Introduction to memory and memory units

Last Updated : 13 Jan, 2025

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Memory is required to save data and instructions. Memory is divided

into cells, and they are stored in the storage space present in the
computer. Every cell has its unique location/address. Memory is very
essential for a computer as this is the way it becomes somewhat
more similar to a human brain. In this article, we are going to
discuss memory and memory units in detail.
What is Memory?
Memory devices are digital systems that store data either
temporarily or for a long term. Digital computers to hard disks have
built-in memory devices that can store the data of users or
manufacturers. The data either be in the form of control programs
or programs that boot the system. Hence, to store such a huge
amount of data the memory devices must have enormous capacity.
The challenge is to build memory devices that have large capacities
but are cost-effective. The memory devices must be capable of
storing both permanent data and instantaneous data.
Memories are made up of registers. Each register in the memory is
one storage location. The storage location is also called a memory
location. Memory locations are identified using Address. The total
number of bits a memory can store is its capacity. A storage
element is called a Cell. Each register is made up of a storage
element in which one bit of data is stored.
The data in a memory are stored and retrieved by the process
called writing and reading respectively.
 Memory Hierarchy Design and its
Characteristics
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In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an

enhancement to organize the memory such that it can minimize the
access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a
program behavior known as locality of references (same data or
nearby data is likely to be accessed again and again). The figure
below clearly demonstrates the different levels of the memory
hierarchy.
Why Memory Hierarchy is Required in the
System?
Memory Hierarchy helps in optimizing the memory available in the
computer. There are multiple levels present in the memory, each
one having a different size, different cost, etc. Some types of
memory like cache, and main memory are faster as compared to
other types of memory but they are having a little less size and are
also costly whereas some memory has a little higher storage value,
but they are a little slower. Accessing of data is not similar in all
types of memory, some have faster access whereas some have
slower access.
Types of Memory Hierarchy
This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:
 External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of
Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral
storage devices which are accessible by the processor via an I/O
Module.
 Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main
Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers. This is directly
accessible by the processor.
Memory Hierarchy Design
1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU.
They are used to store the most frequently used data and
instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the smallest
storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the
CPU. It stores frequently used data and instructions that have been
recently accessed from the main memory. Cache memory is
designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing
the CPU with quick access to frequently used data.
3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the
primary memory of a computer system. It has a larger storage
capacity than cache memory, but it is slower. Main memory is used
to store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.
Types of Main Memory
 Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops
and information remains valid until power is supplied. Static
RAM has a faster access time and is used in implementing cache
memory.
 Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on
the capacitor. It requires refreshing circuitry to maintain the
charge on the capacitors after a few milliseconds. It contains
more memory cells per unit area as compared to SRAM.
read more about – Different Types of RAM (Random Access Memory)
4. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state
drives (SSD) , is a non-volatile memory unit that has a larger storage
capacity than main memory. It is used to store data and instructions
that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the
slowest access time and is typically the least expensive type of
memory in the memory hierarchy.
5. Magnetic Disk
Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with
either a metal or a plastic or a magnetized material. The Magnetic
disks work at a high speed inside the computer and these are
frequently used.
6. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered
with a plastic film. Magnetic Tape is generally used for the backup of
data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a computer
is a little slower and therefore, it requires some amount of time for
accessing the strip.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
 Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can
store. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the
capacity increases.
 Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write
request and the availability of the data. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
 Performance: The Memory Hierarch design ensures that
frequently accessed data is stored in faster memory to improve
system performance.
 Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy,
the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal Memory is costlier than
External Memory.
System-Supported Memory Standards
According to the memory Hierarchy, the system-supported memory
standards are defined below:

Advantages of Memory Hierarchy

 Performance: Frequently used data is stored in faster memory
(like cache), reducing access time and improving overall system
performance.
 Cost Efficiency: By combining small, fast memory (like registers
and cache) with larger, slower memory (like RAM and HDD), the
system achieves a balance between cost and performance. It
saves the consumer’s price and time.
 Optimized Resource Utilization: Combines the benefits of
small, fast memory and large, cost-effective storage to maximize
system performance.
 Efficient Data Management: Frequently accessed data is kept
closer to the CPU, while less frequently used data is stored in
larger, slower memory, ensuring efficient data handling.
Disadvantages of Memory Hierarchy
 Complex Design: Managing and coordinating data across
different levels of the hierarchy adds complexity to the system’s
design and operation.
 Cost: Faster memory components like registers and cache are
expensive, limiting their size and increasing the overall cost of
the system.
 Latency: Accessing data stored in slower memory (like
secondary or tertiary storage) increases the latency and reduces
system performance.
 Maintenance Overhead: Managing and maintaining different
types of memory adds overhead in terms of hardware and
software.
Memory Hierarchy Design and its
Characteristics – FAQs
What do you mean by Memory Hierarchy?
Memory Hierarchy can be simply illustrated as the organization of
the memory for saving the access time. Because of the nicely
written codes or program, memory hierarchy works well. It takes
less time in accessing at the current level.
Explain the types of Memory Hierarchy.
Here are the some types of the Memory Hierarchy:
 External Memory or Secondary Memory
 Internal Memory or Primary Memory

How does Memory Hierarchy improve performance?

By storing frequently accessed data in faster memory (like cache or
registers), it reduces access time and speeds up data retrieval for
the CPU.
Why is slower memory used in the hierarchy?
Slower memory, like HDD or SSD, is used because it is cheaper and
provides large storage capacities, making it ideal for storing bulk
data that is not frequently accessed.
 A word is a group of bits where a memory unit stores binary
information. A word with a group of 8 bits is called a byte.
 A memory unit consists of data lines, address selection lines, and
control lines that specify the direction of transfer.
The block diagram of a memory unit is shown below:
Data lines provide the information to be stored in memory. The
control inputs specify the direct transfer. The k-address lines specify
the word chosen.
When there are k address lines, 2k memory words can be accessed.
Types of Computer Memory
 Cache Memory: This temporary storage area, known as a cache,
is more readily available to the processor than the computer’s
main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it is
typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a
separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.
 RAM: It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously
known as Read Write Memory. Random Access memory is present
on the motherboard and the computer’s data is temporarily
stored in RAM. As the name says, RAM can help in both Read and
write.
 D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors
and stores the data as a charge on the capacitors. They contain
thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of charge on
capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S
RAM.
 S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of
this memory are capable of retaining their state as long as the
power is applied. This memory consists of the number of flip flops
with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence,
it is faster.
 ROM: ROM full form is Read Only Memory. ROM is a non volatile
memory and it is used to store important information which is
used to operate the system. We can only read the programs and
data stored on it and can not modify of delete it.
 MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-
programmed collection of data or instructions were the first
ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works in
this way.
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only
memory is modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a
blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required
contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): EPROM is an extension to PROM where you can erase
the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40
minutes.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): Here the written contents can be erased electrically.
You can delete and reprogram EEPROM up to 10,000 times.
Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -
10ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM can be wiped and
programmed selectively.
 Virtual memory: A memory management technique where
secondary memory can be used as if it were a part of the main
memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable a
computer to compensate for physical memory shortages by
temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.
What is Primary Memory?
It is also referred to as main memory or internal memory. It is a
computer system’s temporary storage component which is directly
accessible by the central processing unit (CPU). It houses data for
immediate processing.
Characteristics
 volatile: Data is lost upon power loss.
 High-speed access.
 Limited capacity relative to secondary storage.
 Examples: Random Access Memory(RAM), Read-Only Memory,
Cache memory.
Advantages
 High-speed access: Data can be retrieved and stored very
quickly.
 Directly accessible by CPU: No intermediate steps are required
for data transfer.
Disadvantages
 Volatile: Data is lost when power is turned off.
 Limited storage capacity: compared to secondary storage,
primary memory is relatively small.
 Expensive: Cost per unit is higher than secondary storage.
Different Applications of Primary Memory are:
 Temporary storage
 Multitasking
 Buffering
 Caching
What is Secondary Memory?
Secondary memory or external memory serves as long-term storge
for data and programs. Unlike primary memory, it is not directly
accessible by the CPU and requires input/output operations.
Characteristics
 Non-volatile: Data persists even when the system is powered off.
 slower access speeds compared to primary memory.
 High storage capacity.
 Examples: Hard Disk Drives(HDD), Solid-State Drives(SSD),
Optical drives(CD, DVD, Blu-ray).
Advantages
 Non-volatile: Data persists even when the power is turned off.
 Large storage capacity: can store vast amount of data.
 Relatively Inexpensive: cost-effective for storing large volumes
of data.
Disadvantages
 Slower access time: Data retrieval is slower compared to
primary memory.
 Requires input/output operations: Data transfer involves
additional steps.
Different Applications of Primary Memory are:
 Long-term storage
 Operating system installation
 Software installation
 Data backup
 Media storage
read more about – Difference between Primary and
Secondary Memory
Units of Memory
Memory units are used to measure the size and represent data.
Some of the commonly used memory units are:
1. Bit
The first memory location in a computer is bit. The smallest
measurement unit for data held in primary memory and storage
devices is a bit. Out of the binary values 0 and 1, a bit can only have
one.
 The smallest measurement unit for data in primary memory and
storage devices.
 Represents binary values 0 and 1.
2. Nibble
 It means the group of 4 bits.
3. Word
It is a fixed number of bits, it is different from computer to
computer, but the same for each device. Compute store information
in the form of words.
 A fixed number of bits that varies across computers but remains
consistent within each device.
 Used to store information in computers.
4. Bytes
The fundamental unit used to measure data is the byte. It has 8 bits
in it. A byte can therefore represent 2 * 8 or 256 values. They
determine the size of files, documents, photos, and other kinds of
data.
 The fundamental unit for measuring data, consisting of 8 bits.
 Represents 256 values and determines file, document, photo, and
data sizes.
5. Kilobyte
1024 bytes is equal to one kilobyte. It is widely used to denote small
file sizes and data storage capacities. One kilobyte can hold a small
image or around 1024 characters of text. It frequently shows up in
text documents, spreadsheets, and small image files.
 Equal to 1024 bytes.
 Denotes small file sizes and storage capacities.
 Can hold small images or around 1024 characters of text.
6. Megabyte
A megabyte is 1024 kilobytes in size. It contains more info as
compared to a kilobyte. A megabyte can hold longer texts, high-
resolution images, and short audio clips. It is used to calculate the
size of files comprising music and short films, software packages,
and documents. Megabytes are still important and frequently used,
even though larger units of measurement are being used more
frequently as a result of the growing number of data files.
 Comprising 1024 kilobytes.
 Contains more information compared to a kilobyte.
 Holds longer texts, high-resolution images, and short audio clips.
 Measures file sizes of music, short films, software packages, and
documents.
7. Gigabyte
1024 megabytes is equal to one gigabyte. It has a substantial
amount of data storage space. Larger files, such full photo albums,
high-definition movies, and software programs can fit within a
gigabit. The storage capabilities of hard drives, solid-state drives,
and other forms of data storage devices are routinely assessed
utilizing this technique.
 Equal to 1024 megabytes.
 Offers substantial data storage space.
 Suitable for larger files, such as full photo albums, high-definition
movies, and software programs.
8. Terabyte
A terabyte is made up of 1024 gigabytes. It has a substantial
amount of data storing capacity. A terabyte can hold a lot of data in
large databases, massive media collections, and enterprise-level
storage systems. It is frequently used by data centers, cloud
storage services, and external hard drives with large storage
capacities. As the demand for large-scale data processing and
storage grows, terabytes are becoming more and more important.
 Comprising 1024 gigabytes.
 Provides substantial data storing capacity.
 Holds large databases, media collections, and enterprise-level
storage systems.
9. Petabyte
A petabyte is a colossal unit of data storage capacity. A petabyte
may hold massive amounts of data, including significant video
libraries, sizable databases, and sizable collections of high-
resolution pictures. It is often used in data centers, cloud storage,
and scientific research that uses a lot of data.
 A colossal unit of data storage capacity.
 Stores massive data quantities, like video libraries and large
databases.
10. Exabyte (1024 petabytes)
An exabyte is equal to one EB. It has a substantial amount of data
storage space. Exabytes can store vast film archives, massive data
warehouses, and global internet traffic. It is extensively used in
large-scale scientific simulations, cloud computing infrastructures,
and enterprise-level storage systems.
 Equal to 1024 petabytes.
 Holds vast film archives, data warehouses, and global internet
traffic.
11. Zettabyte (1024 exabytes)
A zettabyte. It represents a capacity for data storage that is almost
unimaginable. Zettabytes have the capacity to store unfathomably
large amounts of data, including worldwide internet content, long-
term archival storage, and in-depth global data analysis.
 Represents an almost unimaginable data storage capacity.
 Stores worldwide internet content, long-term archival data, and
extensive global analysis.
12. Yottabyte
1024 zettabytes make up a yottabyte (abbreviated YB). It stands for
an incredible amount of data storage. Unimaginable amounts of
data, such as the equivalent of storing all of the material on the
internet numerous times or tracking vast amounts, may be stored in
yottabytes.
 Comprising 1024 zettabytes.
 Stands for an incredible amount of data storage.
 Can hold vast amounts equivalent to storing internet content
numerous times.
Functions of Memory Unit
The memory unit of a computer has several functions:
 Stores Data and Instructions: The memory unit stores data
and instructions needed by the CPU to perform tasks efficiently.
This includes data related to operations to be performed and data
related to the program.
 Tracks Interim Results: The memory unit keeps track of the
interim results of processing.
 Saves Final Results: The memory unit saves the final
processing results before sending them to an output device.
 Receives And Transmits Inputs And Outputs: The memory
unit receives and transmits all inputs and outputs.
The size of the memory unit affects its speed, power, and
capabilities. without a memory unit, the processor would have to
wait longer for data retrieval.
Conversions of Units
Name Equal To Size (In Bytes)

Bit 1 Bit 1/8

Nibble 4 Bits 1/2 (rare)

Byte 8 Bits 1

Kilobyte 1024 Bytes 1024

Megabyte 1024 Kilobytes 1, 048, 576

1024
Gigabyte 1, 073, 741, 824
Megabytes

Terabyte 1024 Gigabytes 1, 099, 511, 627, 776

Petabyte 1024 Terabytes 1, 125, 899, 906, 842, 624

Exabyte 1024 Petabytes 1, 152, 921, 504, 606, 846, 976

Zettabyte 1024 Exabytes 1, 180, 591, 620, 717, 411, 303, 424

Yottabyte 1024 Zettabytes 1, 208, 925, 819, 614, 629, 174, 706, 176

Memory Hierarchy
Memory hierarchy is the organization of different types of memory
in a computer system based on their speed, cost, and size. Faster
and more expensive memory, like registers and cache, is placed
closer to the CPU, while slower and larger memory, like RAM and
hard drives, is further away. This arrangement helps the computer
work efficiently by storing frequently used data in faster memory
and less-used data in slower memory.
read more about – Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics
Conclusion
Memory is the vital component of a computer system that stores
data and instructions for processing. It is divided into various types,
each with its specific characteristics and purpose. From the rapid
access of RAM to the persistent storage of ROM and the vast
capacities of secondary storage, memory units are fundamental to
the operation of modern computers.
Memory and Memory Units – FAQs
What is memory unit in CPU?
A memory unit is a little storage device that stores memory of a
computer and it can be used by software. Typically, memory units
are used to store program information.
Which is the smallest unit of measurement of data?
A bit is the smallest unit of measurement of data. The first memory
location in a computer is bit.
What is the role of cache memory?
Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory that stores frequently
accessed data for faster retrieval by the CPU.
What is memory bottleneck?
A memory bottleneck occurs when the CPU is waiting for data from
memory, limiting overall system performance.