Chapter 4
CHEMICAL BONDING AND
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
4.1 Models of Chemical
Bonding
Electrostatic force that hold atoms together in
compounds
Why do atoms bond? Energy
Lower-Energy systems are more stable than
higher-energy systems
Any process that requires the addition of energy
usually decreases the stability
Types of Bonds
Ionic – attraction between ions
Covalent – sharing of electrons
Metallic – metal atoms bonded to several other atoms
Electronegativity
Electronegativity: is a relative measure of an atom
to attract electrons in a chemical bond
First proposed by Linus Pauling
Worked with scientists involved with the Quantum
Mechanical Model of the Atom
Wrote the book: The Chemical Bond
The general trend for electronegativity
Across a period electronegativity increases
Down a group decreases
When two atoms are bonded together, comparison
of the electronegativity provides information about
the characteristics of the bond.
If difference in electronegativity (ΔEN) is small,
between 0.0 and 0.4, the bond is mostly covalent
bond.
If difference in electronegativity (ΔEN) is between 0.4
and 1.7, the bond is a polar covalent bond.
If difference in electronegativity (ΔEN) is greater than
1.7, the bond is considered mostly ionic.
Metallic Bonding
Based on ∆EN, you would expect metals to form
ionic bonds with other metals or themselves
Metals share electrons; not like how electrons are
shared in covalent bonds
Electron sharing happens throughout the metal
Densely packed core of metallic cations within a
delocalized region of shared valence electrons
This attraction between the cations and electrons
constitutes a metallic bond
Metallic Bonding
Metallic Bonding
This free-electron model is supported by the following
observations:
Conductivity; lots of free electrons to move
Metals are malleable and ductile
+ve ions are often lined up in layers
When stressed layers slide over one another without breaking; e-
continue to attract +ve ions.
Metallic Bonding
Melting and boiling points of group I metals are
generally lower than that of group II
This is because of the greater number of valence
electrons in group II metals, larger +ve charge of
group II metals – stronger metallic bond!
Transition metals are more complex; high MP and
BP
Alloys
Mixture for 2 or more metals
Sometimes also contains non-metals such as
carbon (steel)
Can produce substances that can have much
greater hardness than pure metals (example gold
alloys can be as hard as tooth enamel)
These properties can be explained by the “sea of
electrons” analogy
The free electrons can attract all manner of metal
atom
Substitutional alloy: when metal atoms are of
similar size
One type of atom then takes the place of the
other atom in the crystal
Interstitial alloy: one of the atoms is much smaller
than the other
The atoms then sit in spaces between the bigger
atoms
Ionic Bonding
Attractive forces between oppositely charged
cations (+ve) and anions (-ve)
∆EN of the atoms involved is large, >1.7
Generally “s-block” metals with low EN bonded
with “p-block” non-metals with high EN
Ionic Compounds
Rigid lattice structure with repeating units
Properties of Ionic
Compounds
Crystalline, smooth shiny surfaces
Hard, but brittle
High melting and boiling points
Do not conduct electricity or heat in the solid
state
When dissolved in water will conduct electricity
Lattice Energy
The amount of energy (kJ) given off when one
mole of an ionic crystal forms from the gaseous
ions of it’s elements
This is the energy that must be added to break
the bonds and move back to gaseous ions
The larger the lattice energy the higher the
melting point
Lattice Energy
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl- Na+Cl-
Ionization energy of Na = +495 kJ/mol
Electron affinity of Cl = - 349 kJ/mol
Lattice energy (energy released when ions come
together) = - 788 kJ/mol
Total energy change = - 642 kJ/mol
The bond forms because the energy of the
compound is lower than the energy of the atoms
The lower the energy of a system, the higher the
stability
Covalent Bonding
Balance between attraction of
nuclei and electrons of 2 or more
atoms and the electron-electron
repulsions and nuclei repulsions
Involves sharing of paired electrons
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds form when two ½ -filled orbitals from two
atoms overlap to share the same space
This newly formed overlapping orbital has lower energy
than the original orbitals
Sharing electrons allows atoms to acquire a noble gas
configuration
Period 2 non-metals must fill a 2s and three 2p orbitals to
be like Ne; these obey the “octet rule”
Each atom treats the shared pair as if it is part of its own
Bond Energy
Energy required to break the bond
Double bonds are stronger than single
Triple bonds are stronger than double
Properties of Covalent
Compounds
Low melting and boiling points
Exist as soft solids, liquids or gases at room
temperature
Poor conductors of electricity, even in solution
May not be soluble in H2O
Polar Covalent Bond
Electrons in the bond are not shared
equally
Results in a bond that has partial
positive (δ+) and partial negative (δ-)
poles
The atom with the higher EN attracts
the shared pair more strongly
Ex. HCl (∆EN = 0.96)
Higher likelihood of finding shared
pair of electrons near Cl; much
denser electron cloud around Cl
Hybridization
The simplest bonds are the single
bonds
When a hydrogen atom bonds
another hydrogen atom, s-orbitals
overlap
This forms a sigma (σ) bond
It is defined as a symmetrical bond
around the bond axis of two nuclei
It has a lower energy level than the
s-orbital
This makes the substance more
stable
The σ bond can also occur between an s- and a
single p-orbital
This is shown in HCl, hydrogen chloride where the
1s of hydrogen overlaps with the single 3p-orbital
of Cl
Not all s- and p-orbitals will result in a simple σ
bond
Methane (CH4) is depicted as a symmetrical
molecule, but the 2s-orbital is filled and the two of
the 2p-orbitals have one electron each.
Even if one of the 2s electrons moves to the other
2p orbital this would not result in a symmetrical
molecule.
However, the 2s- and the 2p-orbitals of carbon will
form hybrid orbitals, the 2sp-orbitals
There will be four identical 2sp-orbitals, or sp3
These will then form bonds with the 1s-orbitals of
hydrogen atoms
When hybrid orbitals form, the number of hybrid
orbitals must always equal to the number of s-
and p-orbitals available
When one s-orbitals combines with three p-
orbitals, four sp-orbitals form
Shown by sp3
Same happens when one s-orbital combines with
two p-orbitals, it forms three sp orbitals, or sp2
Double bonds
In substances such as ethene (C2H4, H2C=CH2) the
simple σ bond doesn’t explain the configuration
Here hybrid orbitals are also necessary to explain
the structure
The 2s-orbital and 2p-orbitals of carbon hybridize
form three 2sp-orbitals, which all lie in 1 plane
The third 2p-orbital will be perpendicular to the
plane
Two of the 2sp-orbitals form σ bonds with the
hydrogens
The third 2sp-orbital forms a σ with the other
carbon
The 2p-orbital forms a pi (π) bond
A π bond has the 2 lobes of the p-orbital
overlapping the 2 lobes of the other p-orbital
above and below the plane of the molecules
Triple bond
Some substance such as ethyne (C2H2) can have
triple bonds
Once again hybridization occurs between the s-
and the p-orbitals
Only one p-orbital hybridizes with the s-orbital,
forming two, 2sp-orbitals and two 2p-orbitals
The two 2p-orbitals and one 2sp-orbital form the
triple bond
The second 2sp-orbital forms a bond with
hydrogen
In periods 3 and below hybridizations can also
occur between the s-, p- and d-orbitals
This produces a variety of different hybridizations
The number of hybrid orbitals that form is the
same number of atomic orbitals that combine to
make the hybrid orbitals
Example: sp3d2 is a combination of one s-, three p-
and two d-orbitals
This will give a total of six spd-orbitals
Homework
Section Review Questions #2-4, 6-9, 11-13 on
page 227
