Global Energy Use Trends: Quantity, Types, and Regional

Patterns
Quantity and Growth
 Global energy demand rose by 2.2% in 2024, faster than the previous
decade’s average growth of 1.5% per year.
 Energy supply increased ~2% globally with all fuels (oil, gas, coal, nuclear,
renewables) seeing growth.
 Power sector demand, especially electricity, grew faster (4.3%) than total
energy demand, driven by digitalization, electrification of transport, and cooling
needs.
Energy Type Trends
 Renewables dominate growth: Added about 700 GW of capacity in 2024,
with solar PV accounting for nearly 80% of new renewables.
 Renewables and nuclear together generated 40% of global electricity for the first
time in 2024.
 Fossil fuels remain significant: coal and gas consumption rose, coal mainly in
non-OECD countries.
 Oil consumption declined slightly due to alternative fuels and efficiency
measures in transport sectors.
 Nuclear power capacity and generation increased with 7 GW added in 2024,
chiefly from China and Russia.
Regional Trends
 Asia (China, India, Indonesia): Led demand growth; China’s energy demand
grew ~4%, India ~5%, Indonesia ~6% in 2024.
 China: Largest single contributor to energy demand growth; rapid expansion of
renewables (solar +278 GW, wind +80 GW), yet coal remains substantial.
 India: Second largest absolute growth, driven by industrialization, transport
electrification, and data centers. Still reliant on coal with increasing renewables.
 Europe (EU): Energy demand stabilizing or declining; renewables share
surpasses fossil fuels in electricity generation.
 United States: Demand growth steady (~1.7%); renewables rising, coal
decreasing; electric vehicle sales surged (25% in 2024).

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  Africa and Middle East: Moderate growth (2-5%), new renewable projects but
continued fossil fuel reliance.
 Japan: Continued decline in energy demand (~-1.2%) due to demography and
efficiency.
Emissions
 CO₂ emissions from energy sector rose but at a slower rate thanks to
renewables and nuclear growth, avoiding billions of tons of additional emissions.
 Global energy mix still dominated by fossil fuels (86%), highlighting ongoing
challenges.

Classification of Energy
1. Renewable vs Non-renewable Energy
 Renewable Energy:
Naturally replenished over short periods; inexhaustible if managed sustainably.
Examples: Solar, wind, biomass, hydro, geothermal, ocean/tidal energy.
Environmentally friendly with low carbon footprint.
 Non-renewable Energy:
Finite and formed over millions of years; depletes with use.
Examples: Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel (uranium).
Typically causes higher emissions and environmental degradation.
2. Conventional vs Non-conventional Energy
 Conventional Energy:
Includes fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and large-scale hydropower.
Historically dominant energy sources since pre-1973 era.
Associated with environmental pollution and resource depletion.
 Non-conventional Energy:
Emerging and growing since the 1970s oil crisis; renewable sources like solar,
wind, modern biomass, small hydro, tidal and geothermal.
Cleaner and more sustainable alternative promoting energy security.
3. Primary vs Secondary Energy
 Primary Energy:
Energy form directly available from nature without conversion.
Examples: Coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, uranium, hydropower.

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  Secondary Energy:
Energy derived by converting primary energy forms for use.
Examples: Electricity, hydrogen, refined fuels (gasoline, diesel).
4. Commercial vs Non-commercial Energy
 Commercial Energy:
Traded or sold in the marketplace.
Examples: Petroleum products, electricity, coal.
 Non-commercial Energy:
Locally collected and consumed without formal market transaction.
Examples: Fuelwood, animal dung, crop residues.

Challenges of Conventional Energy

1. Resource Exhaustion
 Finite Fossil Fuel Reserves: India’s coal, oil, and natural gas reserves are
limited, creating risks of supply shortages and price volatility.
 Declining Domestic Production: Despite reserves, extraction rates have
stagnated or declined in some areas, increasing import dependence.
 Rising Demand: Growing population and industrialization increase
consumption, stressing limited resources.
2. Dependence on Imports
 Oil Imports: Over 85% of crude oil consumed in India is imported, making
the economy vulnerable to international price shocks and geopolitical tensions.
 Natural Gas: More than 50% of natural gas is imported—mostly as LNG—
exposing the energy sector to currency fluctuations and supply disruptions.
 Supply Chain Risks: Global conflicts, sanctions, and trade restrictions impact
reliable import flows.
3. Environmental Impact
 Pollution: Fossil fuel use is a primary source of CO₂, SO₂, NOₓ, and
particulate emissions, contributing to India’s severe air pollution problem in
cities.
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Energy sector responsible for significant share of
India’s carbon footprint; contributes to climate change challenges.
 Health Hazards: Associated air and water pollution cause respiratory, cardiac,
and waterborne illnesses.

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4. Distribution Inefficiencies
 Old Grid Infrastructure: India’s electric grid faces aging infrastructure,
frequent outages, and limited capacity to integrate renewable energy.
 Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Losses: High losses (~20-25%) due to
theft, technical faults, and poor management increase costs.
 Last-mile Delivery: Lack of quality service in rural and marginalized areas
hinders universal access.
5. Financial Strain
 Fuel Subsidies: Government spends billions annually on subsidizing fossil fuels
(kerosene, LPG, diesel) to protect consumers but strains public finances.
 Discom Debts: Power distribution companies (DISCOMS) suffer from heavy
losses and debts, affecting payment cycles and infrastructure investments.
 Cost Competitiveness: Renewables require supportive policies to remain
competitive; fossil fuels benefit from legacy subsidies.

Import Dependence and Energy Security Challenges in India

1. Vulnerability to Global Price Shocks and Geopolitical Risks
 India imports over 85% of crude oil and about 50% of natural gas, leading
to heavy exposure to volatile global oil prices.
 Geopolitical tensions like Middle East conflicts, Russia-Ukraine war,
sanctions, and trade disputes disrupt supply and spike costs.
 Sanctions on Russia have caused trade sanctions and market uncertainty,
affecting Indian import patterns and pricing.
 Heavy reliance on a few suppliers (Russia ~36% of oil imports) creates single-
point supply risks.
2. Supply Chain and Logistic Risks
 Transport chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz, Red Sea, and Suez
Canal pose maritime risks due to blockades, piracy, or military conflict.
 Pipelines and cross-border gas supplies vulnerable to sabotage or political
disruptions.
 Logistic challenges within India lead to delays, especially in LNG terminals and
rail/road transport of petroleum products.
3. Transition Uncertainty and Grid Challenges

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  Rapid growth of renewable energy capacity is outpacing grid flexibility and
energy storage capability, raising risks of supply instability.
 Integration of intermittent renewable sources demands greater investment in
smart grids and storage solutions.
 Regulatory and policy bottlenecks delay adoption of newer technologies like
green hydrogen and microgrids.
4. Climate and Environmental Risks
 Extreme weather events—floods, cyclones, heatwaves—damage infrastructure
critical to energy supply and distribution.
 Increasing focus on carbon emission reductions adds pressure on fossil fuel
sectors to transition rapidly without harming energy security.
5. Affordability and Access
 Balancing affordable energy tariffs, especially for rural and economically
weaker sections, while managing costly imports and subsidy burden remains a
policy challenge.
 Energy poverty persists in some regions due to distribution inefficiencies and
lack of grid access.

Renewable Energy Potential

 Solar: Over 748 GW theoretical potential; leading states—Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu; annual solar irradiation among the world’s highest.
 Wind: 300+ GW onshore and offshore potential—Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.
 Hydro: >148 GW potential (large hydro + small hydro); Himalayan/northeast
regions rich in untapped capacity.
 Biomass: Estimated 30 GW; agricultural-waste rich states (Punjab, UP, Bihar).
 Geothermal/Ocean: Over 10 GW geothermal (Ladakh, Jharkhand, Puga), 40
GW ocean energy (Gulf of Kutch, Sundarbans).
 Current Status: By July 2025, India reached 234 GW installed renewable
capacity (including large hydro)—solar led with 18.4 GW added in H1 2025
alone.

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Indian Energy: Consumption and Demand
 Per Capita Electricity Consumption:
 Increased to 1,395 kWh in 2023-24, a nearly 46% rise over the past
decade.
 Expected to continue rising due to growing urbanization, industrialization,
and electrification.
 Sectoral Electricity Consumption:
 Industrial sector: Largest consumer, accounting for around 44% of
total electricity demand.
 Residential sector: Consumes about 25%, driven by increasing
household electrification and appliance use.
 Agriculture sector: Accounts for 19%, primarily for irrigation pumps
and rural electrification programs.
 Other sectors include commercial, public water works, traction,
contributing the rest.
 Peak Demand:
 Recorded 250 GW in May 2024, reflecting high summer cooling and
industrial usage.
 Projected to grow to approximately 363 GW by 2031-32, driven by
economic growth and increasing urban consumption.
 Purchased or Borrowed Energy:
 India increasingly meets electricity demand through power exchanges
and bilateral purchases, importing power regionally as needed.
 Cross-border imports from Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh supplement
energy in deficit areas (especially hydropower).
 Energy banking and trading mechanisms are being strengthened to
optimize surplus and deficit management within the grid.
 Distribution Region-wise:
 Highest electricity consumption in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu (industrial hubs).

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  Lower consumption in less industrialized states like Bihar, Jharkhand,
and northeastern states due to infrastructural and economic
challenges.
 Emerging Consumption Drivers:
 Rising penetration of electric vehicles (EVs), data centers, and rail
electrification expected to add significantly to electricity demand in next
decade.

Indian Energy Basket: Installed Capacity and Generation Mix

 Total Installed Capacity:
 India’s installed power capacity reached approximately 476 GW by mid-
2025, marking significant expansion in the sector.
 Fossil Fuels:
 Coal remains dominant, accounting for about 49% of installed
capacity, largely used for base load thermal power generation.
 Oil and natural gas complement the energy mix mainly in transportation
and industrial sectors, contributing a smaller share (~4-5%) of capacity.
 Despite growth in renewables, fossil fuels generate around 75% of
actual electricity due to higher plant load factors (PLFs) than
intermittent renewables.
 Hydropower:
 Hydropower contributes around 15% of installed capacity, including
large dams and small hydro projects.
 It plays a crucial role in renewable integration and grid stability due to its
storage capability.
 Renewable Energy:
 Includes solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, and waste-to-energy projects;
together they constitute nearly 49% of installed capacity.
 Solar power (~111 GW) and wind (~51 GW) are major contributors
driving this growth.
 However, actual generation from renewables is lower due to
intermittency and lower PLFs compared to thermal plants.
 Battery storage and hybrid projects are rapidly increasing to improve grid
integration.

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  Nuclear Energy:
 Accounts for approximately 1.5–2% of installed capacity (around 8.5
GW).
 New plants and government initiatives (e.g., small modular reactors) are
planned to gradually expand nuclear contribution.
 Sector-wise Consumption Pattern:
 Industrial sector consumes about 44% of generated power, followed by
residential (25%), agriculture (19%), and commercial sectors.
 Other Highlights:
 India aims to reach 500 GW renewable capacity by 2030, bolstered by
aggressive government schemes and private sector participation.
 Recent surge in renewable capacity additions, with record 22 GW installed
in first half of 2025 alone.
 Transmission infrastructure is expanding but still faces challenges of
losses (~20%) and grid stability.

Renewable Energy Capacity and Potential

Installed Capacity
 Total Installed Renewable Capacity: Approx. 234 GW including large hydro
(as of mid-2025).
 Recent Additions (H1 2025):
 Solar: 18.4 GW, the largest contributor to capacity growth.
 Wind: 3.5 GW, maintaining steady expansion.
 Bioenergy: 250 MW, with biomass and waste-to-energy projects.
 Other Contributions:
 Large hydro accounts for about 15% of installed capacity (includes dams
and large run-of-river projects).
 Small hydro and other newer renewable sources contribute smaller
shares.
Renewable Energy Potential
 Overall Potential: Estimated at over 1,000 GW across different sectors.
 Solar potential alone roughly 750 GW due to India’s high solar insolation
and vast arid lands.

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  Wind potential estimated at 300+ GW, mostly onshore, with growing
offshore prospects (pilot projects in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu).
 Additional potential from biomass, small hydro, geothermal, ocean/tidal
energy remains untapped.
 Decentralized Systems: Rooftop solar and mini/microgrids rapidly growing,
especially in rural and remote areas, enhancing access and energy security.
Targets and Growth Trajectory
 Government committed to achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel electricity
capacity by 2030 (COP26 pledge).
 Focused on hybrid renewable systems, advanced energy storage, and grid
modernization for better integration.
 Development of offshore wind sector and emerging green hydrogen sector to
further diversify renewable offerings.

Policy Initiatives
Policy Initiatives: Drivers of India’s Energy Transition
Solar Energy
 National Solar Mission (NSM): Flagship initiative under National Action Plan
on Climate Change (NAPCC) aiming for aggressive solar capacity expansion
targeting 280 GW solar power by 2030.
 One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG): International vision to create a
globally interconnected solar power grid enabling round-the-clock renewable
energy supply across borders.
Wind Energy
 National Wind Energy Mission: Seeks to accelerate wind power deployment
onshore and offshore with targets of 140 GW by 2030.
 Offshore Wind Policy: Draft policies incentivizing private investment in
offshore wind farms, especially in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Bioenergy & Biofuels
 National Bio-Energy Mission: Promotes biomass, biogas, and bio-CNG
production to supplement rural and industrial energy needs.
 Biofuel Policy: Guidelines for gradual blending of ethanol (up to 20% by 2025)
and biodiesel; aims to reduce fossil fuel dependence and enhance farmer
incomes.

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  Second Generation (2G) Ethanol Policy: Encourages production of ethanol
from agricultural residues (non-food biomass), reducing food vs fuel conflicts.
Hydrogen Energy
 National Hydrogen Energy Mission: Focused on green hydrogen production
via renewables for industrial use, transport, and export as carbon-neutral energy
carrier.
 Hydrogen Roadmap: Incentives for electrolysers, hydrogen blending in fuels,
and pilot green hydrogen refineries.
Electric Mobility
 Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles (FAME)
Scheme: Subsidies and incentives to promote electric and hybrid vehicles to
decarbonize transport and reduce urban pollution.
 Battery Swapping & Charging Infrastructure: Policies to scale EV ecosystem
including investments in fast charging stations and technology standards.
Other Renewable Energy Initiatives
 Small Hydro Policy: Promotes development of mini and micro-hydropower
plants in hilly and remote areas for decentralized energy access.
 Waste to Energy Policies: Encourage solid waste management and using
municipal, agricultural wastes for energy generation.
 Energy Efficiency Initiatives: National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency
(NMEEE), Perform Achieve Trade (PAT) scheme for industries to reduce energy
use and emissions.
Cross-cutting National Policies
 National Energy Policy 2023: Holistic framework emphasizing sustainable
growth, clean energy transitions, energy access, and security.
 Renewable Energy Certificate (REC) Mechanism: Market-based instrument
incentivizing renewable energy generation.
 Grid Modernization and Smart Grid Policies: Encourage digitalization of grid
network for better renewable integration and demand-side management.

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Regulation & Institutions in India
Regulators
 Ministry of Power: Apex policymaking body responsible for power sector
planning and formulation of national electricity laws.
 Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE): Drives policies, programs,
and subsidies related to renewable energy development.
 Central Electricity Authority (CEA): Technical advisory body; monitors
capacity, forecasting demand, and grid planning.
 Central and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions
(CERC/SERC): Independent regulators ensuring tariff rationalization, dispute
resolution, and promoting open access in electricity markets.
 Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): Implements energy conservation
standards, audits, and promotes energy efficiency across sectors.
Exchanges & Markets
 Indian Energy Exchange (IEX): India’s premier power trading platform
facilitating efficient price discovery, demand-supply balancing, and renewable
energy certificate (REC) trading.
 Power Exchanges’ Significance: Enhance market transparency, encourage
competitive tariffs, integrate renewables, and reduce power wastage through
better scheduling.
Key Public Institutions
 National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC): Largest power generation
company, leading thermal and renewable energy expansion.
 National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC): Develops hydroelectric
projects, aiding renewable share and grid stability.
 Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI): Implements solar projects,
conducts auctions, and promotes solar power procurement.
 Power Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL): National transmission utility
ensuring grid connectivity and interstate power transfers.

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  Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) & Power Finance Corporation
(PFC): Provide financial support for generation, transmission, and distribution
projects including renewable energy financing.
Research and Development Institutions
 National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE): Research, innovation, technology
validation, and human resource development for solar sector.
 National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE): Focuses on wind resource
assessment, technology improvement, and capacity building.
 Significance: These institutes promote localized technology advances, reduce
import dependence, and support India’s leadership in renewable innovations.

Significant Institutions and Frameworks

 Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL): Public sector enterprise
promoting energy-saving solutions like LED lighting, smart meters, and demand-
side management.
 Independent System Operator (Proposed): To enable market-based
dispatch and enhance grid reliability amidst variable renewable energy
generation.
 Sector-specific Regulatory Bodies: Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory
Board (PNGRB) regulates oil and gas pipelines; Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
(AERB) oversees nuclear safety.

Challenges
 Grid Integration: Balancing large-scale renewables with base-load generation;
storage and transmission bottlenecks.
 Financial Health of DISCOMs: Chronic losses, delayed payments to
generators, regulatory tariffs.
 Regulatory Complexity: Overlapping jurisdictions, compliance hurdles (2,735+
compliance obligations identified).
 Affordability vs. Cost Recovery: Tariff control to ensure access vs. need for
financial viability.
 Environmental Issues: Land acquisition, resource conflicts, wildlife risks for
solar/wind.

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  Energy Access Gaps: Reliable supply still elusive for many rural and remote
areas.
 Continued Coal Expansion: Simultaneous investment in new coal-led thermal
projects slows transition.

Way Forward
 Grid Modernization: Smart grids, storage innovation (batteries, pumped
hydro), digital controls.
 Regulatory Simplification: Single-window clearances, centralized oversight for
faster renewable approvals.
 Investment in Storage & Transmission: Scale up battery, green hydrogen,
interstate transmission capacity.
 Diversification: Expand domestic oil/gas, boost biofuels, geothermal, and
offshore wind.
 Rural Electrification: Last-mile connectivity, reliability, and affordable tariffs
for all.
 Private Sector Ecosystem: Foster public-private partnerships, encourage
startups/innovation.
 Skill Development & R&D: Train workforce for transition, boost research in
clean energy tech.
 Climate Resilience: Infrastructure for extreme events, disaster preparedness.
 Effective Implementation: Monitor targets, public awareness, community
participation in energy initiatives.

Emerging Energy Technologies

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Data Analytics: AI optimizes grid management,
renewable forecasting, demand response, and trading. Notable applications
include grid planning in Chile and Southern California using Google’s AI models.
 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion batteries, solid-state batteries, vanadium redox
flow, and large-scale pumped hydro store intermittent solar/wind energy,
ensuring stable supply.

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  Green Hydrogen: Electrolyzers run on renewable power produce hydrogen for
industry, transport, and storage—India, EU, and Australia now prioritizing green
hydrogen scale-up.
 Distributed Energy & Microgrids: Rooftop solar, peer-to-peer trading, and
community microgrids improve rural and remote energy access.
 Advanced Solar & Wind: Development of perovskite solar cells, offshore wind,
and tandem PV boosts efficiency and yields.
 Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS): Emerging at fossil fuel plants and industry
to decarbonize “hard-to-abate” sectors.
 Bioenergy & Synthetic Fuels: Use of algae, organic wastes for biogas,
biofuels, and synthetic e-fuels.
 Smart Grids & Digitalization: Real-time monitoring, demand-side
management, and blockchain for secure renewable energy transactions.

Environmental & Ethical Issues

 Land & Habitat Impact: Large-scale solar/wind projects can disrupt habitats
and cause displacement; land use prioritization (brownfields, agrovoltaics) is
critical.
 Resource Extraction: Battery and solar tech depend on minerals (lithium,
cobalt, rare earths), raising concerns over unsustainable mining and worker
rights.
 Environmental Justice: Marginalized communities may bear environmental
burdens without reaping benefits; fair access to clean energy is an ethical
imperative.
 Biodiversity Loss: Wind farms (bird/bat mortality), solar (ecosystem
alteration) require mitigation and lifecycle assessments.
 Waste & Recycling: Solar panel and battery disposal, e-waste challenges;
sustainable supply chains need closed-loop recycling.
 Ecosystem and Water Use: Some renewable projects (large hydro, biomass)
can cause ecological harm or water stress.
 Just Transition: Managing the decline of coal and fossil jobs while reskilling
workers, avoiding economic/fiscal shocks.

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International Initiatives Classified by Energy Sources
1. Renewable Energy Initiatives
 Paris Agreement: Sets global emissions reduction targets, promotes renewable
energy adoption and mobilizes climate finance to support countries’ sustainable
energy transitions.
 International Solar Alliance (ISA): India-led alliance of 120+ countries
promoting solar energy capacity expansion; includes the “One Sun One World
One Grid” (OSOWOG) initiative for cross-border solar power sharing.
 Mission Innovation: Collaboration of 23 governments and the EU to accelerate
clean energy innovation, fund collaborative R&D, and scale-up renewable and
clean energy pilot projects.
 Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM): High-level forum including India, US, China,
EU for sharing policies and technology innovations in renewables, energy
efficiency, and clean transport.
 Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL): UN-backed initiative aiming for
universal energy access, energy efficiency improvements, and renewable energy
adoption to support global sustainable development goals.
2. Energy Efficiency and Climate Focus
 Global Methane Pledge & Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership: Led by the
USA and World Bank, focuses on reducing methane emissions and flaring, major
contributors to climate change.
 Energy Efficiency Global Forum: International cooperation on setting energy
efficiency standards, practices, and technology sharing across industries.
3. Technology Collaboration and R&D
 IEA Technology Collaboration Programmes (TCP): Facilitates multilateral
R&D, joint demonstration projects, and international standard-setting for
emerging energy technologies including renewables, energy storage, and smart
grids.
 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA): Supports countries in
adoption and scaling of renewable energy through data, policy guidance, and
technical assistance.
 Hydrogen Council: Global initiative promoting green hydrogen for
decarbonization across sectors like transport, industry, and heating.
4. Sector-Specific Initiatives

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  Offshore Wind Alliances: Regional and international collaborations like those
led by the North Sea countries and emerging partnerships including India’s
offshore wind programs.
 Bioenergy Networks: Global forums supporting sustainable biomass, biofuel,
and waste-to-energy development.
 Nuclear Energy Cooperation: Bilateral and multilateral agreements facilitate
nuclear technology transfer, safety standards, and joint research.

Case Studies
 India’s Renewable Push: Reached 50% non-fossil installed capacity (242.8
GW of 484.8 GW) in 2025, five years early; ambitious rooftop solar (Surya
Ghar), green jobs rollout, and National Green Hydrogen Mission.
 China’s Scale-Up: Dominates global solar panel and battery production,
investing in gigawatt-scale infrastructure, supply chains, and export dominance.
 PM-KUSUM Scheme (India): Empowers farmers via solar irrigation pumps,
reduces emissions, and supplements rural income.
 Wind Energy Corridors (Europe): North Sea offshore wind collaboration
among UK, Denmark, Netherlands, and Germany expands clean power and grid
interconnections.
 City-Scale Microgrids (USA/Japan): Community “islanding” improves
resilience during disasters (e.g., Sendai, Japan post-2011 tsunami).
 Bioenergy in Brazil: Sugarcane ethanol program reduces fossil fuel imports
and GHGs, sustaining millions of jobs.

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