GENG4410

Fossil to Future: The Transition

Solar Photovoltaic

Dr. Bruce Norris Dr. Brendan Graham

What is Electric Power

• Rate at which electric energy (electric charge) is

transferred per unit time
• The SI unit is the Watt, (1 Joule/s)

𝑉𝑄
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 𝑉𝐼
𝑡

Q = electric charge in coulombs

t = time in seconds
I = electric current in amperes
V =electric potential (voltage) in volts
Governing Power Equations

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)

𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑)

AC vs DC

• Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric

charge past a set point in an electric circuit
• In an electric circuit, the charge is electron flow
through a wire
• Electric Current can be Alternating Current (AC) or
Direct Current (DC)
• AC is usually generated by thermal energy
generation (coal, gas, nuclear) while DC is usually
generated by renewable energy (solar, batteries)
AC

• Electrical Current that alternates (changes) in

direction within a circuit over time
• Typical AC frequency is 50 or 60 HZ
– 50Hz in Australia
• Household power and transmission power is AC
AC Power Generation

• AC generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field

• Rotation comes from the rotating shaft ( work)
generated by the thermal power plant in previous
lectures
• The current changed direction
back and forwards (frequency)
as the coil rotates
DC

• Electrical Current that flows in one direction and has

a stable voltages circuit over time
• Most small electronics use DC power
– AC supplied power must be transformed through a
transformer
– Batteries produce DC current
Why is the world AC not DC

• Essentially, until recently it was easier to distribute electricity

by AC due to technological and physical limitations
• The power loss in a wire is 𝑃𝑤 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 so as you cant change
the resistance of the wire easily you reduce the current
• As power transmitted is 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼 and I is low (point above)
then to maximise power transmission, a high voltage is used
• It has been easier and cheaper until recently to increase AC
voltage rather than DC voltage
AC Power

• AC power is generated at suitable voltage in the

generator (5-10 kV).
• Voltage increased by a transformer for long
distance transmission (10s and100s kV)
• Voltage dropped to 240V for Australian homes
AC Frequency

• AS AC power has a frequency of direction change

(50hz) in Perth and Australia, all interconnected
power must have the same frequency.
• Adding a different frequency will cause problems
such as reduced power in the lines (cancelling out
of phase signals)
• The South West Interconnected System (SWIS) all
has the same frequency
• Any generated electricity added to a grid must have
the same frequency and phase
Major Synchronous Networks Worldwide

• The SWIS (Perth) is not connected to any other grid

 Solar Usage World Wide 2018
CIS (Russia) 0.9 TWh
Middle East

Europe

139.1 TWh

C+S America 12.4 TWh

314.2 TWh Asia Pacific
102.9 TWh
N America

Africa 9.0 TWh Australia 12.1 TWh

Worldwide 584.6 TWh
Worldwide 350 million BoE, 4 days use
 Solar Usage World Wide 2021
Middle East 15.2 TWh CIS (Russia) 4.1 TWh

Europe

195.6 TWh

C+S America 37.2 TWh

581.5 TWh Asia Pacific
182 TWh
N America

Africa 16.5 TWh Australia 31.2 TWh

Worldwide 1032 TWh
BP stats review 2022
Solar Uptake Worldwide

Region 2021-2022 uptake % 2011-2022 uptake %

North America 25.5 42.3
Central America 43.5 75.9
Europe 11.6 15.3
CIS 21.1 116.4
Middle East 20.4 52.3
Africa 3.1 39.3
Asia 24.9 47.2

Australia 31.3%
Worldwide 22.3%
Solar Generation Uptake Australia
kW Installed Solar PV

https://pv-map.apvi.org.au/
Solar Generation In Australia
 Solar Installation Type - Australia

Utility Scale
Roof Top (MW)
2015 4,580
2016 5,329
2017 6450
2018 8,030
2019 10,230
2020 13,180
2021 16,370

Australian Energy Council Solar Report 2022

End of 2021, 2.99 million rooftop installations

Price per Watt (USD)
In 2020, around
$0.13 per Watt

Utility Scale

NREL
Price per Watt (USD)
In 2020, around
$0.13 per Watt

Rooftop

NREL
How Solar PV makes Electricity

• A PV cell consists of two main silicon layers

– Top layer – n type- contains small amounts of
phosphorus that gives it extra electrons
– Bottom layer –p type – contains small amounts of
boron that have less electrons and therefore have
holes (less charge)
• The zone where they meet has some
rearrangement of electrons and holes to balance
the charge and is called the Depletion zone
• There is an internal electric field in the cell
 N and P Doped Silica

p-type have holes

n-type has excess electrons
 How Solar PV makes Electricity

1. Photon excites electron in depletion zone

2. E field in depletion zone separates electron and hole to either side
3. Electron flow through circuit to join hole and balance out charge
4. Electron flow is DC current
• When a photon (from sunlight) strikes the depletion
layer it ejects an electron and also creates a hole
• If a circuit is made, the electron will travel out of the
depletion zone through the n-type layer, through the
wire and back to the p-type layer where it fills its
hole (the hole moves from the depletion zone to the
P-type layer
• This creates electricity
How Solar PV makes Electricity
Types of PV Cells

• Poly-crystalline silicon
– Consists of small crystals
– Cheaper to manufacture
– Common in home panels
• Mono-crystalline
– A single crystal
– More expensive but higher efficiency
– Used in large scale installations
• Silicon layer approx. 250µm thick
Theoretical Efficiency
𝑇𝑐
• Using the Carnot efficiency η = 1 − and
𝑇ℎ
assuming the sun is Thot (6000K) and the earth tcold (300K) the
maximum theoretical efficiency is 95%
• Due to engineering limitations the maximum is reduced to 86.8%
and having just the solar disk of the sun as a heat source further
reduced the maximum to 68.7%
• This is close to natural gas combined cycle of 64% achievable
Efficiencies of Different PV Cell Types
Typical PV Efficiencies

• Polycrystalline PV – max 23%

• Monocrystalline PV – max 26%
• Approaching 50% for new experimental systems
Solar Irradiance Definitions

• Insolation
– Power received from the sun over a set range
electromagnetic wavelengths (units of W/m2)
• Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI)
– Insolation measured at a point on earths surface
perpendicular to the suns rays only including direct
“beam” radiation
– Equal to insolation above the atmosphere minus
scattering and absorption in the atmosphere
Solar Irradiance Definitions

• Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI)

– Radiation at Earths surface from light scattered in the
atmosphere
• Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)
– Total Irradiance from sun on a horizontal surface on Earth
𝐺𝐻𝐼 = 𝐷𝐻𝐼 + 𝐷𝑁𝐼 𝑥 cos()
–  = solar zenith angle of the sun
– 0° when directly above
– 90° when horizontal to earths surface
GHI Diagram
Total Solar Irradiance

• Solar PV can use DNI and DHI

• Solar Thermal and mirrored systems can only utilise
DNI
• Solar PV still useful in low light
DNI (energy perpendicular to sun)
GHI (total on panel perpendicular to ground)
DNI Australia Map
GHI Australia Map

• Including sun angle,

cloud cover,
topography etc large
parts of Australia
receive over 2000
kWh/m2 ꞏ yr
• At 20% PV efficiency
that is 400 kWh/m2ꞏyr
Max PV Output with Optimal Tilt - Australia

Upto 20%
more PV
energy if
correct tilt
used in
Australia
Efficiency, Fixed vs Tracked

• Tracking can be 1 or 2 axis

– 1 axis can be horizontal (close to equator) or vertical
axis (southern latitudes)
– 2 axis follows sun completely maximising DNI
(minimising cos z term)
Efficiency, Fixed vs Tracked
City Single axis Dual axis
Darwin 20% 25%
Brisbane 29% 36%
Perth 26% 32%
Sydney 20% 25%
Adelaide 23% 28%
Canberra 25% 32%
Melbourne 19% 23%

Percentage increase in power production vs fixed panel

Economics may not make installation worth it
Inverter and Frequency Matching

• Solar PV panels produce DC current

• This can be used to directly charge batteries (also
DC)
• To add solar power to the grid the DC must be
converted to AC with matching frequency and
phase.
• An inverter fills this role
• An inverter may also charge and receive power
from a battery
Inverters
• Match AC voltage and frequency while maximising
solar PV DC power generation
• Contain safety systems (auto shutoff if grid goes
down)
• Conversion efficiency of 98%
Inverters

• Inverters can be per installation (e.g 8 roof panels)

or on each panel (micro inverter)
• Central inverters have a set maximum by design
– Cheaper than micro inverters
• Micro inverters (one per panel) can be connected
plug and play, independent panel power
optimisation, and scalability
– 20-27% more power than central inverters
 DC/AC Inverters

DC

AC
Solar PV Operation
𝑞𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
𝑛𝑘𝑇
Temperature Effects

• PV cells lose 0.4%/°C heating above test rated temperature

• Rack mounted panels usually 30°C hotter than ambient temp.
• Therefore on a hot Perth Afternoon (35°C) panel temp = 65°C
• Panel max output rated at 25°C
• 65°C -25°C = 40°C x 0.4%/°C = 16% reduction in efficiency
• 5KW installation loses 800W in summer
Australian Rooftop Solar Potential
Type of Rooftop PV Potential GW
Residential 96.0
Rural 33.9
Industrial 19.0
Commercial 9.3
Other 21.2

Total 179.4

Australia could generate 245 TWh from rooftop Solar

Australia currently Generates 200 TWh of electricity/year

Institute for Sustainable Futures, UNSW

Payback

• Energy payback
– Energy generated vs energy used to manufacture
• Crystalline panels 1-2 years
• Purchase cost and installation (home)
– Feed-in tariffs for supplying power to the grid supplier
– Hours of sunshine
– Lifetime of panels (harsh environments)
– Government subsidies to purchase
– Other factors
– 2-10 years (highly variable)
PV Recycling

• Panel lifetime approx. 20 years

– Less in harsh environments with high UV
• Estimate upto 250,000 tonnes of PV waste in 2016
• Estimate greater than 50 million tonnes per annum
in 2050
• Three step recycling
– 1) recover aluminium frames etc
– 2) recover materials in cell (silicon etc)
– 3) Waste disposal
• Approx. income $10-15 per panel
Home Rooftop PV
• Advantages
– Reduced dependency on grid power
– Zero emission power generation
– Works in many geographical locations
– Little Maintenance and longer lifetimes
– Financial support from Governments
• Disadvantages
– High capital cost
– Intermittent energy source – Duck Curve
– Energy storage is expensive
– Limited roof top area for panels, poor angles
– Increased cost of grid power management
– Doesn’t move house
The Duck Curve
AC Grid Stability

• Australian electrical grids run at 50 Hz

• Frequency is generated by spinning generators
– Thermal power turbines
• As loads on the grid increase, frequency decreases
– And vice versa
• The spinning generators provide inertia and resist
frequency changes
– Generators weigh thousands of tonnes
AC Grid Stability

• With increasing of non spinning power generation

(roof top and utility solar PV) less traditional
spinning power is required on the grid
• As PV power generation can change very quickly
(clouds) large power drops and therefore large
increases in loads on spinning generators can occur
• With less spinning generators, frequency changes
can occur – less inertia in the system
– Also leads to phase and voltage changes
Solar PV Variability
Too Many Cooks Spoil the Broth

• Every roof top PV system has its own inverter

• Each inverter is trying to match voltage, phase and
frequency
• 50Hz changes every 20 milliseconds
– Each microsecond off causes 0.3% drop in voltage
South Australia – case study

• SA power generation from Gas, Wind, large solar PV and

small solar PV
• Connected to Victoria through a HVAC transmission line
SA - Scheduled Power Demand
 24 Feb 2020

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-24/solar-power-means-cheaper-energy-but-grid-instability/11993776
 27 Aug 2020

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-17/solar-panels-switched-off-in-sa-to-stabilise-grid/13256572
 25 Oct 2020

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-25/all-sa-power-from-solar-for-first-time/12810366
 17 Mar 2021

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-17/solar-panels-switched-off-in-sa-to-stabilise-grid/13256572
Addition of Spinning Inertia

• South Australia installed 4 Synchronous Condensers

• Free spinning motor with no physical connection
• Absorbs or generate reactive power
• Used for short term voltage stabilisation
What about WA

• SWIS isolated
• No connectors to other grids
• Increasing rooftop solar PV and utility scale wind
• Coal thermal generation reducing in next few years
• Grid Instability???
Rooftop Solar Grid Issues

• Does not reduce peak demand

– Occurs after solar stops producing
• Generators are paying other renewables (wind)
NOT to generate during the day
• Foreseeable in future when midday solar production
in excess of grid demands
– Isolated grids like SWIS can not shift power to other
areas
• High cost of poles and wires to balance and
distribute millions of power generators on roofs, all
with different power loads
Rooftop Solar Grid Issues

• Grids were not designed for distributed power

generation
• High voltage production in certain areas may
overload local power lines
– Issues in Germany
– Causes high infrastructure costs to mitigate
Large Scale Solar Farms

• Advantages Separate inverters per block of panels

– Scale of installation and maintenance

– Few, large scale inverters
– Control power addition to grid
– Optimal location and use of high voltage
transmission lines to get to market
– Large scale storage options
• Disadvantages
– Large use of land area, can not be used for other
activities (except floating solar)
– Energy storage is expensive
 Lifecycle Emissions from PV Solar
Technology Location Installation Life PV Efficiency Lifecycle Emissions
Type (years) (%) (gCO2e/kWh)
PV (mc-SI) SW India Utility Scale 30 16 37
Fixed Axis
PV (mc-Si) SW India Utility Scale 30 16 34
Tracking
PV (sc-Si) NE China Utility Scale 30 17 73
Fixed Axis
PV (sc-Si) NE China Residential 30 17 77
Rooftop
PV (CdTe) SW USA Utility Scale 30 15.6 14
Tracking
PV (CdTe) NE USA Utility Scale 30 16.6 20
Fixed Axis
Reference, 1000g for coal fired power
500g for nat gas fired power
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115550.
Large Scale Examples
Name Country Capacity Land Area Year
(MW) (km2)
Bhadla Solar Park India 2245 40 2020
Pavagada Solar Park India 2050 53 2019
Tengger Solar Park China 1547 43 2016
BenBan Solar Park Egypt 1500 37 2019
Noor Abu Dhabi UAE 1177 2019
Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar India 1000 24 2017
⁞ ⁞ ⁞ ⁞ ⁞
Desert Sunlight Solar Farm USA 550 16 2015
Bungala Solar Power Australia 220 8 2018
Largest Hydro 22,500MW
Largest Coal 6,720 MW
Largest Nat gas 8,695 MW
Largest Nuclear 7,411 MW
Side Case Study

• 3 Gorges dam generates 22,500MW

• Average Large scale Solar PV 2000MW / 50 km2
• For 3 gorges equivalent require 11 x 50 km2 = 550km2
• 3 Gorges lake is 1000 km2
• But….
• 3 Gorges dam @ 45% capacity factor
• Solar PV @ 23% capacity factor
• 1100km2 solar PV = 3 Gorges dam power output
Comparison of Energy Sources
LCOE, Capital Cost
Power Source Min ($/kW, USD) Max ($/kW, USD)
Gas Combined Cycle 650 1300
Gas Peaking 700 1150
Onshore Wind
Onshore Wind + Storage
Offshore Wind
Solar PV (residential) 2230 4150
Solar PV (Industrial) 1200 2850
Solar PV (utility) 700 1400
Solar PV (utility) + Storage 1075 1600
Geothermal
Coal (with scrubbers) $3500 $3800
Nuclear (advanced) $8765 $14400

Lazard Investment Bank 2023

Levelised Cost of Electricity LCOE

• Measure of a power source that allows for

comparison of different generation techniques
• Minimum cost electricity must be sold to break even
over the lifetime of the project.
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
It : Investment expenditure in year t
𝐼𝑡 + 𝑀𝑡 + 𝐹𝑡 Mt : Opex and Maintenance in year t
σ𝑛𝑡=1
(1 + 𝑟)𝑡 Ft : Fuel expenses in year t
𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 = Et : Electricity produced in year t
𝐸𝑡
σ𝑛𝑡=1 r : discount rate
(1 + 𝑟)𝑡
n : expected lifetime
LCOE of Different Electricity Sources
Power Source Min ($/MWh, USD) Max ($/MWh, USD)
Gas Combined Cycle $44 $68
Gas Peaking $150 $199
Onshore Wind
Offshore Wind
Solar PV (utility) $36 $44
Solar PV (residential) $151 $242
Solar PV (Industrial) $75 $154
Solar thermal with Storage
Hydro#
Geothermal
Coal (with scrubbers) $66 $152
Nuclear (advanced) $118 $192

Lazard Investment Bank 2023 #DOE 2015

True LCOE of Solar PV
Q&A

• Any questions so far?