom plate is an equal amount o f negative static charge. Suppose a small positive charge
were placed between the plates. This small charge would experience a force directed toward the
negatively charged bottom plate. Part o f the force is due to repulsion by the positive charges on
the top plate, and part is due to the attraction by the negative charges on the bottom plate. This
repulsion and attraction marks the presence o f an electric field produced by the opposite sets o f
static charges on the plates.

The electric field indicated in Figure 1.10 sets up an “electric pressure” or voltage drop from the
top plate to the bottom plate, which forces positive charges to flow “downhill” in the way that
water flows from a water tower to your faucet. Unlike water flow, negative charges are forced
“uphill” from the negatively charged bottom plate to the positively charged top plate. As men­
tioned in the previous section, this constitutes a net current flow caused by the bilateral flow o f
positive and negative charges. The point is that current flow is induced by an electric pressure
called a voltage drop.

© © © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©
A 0 Positive A Force on
charge, q negative
charge
Electric Field Force on Electric Field

charge q Negative
B B © charge,-q

© © © 0 © © © © © © © © © © © ©

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.10 (a) Positive charge in a (uniform) electric field; (b) negative charge in a uniform elearic field.

As mentioned, in Figure 1.10, the positive charge ^ at ^ tends to move toward B. We say, quali­
tatively, that point A in the electric field is at a higher potential than point B. Equivalently, point
5 is at a lower potential than point A. An analogy is now evident: a positive charge in an electric
field “falls” from a higher potential point to a lower potential point, just as a ball falls from a high­
er elevation to a lower elevation in a gravitational field.

Note, however, that if we turn the whole setup o f Figure 1.10(a) upside down, the positive charge
q still moves from point A to point B, an upward spatial movement. Similarly, if a negative charge
- q is placed at B, as in Figure 1.10(b), then the negative charge experiences an upward-pulling
force, moving from the lower potential, point B, to the higher potential, point A.
 n
12 Chapter 1 ® Charge, Current, Voltage and Ohms Law —

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ^ n
Again, consider Figure 1. 10(a). As the charge q moves from point ^ toward B, it picks up veloci­
ty and gains kinetic energy. Just before q hits the bottom plate, the kinetic energy gained equals
the (constant) force acting on q multiplied by the distance traveled in the direction o f the force. The
kinetic energy is proportional to q and to the “distance traveled.” Therefore,

energy converted = kinetic energy gained oc q

n

The missing proportionality constant in this relationship is defined as the potential difference or
voltage between A and B, The term “voltage” is synonymous with “potential difference.”
Mathematically,
, . , energy converted
voltage = potential difference = ( 1.8)
magnitude of charge

The standard unit for measuring potential difference or voltage is the volt (V). According to
Equation 1.8, i f 1 joule {]) o f energy is convertedfrom one form to another when moving 1 C o f charge
from point K to point B, then the potential difference, or voltage, between A and B w i VTIn equation
form, with standard units of V, J, and C, we have
O
1V = 1 ^ (1.9)

The use of terms such as “elevation diflFerence,” “energy converted,” “potential difference,” or
“voltage” implies that they all have positive values. If the word “difference” is changed to “drop”
(or to “rise”), then potential drop and elevation drop have either positive or negative values, as the
case may be. The following four statements illustrate this point in the context of Figure 1.10:

The voltage between (or across) A a n d 5 is 2 V.

{ The voltage between (or across) B and A is 2 V.
' The voltage drop from A to B is 2W.
•The voltage drop from B to A Is - 2 V.

. . . . ’ ^
This discussion describes the phenomena of “voltage.” Voltage causes current flow. But what pro­
duces voltage or electric pressure? Voltage can be generated by chemical action, as in batteries. In
a battery, chemical action causes an excess of positive charge to reside at a terminal marked with
a plus sign and an equal amount of negative charge to reside at a terminal marked with a negative
sign. When a device such as a headlight is connected between the terminals, the voltage causes a
current to flow through the headlight, heating up the tiny wire and making it “Ught up.” Another
source of voltage/current is an electric generator in which mechanical energy used to rotate the ^
shaft of the generator is converted to electrical energy using properties of electro-magnetic fields.

All types of circuit analysis require knowledge of the potential difference between two points, say ^
A and B, and specifically whether point A or point 5 is at a higher potential. To this end, we speak ^
of the voltage drop from point A to point B, conveniently denoted by a double-subscript, as Vj^.
If the value of is positive, then point ^ is at a higher potential than point B. On the other
hand, if is negative, then point 5 is at a higher potential than point A. Since stands for
the voltage drop from point B to point A,
o

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