Cells, Human Reproduction

and Heredity

[Link]/r/
isfcu4.e

In this Unit, we will learn about:

the basic structures of cells Learning Science in English

how to use a microscope

(U4: Describing structures)

chromosomes Foundation Worksheets (U4)

cell division and cell differentiation

Quick Revision Notes (U4)
levels of organization of living things E
the process of human reproduction Answers to Textbooks (U4)

sexual maturity and secondary sexual characteristics

Teaching PowerPoint (U4, by sections)
family planning and birth control E
heredity and variation e-Companion

role of DNA in heredity E

 Teaching notes
Before teaching this Unit, teachers may show the
following video to students to arouse their interests:
[Link]/r/isteu4i01.e

1 2
Alex Louis Sophie

Alex and Louis are identical twin brothers. Alex has a daughter, Sophie.
They look very much alike.

3 4
Daddy! Who is my
daddy?

Sophie cannot distinguish between Alex She is not clear whether Alex or Louis is her
and Louis. father.

2. A new life begins when a sperm

fertilizes an ovum. The process
of human reproduction includes
1. They have the same DNA and therefore fertilization, implantation,
Let's think... most of their features are the same. They development of the embryo,
can be distinguished by their fingerprints. and birth of a baby. Details can
1. Alex and Louis are identical twins. Are they exactly the same? be found on p.36–42.
How can they be distinguished scientifically?
2. How is a baby born? What is the process of human reproduction?
3. How do your parents pass their features to you?
3. Our parents pass their features to us through genetic
materials/DNA.
2
 4
Section objectives

4.1

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Students should be able to
Cells • recognize cells as the basic unit of living things.
• distinguish between plant cells and animal cells.
• acquire some skills in using a microscope.
The panda model shown on the left is made up of toy bricks. How
about a real panda? What is it made up of?

A Cells as the basic unit of living things

Fig. 4.1 This panda model All living things are made up of cells. Some living things, such as
is made up of toy bricks. Amoeba and bacteria, are made up of one cell only. They are called
unicellular organisms.

a b

Teaching notes Amoeba (× 150) Bacterium (× 20 000)

The number of cells is just
an estimate. The number Fig. 4.2 Examples of unicellular organisms
varies from person to
person. Even the number of
cells in your own body is Other living things such as animals and plants are made up of more
constantly changing. than one cell. They are called multicellular organisms. The human
trillion = 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000 body, for example, is made up of about 100 trillion cells. The
different types of cells in the human body have different sizes,
shapes and functions.

a b c

Nerve cells (× 100) Red blood cells (× 4400) Muscle cells (× 300)
Teaching notes
Fig. 4.3 Examples of cells in the human body
Skeletal muscle cells have more
Teaching notes than one nucleus so that they can
Nerve cells are the longest make more proteins they need.
cells in our bodies. Some
can be as long as about
1 m, which connects our foot Cells are the basic unit of living things.
and spinal cord.

cell 細胞 nerve cell 神經細胞

unicellular organism 單細胞生物 red blood cell 紅血細胞
multicellular organism 多細胞生物 muscle cell 肌肉細胞 3
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

B Basic structures of cells

In Unit 3, we have learned that living things can be classified into
two large groups, animals and plants. Do animal cells and plant
cells have the same structure? Let us learn more in this section.

SPS: OB, CS

Activity 4.1

Examining animal cells and plant cells

Some photomicrographs of different animal cells and plant cells are shown below.
Photomicrographs are photographs taken through a microscope. Observe them carefully and
discuss with your classmates the questions that follow.

Animal cells (from human body)

Mouth epithelial cells (× 300) Body fat cells (× 200) Skin cells (× 400)

Plant cells

Leaf cells of a pond weed (× 300) Leaf cells of a crop plant (× 400) Leaf cells of moss (× 400)

1. Do you notice any structures common to all the animal cells?

1. Irregular shape, contain a ‘dot’/highly dense structure inside the cells
2. Do you notice any structures common to all the plant cells?
2. Regular shape, green in colour/contains structures that are green in colour
3. Are there similarities between the animal cells and plant cells?
3. Have a clear boundary

photomicrograph 顯微照片 epithelial 表皮

weed 水草
4
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Skills Practice
(Observing different types of
1. Animal cells
animal cells)
SPS: OB Various types of animal cells have some common basic structures.
Each animal cell is surrounded by a thin layer called the
cell membrane. Inside the membrane is a jelly-like substance called
cytoplasm. Surrounded by cytoplasm, there is a nucleus.

cell membrane

nucleus

cytoplasm

Fig. 4.4 Drawing of an animal cell Fig. 4.5 Mouth epithelial cells in
humans (× 600)

Skills Practice 2. Plant cells

(Observing different types of
plant cells)
SPS: OB Similar to an animal cell, a plant cell also consists of a cell
membrane, a nucleus and cytoplasm. In addition, a plant cell has a
rigid cell wall outside the cell membrane. There is usually a large
vacuole in the cytoplasm. Some cells in green plants also contain
chloroplasts.

cell membrane
cell wall

chloroplast
chloroplasts
vacuole

cytoplasm nucleus

Fig. 4.6 Drawing of a plant cell Fig. 4.7 Plant cells containing
chloroplasts (× 600)
Teaching notes
• Students may confuse chloroplast and chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a pigment inside a chloroplast.
• Some plant cells do not have chloroplasts. In fact, only the cells in green parts have chloroplasts (e.g. leaves).
Cells from the tree trunk are not green in colour and have no chloroplasts.
cell membrane 細胞膜 cell wall 細胞壁
cytoplasm 細胞質 vacuole 液泡
nucleus 細胞核 chloroplast 葉綠體 5
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Teaching notes
3. Functions of the basic structures of cells
• Most cells contain a
nucleus. However, red blood Each basic structure of a cell has its own function. Table 4.1 below
cells do not contain nucleus.
• Not all plant cells contain
lists the function of each structure.
chloroplasts. Plant cells that
contain chloroplasts are Structure Function
green in colour.
Controls the movement of substances into
Cell membrane
and out of the cell
Contains genetic materials which control
Nucleus
the activities of the cell
The medium where chemical reactions
Cytoplasm
take place
Protects, supports and gives shape to a
Cell wall
plant cell
Contains mainly water and stores
Vacuole
dissolved minerals
1. A plant cell has a cell wall
which is hard and rigid to Site where photosynthesis takes place in
Chloroplast
maintain its shape. An order to make food
animal cell does not have
a cell wall. Cell membrane Table 4.1 Functions of the basic structures
Key: In animal cells
is flexible and is able to of cells
change shape. In plant cells
Think about
1. Why are animal cells
usually irregular in nucleus
Both animal cells and plant cells have a , a
shape while plant cells
are usually regular in cell membrane and cytoplasm . In
shape?
addition to these structures, plant cells also have a
2. Why do plant cells have
extra structures that are cell wall and a large vacuole .
not found in animal chloroplasts
cells? Some cells in green plants also contain .
2. To produce food by carrying
out photosynthesis

4.1 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i01.e

The diagram below shows the drawings of a plant cell and an animal cell. Label the
structures in the space provided.

(a) cell wall (d) cell membrane

(b) vacuole (e) cytoplasm

(c) chloroplast (f) nucleus

5-minute Quiz
genetic material 遺傳物質 (Quiz 1: Cells and basic
photosynthesis 光合作用
structures of cells)
6
 4
C Observing cells with a microscope

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Teaching notes
HKUST developed a new
generation of microscope 1. The microscope
(Line Bessel Sheet, LBS
microscpe) in August 2017.
The microscope not only Cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye. We can only
captures 3D images, but the observe them by using a microscope. A microscope can produce
images captured are also of
much higher quality. It can magnified images of small objects. The microscopes commonly used
even capture up to 500
in the school laboratory are light microscopes (Fig. 4.8). They can
photos in a second. This
greatly enhances the magnify the image of an object up to several hundred times.
research in cell biology.
Details can be found at:
Electron microscopes (Fig. 4.9) are more powerful than light
[Link]/r/ microscopes. They can magnify the image of an object by up to
isteu4i02.e
several million times. They are usually used in the research
laboratory.

Learn more
The discovery of cells

Robert Hooke (1653–1703),

a British scientist, first
discovered cells. He
developed a microscope Fig. 4.8 A light microscope Fig. 4.9 An electron microscope
and used it to observe used in the school laboratory used in the research laboratory
slices of cork from a tree.
Hooke noted that the cork
was made up of many
small ‘boxes’. He called
these boxes ‘cells’. hair

scalp

Fig. 4.10 Hair and scalp seen under an electron microscope

We can use a microscope to observe cells.

microscope 顯微鏡 naked eye 肉眼

light microscope 光學顯微鏡 cork 木栓層
electron microscope 電子顯微鏡 scalp 頭皮 7
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Skills Practice Before we use a microscope in the laboratory, let us first learn the
(Using a microscope)
SPS: PA different parts of the microscope and their functions.

eyepiece
 the lens closest to our coarse adjustment knob
eye when we look
through the microscope;  used for making large
magnifies the image of adjustments in focusing
the object

fine adjustment knob

objective
 used for making small
 the lens nearest to the adjustments in focusing
object; magnifies the
image of the object

arm
clip
 the part we use to carry
 holds the object (slide) the microscope from
on the stage one place to another

diaphragm stage
 adjusts the amount of
 the place where the
light entering the
object is held for viewing
microscope

mirror
base
 reflects light onto the
object  the bottom stand of the
microscope

Fig. 4.11 Main parts of the microscope and their functions

Active learning
3D model
(Microscope)

When using the microscope, we should remember that:

1 The microscope should be put on a flat surface and

should not be placed too close to the edge of the bench.

2 We should hold the arm with one hand and support the
base with the other hand when carrying a microscope.

 The proper way to hold

a microscope

eyepiece 接目鏡 diaphragm 光欄 fine adjustment knob 微調節器 base 鏡座

objective 接物鏡 mirror 反光鏡 arm 鏡臂
8 clip 夾 coarse adjustment knob 粗調節器 stage 載物台
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

A microscope has different eyepieces and objectives. Each of them
has a magnification marked on its body. For example, an eyepiece
or an objective marked with a magnification of 10X means that it
magnifies the image ten times the size of the object.

From Fig. 4.12 and Fig. 4.13 below, you may notice that:

• the longer the eyepiece, the lower the magnification.

• the longer the objective, the higher the magnification.

Fig. 4.12 Eyepieces with different magnifications Fig. 4.13 Objectives with different magnifications

The magnification of a microscope can be calculated as follows:

Magnification of Magnification of Magnification of

= ×
a microscope the eyepiece the objective

Eyepiece Objective Total magnification

5X 4X × 20

10X 10X × 100

15X 40X × 600

Table 4.2 Different combinations of eyepiece and objective and the resulting
magnification
5-minute Quiz
(Quiz 2: The microscope)

magnification 放大率

9
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

SPS: OB, PA

Experiment 4.1 Experiment video

[Link]/r/
isexptu4i01.e

Using a microscope
Material and apparatus

microscope 1 table lamp 1 English newspaper

slide 1 scissors 1 pair adhesive tape

Procedure

1. Place the microscope near a light source (e.g. a lamp or near lamp
a window).

Caution
Never use direct sunlight as a light source. This
can cause permanent damage to your eye.

2. Choose a low-power eyepiece and rotate a low-power

objective into position.

objective

3. Look through the eyepiece with both eyes open. Adjust the
mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness.

Tip
Some microscopes have a built-in light source
and have no mirror. You can simply switch on
the light for observation.
mirror

4. Cut a piece of newspaper (about 1 cm × 1 cm) with a adhesive tape

letter ‘p’ printed on it. Stick it onto a slide using
adhesive tape. p

slide

Cont'd

10
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

5. Place the slide on the stage. Move the letter ‘p’ to
the centre of the hole in the stage. Hold the slide in
place with the clips.

clip

stage

6. Look from the side. Turn the coarse adjustment knob

carefully to lower the objective (or to raise the stage)
until the objective is just above the slide.
coarse
Caution adjustment
knob
Do not let the objective
hit the slide.

7. Look through the eyepiece with both eyes open.

Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite
direction slowly. Stop turning when you can see a
clear image of the letter.
coarse
adjustment
knob

8. Turn the fine adjustment knob up and down until

you can obtain the sharpest image.

fine
adjustment
knob

Cont'd

11
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

9. Draw what you see and write the magnification in

the space provided.

(a) Is the image formed by the microscope

P
magnified or diminished? Magnified

(b) Is the image formed by the microscope upright

Inverted Image of the letter ‘p’
or inverted?
(× )

10. Observe the slide again.

(a) Which direction does the image move when you move the slide to the left?
The image moves to the right.

(b) Which direction does the image move when you move the slide towards yourself?
The image moves away from me.

Active learning
Useful video
(Using a microscope)
• Below are the key steps in using a microscope:
1. Place the microscope near a light source.
2. Use a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective.
3. Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness.
4. Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place using
the clips.
5. Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is
just above the slide.
6. Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction
until you see a clear image.
7. Turn the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest
image.
• The image observed is magnified (magnified/
diminished) and inverted (upright/inverted)
under the microscope.

diminished 縮小
upright 正立
12 inverted 倒置
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

4.2 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i02.e

1. Common magnifications of the eyepieces and objectives of a microscope used in a

school laboratory are:

Magnifications of eyepieces: 5X, 10X and 15X

Magnifications of objectives: 4X, 10X and 40X

(a) What is the lowest magnification of the microscope? × 20

(b) What is the highest magnification of the microscope? × 600

2. The letter below is observed under the microscope.

Which of the following images will be produced?

A. B. C. D.

3. The following are the steps of using a microscope. Arrange them in the correct order.
(a) Choose a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective.
(b) Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place with the clips.
(c) Turn the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest image.
(d) Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness.
(e) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until you see a clear image.

Correct order: a  d  b  e  c

13
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Skills Practice 2. Making biological drawings

(Making biological drawings)
SPS: CM When observing cells with a microscope, you often need to draw a
diagram to record your observation. Remember the following tips
when you make biological drawings.

Different parts of the drawing should be in correct proportion.

Use a sharp HB pencil to draw and erase with a rubber. Never draw in pen.
Leave enough space to label all features. Draw label lines with a ruler.
Make sure the lines do not cross each other.

Use single solid lines. The lines

should be smooth and clear.
cell membrane

nucleus DO NOT shade the diagram. Use

dots that are close together to
cytoplasm represent an area darker in colour.

An ox eye cell (× 100) Give a title to the drawing and write

the magnification (e.g. × 100).

SPS: CM

Activity 4.2

What’s wrong with this drawing?

There are four mistakes in the following biological drawing of an ox eye cell. Circle the
mistakes and make a correct drawing in the space provided.

cytoplasm cytoplasm

nucleus

cell membrane
cell membrane
nucleus
(× 400) An ox eye cell (× 400)

5-minute Quiz
biological drawing 生物繪圖 (Quiz 3: Observing cells with
a microscope)
14
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

3. Observing animal cells and plant cells

You will now do experiments to observe animal cells and plant cells
under a microscope. In the experiments, you will try to identify their
basic structures and make biological drawings of the cells you
observe.
SPS: OB, PA, CM

Experiment 4.2 Experiment video

[Link]/r/
isexptu4i02.e

Observing ox eye cells with a microscope

Material and apparatus
Caution
microscope 1 ox eye 1 • Wear protective gloves as animal
specimen may carry germs.
slide 1 watch glass 1
• After the experiment, clean the
cover slip 1 methylene blue solution bench with disinfectant and wash
forceps 1 pair tissue paper your hands thoroughly with soap.

slide

Procedure

1. Gently touch the cornea of an ox eye with a slide to

cornea
collect some ox eye cells. watch glass

2. (a) Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the ox eye cells on the slide. The solution
stains the cells and makes them easier to observe.

(b) Place a cover slip over the solution with a pair of forceps. First, place one edge of
the cover slip on the slide. Then, slowly lower the cover slip onto the slide.

(c) Use a piece of tissue paper to absorb any excess methylene blue solution.

tissue paper

methylene
blue
solution

excess solution
cover slip
Tip
Make sure no
air bubbles
are trapped.

bubble trapped
Cont'd

cornea 角膜
methylene blue solution 亞甲藍溶液
15
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

3. Observe the slide under the microscope by using the objective with the lowest
magnification.

4. Make a biological drawing of two to three cells you have observed. Pay attention to the
tips you learned about drawing and labelling on p.14.

cell membrane

nucleus

cytoplasm

Ox eye cells (× )

SPS: OB, PA, CM

Experiment 4.3 Experiment video

[Link]/r/
isexptu4i03.e

Observing onion skin cells with a microscope

Material and apparatus

microscope 1 forceps 1 pair iodine solution

slide 1 scissors 1 pair tissue paper
cover slip 1 onion scale leaf 1 piece

Procedure

1. Collect a piece of onion scale leaf from your

onion scale leaf
teacher. Use a pair of scissors to cut the scale
leaf into the size of about 1 cm × 1 cm.
1 cm
1 cm

2. Use a pair of forceps to peel off a piece of

skin from the inside surface of the small
onion scale leaf.
inside surface of the
onion scale leaf
Cont'd

16
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

3. (a) Spread the piece of onion skin on a slide. Add a drop of iodine solution.

(b) Place a cover slip over the onion skin with a pair of forceps. First, place one edge of
the cover slip on the slide. Then, slowly lower the cover slip onto the slide. Make
sure no air bubbles are trapped.

(c) Use a tissue paper to absorb any excess iodine solution.

tissue paper

onion iodine
skin solution
cover slip
slide
excess solution

Caution
Iodine is harmful. Avoid contact
with skin.

4. Observe the slide under the microscope by using the objective with the lowest
magnification.
5. Make a biological drawing of two to three cells you have observed. Pay attention once
again to the tips you learned on p.14.

Misconception
• Students may use a single line to
cell wall represent the cell wall. Remind
them to draw two lines in order to
show the thickness of the cell
nucleus wall.
• Students may think that the outer
cell membrane line is the cell wall and the inner
line is the cell membrane.
Emphasize that the space
between the two lines represents
the cell wall and the inner line
represents the cell membrane.
Onion skin cells (× )

iodine solution 碘液

17
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity
Section objectives
Students should be able to
• recognize that the D Genetic materials inside the nucleus of
chromosomes found in the
nucleus of a cell contain the a cell
genetic materials DNA.
• state that there are 46 We have learned that inside the nucleus, there are genetic materials
chromosomes in a human
body cell. which control the activities of the cell. DNA (deoxyribonucleic
• recognize that the sex acid) is the genetic material inside the nucleus. Do you know what
chromosomes in the male
body cells and the female DNA is? It is often described as the ‘book of life’. This is because it
body cells are different. contains all instructions needed for the cells to carry out activities
We will further discuss DNA’s role so that our bodies can function, grow and reproduce. DNA also
in heredity in Section 4.5.
determines what features we receive from our parents.

1. Chromosomes and DNA

Learn more Inside the nucleus of a cell, there are thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins.
Red blood cells have no
chromosomes The DNA coils up and wraps around the proteins.
Unlike all other cells in the
body, mature red blood
cells do not have a nucleus.
Therefore, they have no
chromosomes. chromosome

Teaching notes
Mature red blood cells in cell
mammals do not have a
nucleus. This allows the cell
to have more space to
accommodate haemoglobin
(血紅蛋白) and thus the cells
can carry more oxygen. nucleus

Teaching notes
If the DNA in one human cell was uncoiled and protein
stretched out, it would be about 2 m long. Since the
nucleus of a typical cell is about 6 µm in diameter,
organizing DNA into the compact structure of
chromosomes is necessary.
DNA
1 µm (micrometre) = 10–6 m
Active learning
Animation
(Structural relationship
between chromosomes Fig. 4.14 DNA coils around proteins to form a chromosome.
and DNA)

• DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.

• Inside the nucleus, there are chromosomes , which
are made up of DNA coiling around some proteins.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 脫氧核糖核酸 protein 蛋白質

chromosome 染色體
18
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

2. Chromosomes in human body cells

Do you know how many chromosomes a human body cell contains?

Are there any differences between the chromosomes in male body
cells and female body cells? Try to find these out in the following
activity.

SPS: OB, CS

Activity 4.3

Studying the chromosomes in human body cells

Carefully study the chromosomes found in a male body cell and those found in a female
body cell below.

Male body cell Female body cell

1. How many chromosomes are there in a human body cell? 46

2. The chromosomes occur as pairs. How many pairs of chromosomes are there in a human
body cell? 23 pairs

3. Compare the 23rd pair of chromosomes (in the orange box) in the male body cell and
that in the female body cell. What is the difference between them?
In the male body cell, the chromosomes are XY. However, in the female body cell, the chromosomes are
XX. / There are one long and one short chromosomes in the male body cell while they are two long
ones in the female body cell.

Teaching notes
The chromosomes shown in Activity 4.3 are not in X-shape as they are not duplicated yet.
Chromosomes duplicate only when the cell is about to divide.

19
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

• The sex cells (sperms and ova) Every cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (or
are the exceptions. They
contain only 23 chromosomes. 46 chromosomes). There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of
We will learn more about them sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes determine whether a baby
in Section 4.3.
is male or female. In females, the sex chromosomes are a pair of
• Autosomes are the
chromosomes other than the X chromosomes (XX). In males, the sex chromosomes are one
sex chromosomes.
X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY).

Teaching notes
• The chromosome number
varies between different
species.
Learn more
Species Chromosome Chromosomal disorders
number
Sometimes, a baby may be born with additional
fruit fly 8 or missing chromosomes. This results in
mouse 40 chromosomal disorders. Down syndrome is one
human 46 example, with an extra chromosome 21.
chimpanzee 48
potato 48
dog 78
• There is no relationship
between the size or
complexity of an organism
and its chromosome
number.

Each human body cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes,

of which one pair is the sex chromosomes.

4.3 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i03.e

1. Write the key term with the description below. The first one has been done.
(a) chromosomes : thread-like structures inside the nucleus of a cell
(b) DNA : the genetic material and the ‘book of life’
(c) sex chromosomes : the two chromosomes that determine the sex of a baby
(d) autosomes : the 22 pairs of chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes
2. Which of the following represents the sex chromosomes of a normal female?
A. XY   B. XXX   C. XX   D. XYY C

autosome 常染色體 Down syndrome 唐氏綜合症

sex chromosome 性染色體
20
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Section objective
Students should gain some E Cell division and growth
ideas of cell division and
growth. All living things grow. When they grow, the number of cells in their
bodies increases by cell division. During cell division, a cell divides
into two new cells called daughter cells. The daughter cells absorb
nutrients and become larger. When they reach a certain size, they
may divide again. As a result of repeated cell divisions and the
increase in size of cells, living things grow bigger.

Learn more cell membrane

1 Before cell division, the genetic
What is cancer? nucleus materials in the nucleus make an
identical copy of themselves.
Normally, cells in the body cytoplasm
divide in an orderly way.
However, when cell
division gets out of control,
cancer may result. Cancer
cells continue to divide.
They can spread to other
parts of the body. 2 The nucleus divides into two.

3 The cytoplasm divides into two.

 A cancer cell (× 2000)

Teaching notes
• Fig. 4.15 shows mitotic cell division (有絲
分裂). Each daughter cell formed has a
4 Two daughter cells are formed,
complete set of genetic materials. Mitotic each containing a nucleus.
cell division provides new cells for growth
and replacing worn-out or damaged cells
(e.g. skin cells and blood cells).
• Another type of cell division is called
meiotic cell division (減數分裂). Sex cells
are formed by meiotic cell division. Each
sperm and ovum formed contains half of 5 The daughter cells absorb nutrients
the genetic materials of the parent cell. and grow bigger.
Active learning
Animation
(Cell division)
Fig. 4.15 Cell division

• Cells can undergo cell division to form new cells.

• Living things grow by increasing the number and
size of cells.

cell division 細胞分裂 5-minute Quiz

daughter cell 子細胞 (Quiz 4: Genetic materials,
cell division and growth) 21
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Section objective
How are cells organized in
Students should gain some
ideas of cell differentiation. 4.2 living things?

A The right cells for the job

In multicelluar organisms, there are many different types of cells.
Each type carries out a particular job. For example, in our bodies,
there are hundreds of different types of cells. Some cells are
specialized for carrying messages, some for movement, and some
for carrying oxygen around the body, etc.

Supplementary notes These different types of specialized cells all come from stem cells.
What are stem cells? Stem cells can differentiate into different types of cells. Cells
(See p.T24)
become specialized to perform a particular function. The process
of cells becoming specialized is called cell differentiation.

stem cells

el n
ti
c

o
l d t i a
ifferen

nerve cells

muscle cells red blood cells

Fig. 4.16 Stem cells can differentiate into different types of cells.

Some examples of specialized animal cells and specialized plant

cells, and their functions are shown in Fig. 4.17 and Fig. 4.18 on the
next page. Note that there is a variety of shapes and sizes of cells.
The shape and size of the cell are closely related to its function.

specialize 專門 cell differentiation 細胞分化

stem cell 幹細胞
22 differentiate 分化
 4
calcium and
Teaching notes nucleus phosphorus
Other examples include:
• Bone cells: are surrounded by a
Nerve cells

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

hard substance made of calcium
and phosphorus.
They are long and have nucleus
many branches. This • Muscle cells: are usually long
enables them to carry and have many fibres that can
messages throughout relax and contract.
the body.

Fat cells

Skin cells
They store so much fat
that the nucleus is
They are flat and close pushed to the cell
together. This makes them membrane. The large
a good protective layer for store of fat helps the
the body. body keep warm.

Fig. 4.17 Examples of specialized animal cells and their functions

Leaf cells
They contain many
chloroplasts for the plant to
carry out photosynthesis.
Transporting cells
They are long and tube-shaped.
They transport water, nutrients
and minerals throughout the
plant. Root hair cells
They increase the surface area
of the root in contact with the
soil, so that more water and
minerals can be absorbed. soil
Fig. 4.18 Examples of specialized plant cells and their functions

Cells can differentiate into different types to perform

different functions.

23
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity
Section objectives
• Students should be able to
state that the levels of B Levels of organization of living things
organization in most living
things are cells, tissues, Have you seen an orchestral performance? In an orchestra, each
organs and systems. [E]
• recognize that organs in member plays his or her own instrument. However, for the
different systems are
performance to be successful, the members must work together.
specialized for carrying out
different functions in living
things. [E]
EXTENSION

Fig. 4.19 To have a successful performance, the members in an orchestra must work together.

Like an orchestra, multicellular organisms are highly organized. The

different types of specialized cells in an organism must perform
their individual functions. At the same time, they all work together
to ensure the organism functions well and stays alive.

Different levels of organization

There are several different levels of organization in multicellular

organisms. Fig. 4.20 below shows an example of the levels of
organization in humans.

cell tissue organ system organism

heart muscle heart muscle heart circulatory the human body

cell tissue system

Fig. 4.20 An example of levels of organization in humans

tissue 組織 circulatory system 循環系統

organ 器官
24 system 系統
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Supplementary notes Tissues
Different types of tissues
in the human body Tissues are groups of similar cells working together. Examples of
(See p.T25)
human tissues are:

• muscle tissue (for movement)

• nerve tissue (for carrying messages in the body)

• bone tissue (for support)

Examples of plant tissues are:

In Unit 3 of Book 1A, you have • vascular tissue (for transporting water, nutrients and minerals)
already learned about vascular
and non-vascular plants. • epidermal tissue (for protection)

EXTENSION
Organs

Individual tissues do not work alone. They group together to form an

organ. For example, the heart is an organ that consists of heart
muscle tissue, blood tissue and nerve tissue. All of these tissues
work together and enable the heart to pump blood around the body.
Fig. 4.21 below shows examples of organs in the human body.

brain

eye
Teaching notes ear
The skin is the largest organ nose
in the human body.

lung
heart

liver stomach

skin

flower

leaf
Fig. 4.21 Examples of organs in the human body

stem
In plants, the organs include the flower, leaf, stem and root. The
stem is an organ consisting of vascular tissue and epidermal tissue.

root
Fig. 4.22 Examples of organs in plants

tissue 組織 epidermal tissue 表皮組織

organ 器官 stomach 胃
liver 肝臟 25
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity
Prior knowledge
Systems In primary level, students have learned about the functions
of major organs and systems in the human body.
i�ea� � S���n��
A group of organs that work together is called a system. The stomach,
intestines and liver are involved in digestion. These and several
other organs together make up the digestive system. Other examples
Importance of cell
organization of systems in the human body include the breathing system, the
Cell organization is reproductive system, the nervous system and the circulatory system.
essential for an organism
to function well. Different
types of cells are well
organized so as to The digestive system The breathing system
complete a variety of
tasks, for example,
breathing, reproduction,
digestion of food,
excretion, etc.
EXTENSION

The reproductive system The nervous system The circulatory system

Fig. 4.23 Some systems in the human body

Different systems in our bodies work together to support our lives

and keep us healthy.

The levels of organization of multicellular organisms include:

Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

system 系統 reproductive system 生殖系統 intestine 腸

digestive system 消化系統 nervous system 神經系統
26 breathing system 呼吸系統 circulatory system 循環系統
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.4

Identifying the organs in different systems

within the human body
Your teacher will show you a human torso. With your teacher’s help,
identify the organs found in different systems within the body.

EXTENSION
SPS: OB, CS

Activity 4.5

Observing tissues of the liver and lungs

The following photos show a pig’s liver and pig’s lungs, and photomicrographs of their
tissues. Observe carefully and find out the differences between these two kinds of tissues.

Pig’s liver Pig’s lungs

Liver tissue (× 40) Lung tissue (× 50)

1. Discuss how the pig’s liver tissue is different from the pig’s lung tissue.
1. Pig’s liver tissue is dense while there is much empty space in the pig’s lung tissue.
2. Search the Internet to learn more about the functions of the liver and the lungs.
2. Liver has a wide range of functions necessary for survival, including metabolism, digestion,
heat production, detoxification and controlling blood glucose level, etc.
Lungs contain many air sacs for gas exchange.

27
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.6

Observing different organs of a potted plant

Your teacher will temporarily remove a potted plant from the soil. Observe the different
organs of the plant as listed below. Be careful not to damage the plant when you observe.
After the activity, your teacher may try to put the plant back into the soil and allow it to
grow again there.
Organs of plant:
Flower     Leaf     Stem     Root
EXTENSION

Draw a labelled diagram to show the

different organs of the plant.

(Answers depend on the plant observed.)

4.4 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i04.e

1. Arrange the following levels of organization in the order of increasing complexity.

Organ   Cell   Organism   Tissue   System
Cell, Tissue, Organ, System, Organism

2. To which system in the human body does each organ below belong?

Organ 1 Organ 2 Organ 3

A. digestive system circulatory system breathing system

B. digestive system breathing system circulatory system
C. circulatory system breathing system nervous system
D. circulatory system reproductive system nervous system B

5-minute Quiz
28 (Quiz 5: How are cells organized in living things?)
 Section objectives
Students should be able to
• identify sperms and ova as the male and female sex cells respectively.
4
4.3 Human reproduction

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

• state that a sperm and an ovum each carries 23 chromosomes.
• identify the different structures of the male and female reproductive
systems and recognize the functions of these structures.
In Unit 3, we learned that reproduction is one of the vital functions
of all living things. Living things produce offspring to ensure the
continuity of species. In this section, we will focus on human
reproduction.

Fig. 4.24 Reproduction A Human sex cells

ensures the continuity of
every species.
Humans reproduce by sexual reproduction. This involves the fusion
of a male sex cell called sperm and a female sex cell called ovum
(plural: ova) or egg. Let us examine sperms and ova first.
SPS: OB, PA, CM

Experiment 4.4 Experiment video

[Link]/r/
isexptu4i04.e
Experiment preparation
Examining prepared slides of sperms and ova The prepared slides of sperms and
ova can be purchased at laboratory supplies providers
Material and apparatus (e.g. Oriental Chemicals & Lab. Supplies Ltd.).
(Price: around HK$50 each)
microscope 1 prepared slide of sperms 1 prepared slide of ova 1

(Answers may vary. It is difficult to see the nuclei of cells

Procedure under a light microscope. Remind students to draw what
they actually see, not what they think need to be seen.)
1. Your teacher will give you a prepared slide of sperms and
Tip
a prepared slide of ova. Observe each of them through a
Refer to p.14 for the tips of
microscope and record your observations below. making biological drawings.

Sperm Ovum
Appearance (Make a biological drawing of a sperm) (Make a biological drawing of an ovum)

nucleus
nucleus

A sperm (× ) An ovum (× )
Size smaller larger

Shape like a tadpole spherical

2. Based on the features of a sperm and an ovum, which cell do you think has the following
function?

(a) Can move by itself sperm (b) Has a food store ovum

offspring 後代 sperm 精子
sexual reproduction 有性生殖 ovum/egg 卵
fusion 融合 29
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

1. Sperms

The sperm has a head and a tail. It looks like a tadpole. There is a
nucleus inside the head. The nucleus carries the genetic materials of
the male parent. The tail enables the sperm to swim.

0.05 mm

head

nucleus
 carries the genetic
materials of the male
parent tail
 beats to allow the
sperm to swim

Fig. 4.25 A human sperm Fig. 4.26 Structure of a human sperm

(× 1800)

Teaching notes
Sperms are the smallest cells in the human body
2. Ova while ova (eggs) are the largest cells. One ovum
has a size similar to a full stop.
The ovum has a spherical shape. It is much larger than a sperm. It is
surrounded by a jelly coat. The nucleus of the ovum carries the
genetic materials of the female parent. The cytoplasm contains food
substances. Unlike the sperm, the ovum cannot move by itself.

0.1 mm

cell membrane
cytoplasm
 contains food
substances
nucleus
 carries the genetic

jelly coat materials of the

female parent

Fig. 4.27 A human ovum Fig. 4.28 Structure of a human ovum

(× 500)

Male sex cells are called sperms and female sex cells
are called ova .

jelly coat 啫喱狀保護層 spherical 球體

30
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

3. Chromosomes in human sex cells
In Section 4.1, you observed the chromosomes in human body cells.
You learned that:
• in every human body cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes:
22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
• in female body cells, the sex chromosomes are XX while those
in male body cells are XY.

How about the chromosomes in human sex cells? Do they differ

from those in the body cells? The photomicrographs below show the
chromosomes in a sperm and the chromosomes in an ovum.

a b

Chromosomes in a sperm Chromosomes in an ovum

Fig. 4.29 Chromosomes in a sperm and an ovum

Sperms and ova are formed from father’s sperm-producing cells, and
mother’s ovum-producing cells respectively. During their formation,
each pair of autosomes and the pair of sex chromosomes separate.
As a result, each sex cell has 23 chromosomes.
• In females, each ovum contains 22 autosomes and one X
chromosome.
Fig. 4.29 (a) above only shows the • In males, all the sperms contain 22 autosomes. Among all
chromosomes in the sperms
containing a Y chromosome. sperms, half in number contain an X chromosome and half in

Teaching notes
number contain a Y chromosome.
• If a sperm carrying a Y chromosome fuses with an ovum, the
The type of sperm that fuses with the ovum during resulting zygote will have one X chromosome and one Y
fertilization determines the sex of a child. chromosome (XY) and will develop into a boy.
• If a sperm carrying an X chromosome fuses with • Since the two types of sperms are formed in equal proportions,
an ovum, the resulting zygote will have two X and the fertilization is a random process, theoretically there is an
chromosomes (XX) and will develop into a girl. equal chance (i.e. 50%) of having a boy or a girl for each birth. 31
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

The table below summarizes the number of chromosomes in human

body cells and sex cells.

Male Female

Body cell Sex cell (sperm) Body cell Sex cell (ovum)

No. of chromosomes 46 (in 23 pairs) 23 46 (in 23 pairs) 23

No. of autosomes 44 22 44 22

Sex chromosomes XY half in number: X XX X

half in number: Y

Table 4.3 Summary of the number of chromosomes in human body cells and sex cells

In humans, a sperm and an ovum each carries 23 chromosomes.

4.5 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i05.e

1. Complete the table below to compare a human sperm and a human ovum.

Sperm Ovum

What is the shape? (a) like a tadpole (b) spherical

How is its size compared (c) smaller (d) larger

to the other sex cell?

Can it move or swim? (e) yes (f) no

Does it have a food store? (g) no (h) yes

2. Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.
(a) In females, each ovum contains an X chromosome. T

(b) Each sex cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. F

(c) All sperms contain a Y chromosome. (Among all sperms, only half in number F
contain a Y chromosome. )
(d) In males, each body cell contains one X chromosome and one
Y chromosome (XY). (except red blood cells) T

32
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Prior knowledge B Human reproductive systems
In primary level, students
have learned about the basic
structures (but not the
Sperms and ova are produced in the male and female reproductive
functions) of the male and systems respectively. The structures of these systems are different.
female reproductive systems.
1. Male reproductive system
Teaching notes
The fluid produced by the
sex glands is slightly alkaline In males, sperms are produced in the testes (singular: testis) which
(with a pH range of 7.2–8.0) are enclosed in the scrotum. The sperm ducts connect the testes to
to neutralize any remaining
urine (which is acidic) in the the urethra. When the sperms travel up the sperm ducts to the
urethra. The fluid can also urethra, they are mixed with a fluid from the sex glands. This fluid
neutralize the acids
produced by the vagina. It contains nutrients that keep the sperms alive. The sperms and the
contains fructose which is fluid together form the semen. The semen flows through the urethra
used by the sperms as an
energy source. to the tip of the penis, where it is passed out of the body.

sex glands urinary bladder

 produce a fluid which (not a part of the
contains nutrients for the reproductive system)
sperms
urethra
sperm duct  carries semen and
 carries sperms from the urine out of the body
testes to the urethra

penis
testis
 ejects semen to the
 produces sperms and
female reproductive
sex hormones
system during sexual
intercourse
scrotum
 a bag of skin which
holds the testes
Fig. 4.30 Front view of the male reproductive system
Teaching notes
Human sperms are very
sensitive to temperature.
The testes are held in the
scrotum so that they can be sex glands
kept at a temperature
slightly lower than the body
temperature.
urethra

sperm duct penis

testis

Fig. 4.31 Side view of the male reproductive system

testis 睾丸 urethra 尿道 penis 陰莖 sex hormone 性激素

scrotum 陰囊 sex gland 性腺體 sexual intercourse 性交
sperm duct 輸精管 semen 精液 33
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

2. Female reproductive system

In females, ova are produced in the ovaries. Usually only one ovum
is released into the oviduct each month. This is called ovulation.
The ovum is then moved through the oviduct to the uterus. The
uterus opens to the vagina.

Teaching notes
Teaching notes oviduct The uterus is normally about
The oviducts are lined with  carries the ovum from the ovary to the uterus the size of a pear, about 8 cm (l)
cilia (纖毛). The beating
× 5 cm (w) × 3 cm (d). During
action of the cilia helps
pregnancy, the uterus can
move an ovum along the
expand to the size of a
oviduct.
watermelon.
uterus
 the place where a foetus grows
and develops before its birth

ovary
 produces ova and vagina
sex hormones  receives the penis during
sexual intercourse; a baby
passes through here at birth

Teaching notes
The bacteria in the vagina
Fig. 4.32 Front view of the female reproductive system produces acids to kill infectious
organisms like fungi. The fluid
carrying the sperms is alkaline
oviduct to neutralize the acids and
allows the sperms to survive.
ovary
uterus
Teaching notes
• A male starts to produce sperms at
puberty. The production of sperms
continues throughout his life.
vagina
• A female has about two millions of
immature ova in the ovaries at birth.
Only about 450 of these mature and
are released from the ovaries, until
menopause (更年期) (around 45 to
50 years old).

Fig. 4.33 Side view of the female reproductive system

Sperms are produced in the testes of males. Ova are

produced in the ovaries of females.

ovary 卵巢 uterus 子宮
ovulation 排卵 vagina 陰道
34 oviduct 輸卵管
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.7

Identifying the different structures in the human male and female

reproductive systems
Your teacher will show you human male and female torsos. Identify the different structures
of the male and female reproductive systems.

 A male human torso  A female human torso

4.6 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i06.e

1. Which of the following statements about the male reproductive system is INCORRECT?
A. The testes produce sperms.
B. The sex glands produce a fluid which controls the size of sperms.
C. The scrotum holds the testes.
D. The urethra carries semen and urine out of the body. B

2. Which of the following statements about the female reproductive system is INCORRECT?
A. The uterus is where a foetus grows and develops.
B. The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
C. The oviducts also carry urine out of the body.
D. The ovaries produce ova. C

5-minute Quiz
(Quiz 6: Human sex cells and
human reproductive systems)
35
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity
Section objectives
Students should be able to
Teaching notes
An ejaculation may release C Process of human reproduction
about 400 millions of • understand how a new life is born.
sperms. However, only a 1. Fertilization • state that the zygote formed from fertilization carries
small portion can reach the 46 chromosomes (two sets of chromosomes).
oviducts. Some sperms may
be trapped by the mucus of A new life begins when a sperm fuses with an ovum. During sexual
the vagina. In addition, the intercourse, the husband inserts his erect penis into the vagina of
acidic environment and the
body temperature may not his wife. Semen containing millions of sperms is ejected into the
be favourable for the survival vagina. The sperms swim up through the uterus into the oviducts.
of sperms.

If an ovum is present in the oviduct, one of the sperms

may fuse with the ovum to form a zygote (also called
husband
a fertilized ovum). This process is called fertilization.
If there is no ovum in either of the oviducts, there is
certainly no fertilization. All the sperms will die in
two to three days.
wife
Teaching notes
After ovulation, an ovum
can survive for about 24
to 36 hours. Fertilization

vagina penis

Fig. 4.34 The husband inserts his penis into the

vagina of his wife during sexual intercourse.

Teaching notes
Movement of sperms is also assisted by the muscular
Only the head of the sperm enters
contractions of the uterus and the oviducts.
the ovum while its tail remains
outside. The nucleus of the sperm
fuses with the nucleus of the
ovum to form a zygote.

Sperms swim up the

uterus, and then enter
the oviducts.

After ovulation, an
Penis ejects semen into ovum is released
the vagina. into the oviduct.
Active learning
Simulation
(Sexual intercourse
and fertilization)
Fig. 4.35 Sperms swim towards the oviducts and fertilization takes place

sexual intercourse 性交 fertilization 受精 erect 勃起的

zygote 合子
36 fertilized ovum 受精卵
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

We know that the sperm and the ovum each carries 23 chromosomes
(one set of chromosomes). We may use ‘N’ to denote one set of
chromosomes. When the sperm and the ovum fuse together during
fertilization, the zygote formed has 46 chromosomes, that is, 2N
(two sets of chromosomes).

father

Sperm
23 chromosomes (N)

mother
Zygote
46 chromosomes (2N)

Ovum
23 chromosomes (N)

Fig. 4.36 The zygote formed from fertilization carries 46 chromosomes (two sets of chromosomes).

• Fertilization occurs when a sperm fuses with an ovum to

form a zygote . This usually takes place in the
oviduct of the female body.
• The sperm and the ovum each carries 23

chromosomes. The zygote formed after fertilization carries

46 chromosomes.

i�ea� � S���n��

Number of chromosomes is kept constant from generation to generation

If each parent passed two sets of chromosomes (2N) to their offspring, the
offspring would have 4N chromosomes and then the next generation would
have 8N and so on. By halving the number of chromosomes during the
formation of sex cells (i.e. N in each sex cell), the number of chromosomes
is kept constant at 2N from generation to generation.

37
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Teaching notes 2. Implantation

• Implantation occurs
around seven days after
fertilization. After fertilization, the zygote divides many times to form a ball of
• During implantation, the cells called an embryo. The embryo is moved through the oviduct to
ball of cells sinks into the
lining of the uterus, not the uterus. It then attaches to the uterine lining. This process is
the wall of the uterus. called implantation. The woman is now pregnant.

2
The zygote divides and
develops into an embryo.

1
After fertilization, a
zygote is formed.

3
The embryo
uterine lining implants into the
uterine lining.

Fig. 4.37 The process of implantation

Teaching notes
Sometimes, implantation of
an embryo may take place
outside the uterus. This is
called ectopic pregnancy (宮 The process in which the embryo attaches to the uterine lining
外孕). The embryo is most implantation
commonly implanted in the is called .
oviduct. If this happens, the
pregnancy must be stopped
surgically, otherwise the
growing embryo will cause
the oviduct to burst and the Learn more
mother will be in danger.
Test tube babies 2 fertilization
Teaching notes Some couples are unable to have 1 collect ova
• vitro = glass; in vitro = in a children, for example, the husband
glass container cannot produce enough sperms or the
• As IVF often takes place wife’s oviducts are blocked.
in glass containers such Scientists have developed a method
as test tubes or Petri called in vitro fertilization (IVF) to help 4 implantation
dishes, babies born in this these couples. First, ova are collected
way are often called ‘test from the wife and fertilized in a dish by
tube babies’. The first test the husband’s sperms. The zygote
tube baby, Louise Brown, grows into an embryo in the dish. It is
was born in 1978. Robert then put back into the uterus of the
G. Edwards (1925–2013), mother for implantation and continues
the physiologist who to grow. Babies born in this way are 3 grows into Teaching notes
called test tube babies. an embryo A few ova are collected to
developed this method
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2010. produce a number of embryos.
People can select the desired
one for implantation so as to
embryo 胚胎 in vitro fertilization (IVF ) 人工受孕
uterine lining 子宮內膜 test tube baby 試管嬰兒 increase the success rate.
38 implantation 植入
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

3. Development of the embryo

After implantation, the embryo begins to develop in the uterus of its

mother. It develops inside a bag called the amnion. The amnion is
filled with a watery liquid which acts as a cushion to protect the
embryo against shock.
Classroom question
Q: As the embryo is bathed At the site where the embryo is implanted in the uterine lining, a
in a watery liquid, does it placenta begins to form. The placenta is attached to the embryo by
suffer from suffocation?
A: No, because the embryo an umbilical cord.
does not breathe. The
exchange of gases
occurs in the placenta.

placenta
uterine lining

umbilical cord
embryo
amnion

Fig. 4.38 A seven-week-old

embryo
Fig. 4.39 An embryo develops in the uterus

As the embryo grows, it needs to get oxygen and nutrients from its
mother, and get rid of carbon dioxide and other wastes. The placenta
allows this exchange of materials between the embryo’s blood and
the mother’s blood.

placenta

embryo’s
blood mother’s blood
Note that the embryo’s blood
and the mother’s blood do not
mix together.
embryo

Teaching notes
Through the placenta, Key:
materials can be exchanged carbon dioxide and wastes
by diffusion. The placenta
umbilical cord oxygen and nutrients
also secretes hormones to
maintain the thickness of the
uterine lining throughout
pregnancy. Fig. 4.40 The relationship between the embryo, the umbilical cord and the placenta

amnion 羊膜 exchange of materials 物質交換

placenta 胎盤
umbilical cord 臍帶 39
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Learn more The embryo develops into a foetus about eight weeks after
fertilization. The foetus has all the major organs formed. The foetus
Examining the growth of the
foetus then continues to develop in the uterus. About 38 weeks after
The growth of a foetus fertilization, the foetus is ready to be born.
inside the uterus at
different stages can be
examined by ultrasound
Fig. 4.41 below shows the growth of an embryo from implantation
scanning. to a foetus just before birth.

3 4
Foetus: 8 weeks Foetus: 12 weeks
[~3 cm; ~3 g] [~10 cm; ~48 g]

12 weeks
Teaching notes
3D and 4D ultrasound
scanning is more advanced
ultrasound technology. 3D
scanning shows still pictures • all major organs formed • head, neck, arms and legs continue
of the baby in three • arms and legs begin to form to develop and are more clearly seen
dimensions. 4D scanning
shows moving 3D images of
the baby, with time being the
fourth dimension. 3D and 4D
scanning can provide more 2 5
information about any Embryo: 5 weeks Foetus: 20 weeks
abnormality, because these [~0.4 cm; ~1 g] [~20 cm; ~380 g]
scanning can show more
detail from different angles.
They can help in the
diagnosis of cleft lip.

Teaching notes • heart beats • arms and legs grow well

A baby develops for about • backbone formed • may begin to suck thumb
266 days (38 weeks) from
fertilization to birth. However,
doctors usually talk about
‘weeks pregnant’ as they
cannot be sure when 1 6
Embryo: 1 week Foetus: 38 weeks
fertilization actually occurred.
[~0.1 cm] [~36 cm; ~3 kg]
‘Weeks pregnant’ is counted
from the start of the last
menstrual cycle. Since this is
usually 14 days before
fertilization, birth is at ’40
weeks’, or 280 days, from the
last menstrual cycle.
So, a doctor talking about
‘weeks pregnant’, is referring • an embryo is about to • ready to be born
implant into the uterine
to the weeks since the last
lining
menstrual cycle. But the baby
actually takes 38 weeks to
develop.
Fig. 4.41 The development of an embryo into a foetus during the 38 weeks before birth

foetus 胎兒 ultrasound scanning 超聲波掃描

40
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

• Through the placenta , an embryo gets
oxygen and nutrients from its mother, and
gets rid of carbon dioxide and other wastes.
• A baby is ready to be born about 38

weeks after fertilization.

4. Birth of a baby

Active learning When the baby is about to be born, it normally changes its position
Simulation
(Foetal development and and lies with its head downwards. Labour (the birth giving process)
the birth giving process) begins with a sign of pain in the abdomen. This is because the
muscles of the uterus contract strongly. The amnion breaks and the
watery liquid flows out to lubricate the vagina. The opening of the
uterus becomes wider. The muscles of the uterus contract more
strongly and frequently to push the baby out.

2 4
Opening of the uterus
Amnion breaks.
becomes wider.

1 3 6 5
Muscles of the uterus Watery liquid The placenta is Baby is pushed
contract strongly. flows out. expelled after the out with the head
baby is born. coming out first.
Fig. 4.42 The birth giving process

After birth, the baby cries for the first time and takes its first breath.
The doctor then clamps and cuts the umbilical cord. Finally, the
placenta is expelled from the mother’s body.

Fig. 4.43 A doctor clamps and During the birth of a baby, muscles of the uterus
cuts the umbilical cord. Its
contract strongly to push the baby out through the
remains will dry up and fall off.
The scar left behind is the navel. vagina .

labour 分娩 abdomen 腹部
navel 肚臍
41
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Fig. 4.44 below summarizes the process of human reproduction.

father mother

1 1
Testes produce sperms Ovaries produce ova
(23 chromosomes). (23 chromosomes).

2 2
During sexual intercourse, During ovulation, an ovum is
semen containing sperms is released into the oviduct.
ejected into the vagina. Sperms
swim up to the oviducts.

3
One of the sperms fuses with the
ovum. Fertilization occurs and a
zygote (46 chromosomes) is formed.

4
The zygote divides many times to form
an embryo. The embryo attaches to the
uterine lining during implantation.

5
After implantation, the embryo begins to
develop in the uterus.

6
About eight weeks after fertilization,
the embryo develops into a foetus.

7
About 38 weeks after fertilization, the
foetus is ready to be born.

Fig. 4.44 Summary of the process of human reproduction

42
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

4.7 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i07.e

1. Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.
(a) Fertilization usually occurs in the ovary. F

(b) The zygote formed after fertilization carries one set of chromosomes
(23 chromosomes). F

(c) The embryo gets oxygen and nutrients from its mother through the placenta. T

(d) A baby is ready to be born about 38 weeks after fertilization. T

2. The following shows six important steps involved in human reproduction. Arrange the
steps in the correct order.
(a) Implantation
(b) Birth of a baby
(c) Sexual intercourse
(d) Development of the foetus
(e) Fertilization of an ovum by a sperm
(f) Cell division of the zygote
Correct order: c  e  f  a  d  b

Section objectives • recognize the signs of sexual maturity 5-minute Quiz

Students should be able to of the reproductive system at puberty. (Quiz 7: Process of human
• describe the secondary
sexual characteristics
D Puberty reproduction)

appearing at puberty.
Normally, every person is born with a complete set of reproductive
organs. These organs will become mature for reproduction at
puberty. Puberty usually starts at the age of 10 or 11 and ends
around 18. It usually occurs earlier in girls than in boys.

When teenagers enter puberty, their bodies produce more sex

hormones, which cause various body changes, including:

• Secondary sexual characteristics begin to show. These are the

external features we see in adult males and adult females.

• Signs of sexual maturity appear. These are the signs indicating

that the reproductive organs of males and females start to
become mature. In males, the testes start to produce sperms. In
Fig. 4.45 At puberty, teenagers
begin to have body changes. females, ova start to develop in the ovaries. Teaching notes
Hormones are
transported all over
puberty 青春期 sign of sexual maturity 性成熟徵兆 the body in blood.
sex hormone 性激素
secondary sexual characteristic 第二性徵 43
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Prior knowledge 1. Secondary sexual characteristics

In primary level, students
have learned about The secondary sexual characteristics of males and females appear at
• the similarities and
differences between boys puberty are shown below.
and girls. • the physical and psychological changes at puberty.
• the rate of growth and development at puberty varies from
person to person.
Males
• Beards grow.
• Larynx becomes larger and voice becomes
deeper.
• Shoulders become wider and the body
becomes more muscular.
• Hair grows in pubic area and armpits.

Females
• Breasts develop.
• Hair grows in pubic area and armpits.
• Hips become wider.

Misconception
Students may think that menstruation is a
secondary sexual characteristic. Emphasize that
menstruation is NOT a characteristic.

Active learning
Simulation
Learn more
(Changes in males at
Primary sexual characteristics
puberty)
Primary sexual characteristics refer to the reproductive organs.
Active learning • In males, the primary sexual characteristics are the testes and the penis.
Simulation
(Changes in females at
• In females, the primary sexual characteristics are the ovaries, the uterus and
puberty)
the vagina.

beard 鬍鬚 breast 乳房
larynx 喉頭 hip 臀部
44 pubic area 陰部
 4
2. Signs of sexual maturity

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

At puberty, boys may start to experience wet dreams and girls start
to have menstruation. These are the signs showing their bodies have
reached sexual maturity and they are able to reproduce.

Wet dreams

At puberty, boys start to produce semen. The semen may flow out
from the penis during sleep. This is called a wet dream (also called
nocturnal emission).
Q&A about wet dreams

My classmates have had wet dreams but I haven’t. Am I normal?

Don’t worry. It’s normal. Some boys do not have wet dreams.

If wet dreams come too often, what can I do?

You can try sleeping on your side. Avoid

wearing tight clothing and do not eat
or drink too much before you go to bed.

Teaching notes Menstruation

More Q&A about menstruation
can be found at the website of
the Department of Health: At puberty, ova in ovaries become mature and girls start to have
[Link]/r/ menstruation. Menstruation occurs about every month. During
isteu4i03.e menstruation, some blood will pass out through the vagina. We
will learn about this in more detail on the next page.

Q&A about menstruation

My menstruation does not occur every

month. Is this normal?
It is quite common for a girl to have
irregular menstruation at first. Later on,
the cycle will become more regular.

Can I exercise during menstruation?

Yes. But some girls may feel tired when

they exercise during menstruation. You
should take enough rest after exercise.

wet dream 夢遺

45
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Teaching notes Each month, an ovum becomes mature and is released into the
• Usually the two ovaries
release an ovum oviduct (i.e. ovulation). If the ovum is fertilized, the zygote formed
alternatively. If two or develops into an embryo.
more ova are released,
multiple pregnancies may
result. To prepare for the implantation of the embryo, the uterine lining
• A woman’s ovaries stop thickens with increased blood supply. If the ovum is not fertilized,
releasing ova at the age
around 45 to 50. This is the thickened uterine lining breaks down. The tissues of the uterine
called the menopause. lining, blood and the unfertilized ovum pass out through the vagina.
From then on, a woman
will not get pregnant and This is called menstruation (also known as ‘period‘). It usually lasts
she has no menstruation. about five days.

The thickening and breaking down of the uterine lining occur

periodically. This periodic change is called the menstrual cycle. A
menstrual cycle (the time from the first day of one menstruation to
the next) usually lasts 28 days. The length of a menstrual cycle may
vary from person to person.

2 Day 6–10: Uterine lining thickens

After menstruation, the uterine
lining thickens again to prepare for
the implantation of the embryo.
1 Day 1–5: Menstruation
The thickened uterine
lining breaks down.

3 Day 14: Ovulation

A mature ovum is
released from an ovary
around Day 14. The
4 Day 15–28: Uterine lining uterine lining further
remains thickened thickens.
The uterine lining becomes very
thick. It is ready for the embryo to
implant if fertilization takes place.
Teaching notes
Many women do not have a 28-day menstrual
cycle. The second half of the cycle (from ovulation
Fig. 4.46 The menstrual cycle
to menstruation) is usually 14 days, but the length
of the first half of the cycle may vary.

menstruation 月經
menstrual cycle 月經周期
46
 4
Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

• At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics appear.

• Boys may experience wet dreams and girls start
to have menstruation . Both of these are signs of
sexual maturity.
5-minute Quiz
(Quiz 8: Puberty)
Section objectives
Students should be able to
• state the signs and the
length of pregnancy.
4.4 Being parents
• be aware that parenting is
essential for the growth of Bringing up children requires a lot of love, time and patience.
babies.
• understand that prevention Parents have responsibilities in taking care of their children, starting
of the fusion of an ovum from the pregnancy period.
and a sperm is one of the
basic principles of birth
control. A Pregnancy
• recognize the various
methods of birth control. [E] If a sperm successfully fertilizes an ovum and implantation occurs,
• recognize that some birth
control methods can help the woman becomes pregnant. The pregnancy period lasts about
prevent the transmission of 38 weeks. When a woman is pregnant, her body will show some
STDs. [E]
changes. These are the signs of pregnancy, which include:
Teaching notes • absence of menstruation • swollen breasts
Nausea means wanting to
vomit. In case of pregnancy, • nausea • frequent urination
it is also known as morning
sickness.
• feeling tired easily • constipation
Teaching notes
Frequent urination is due to
the fact that the growing
baby limits the size
of the mother's
urinary bladder.
Fig. 4.47 Some signs
of pregnancy
sign of pregnancy 懷孕徵兆 nausea 噁心
frequent urination 尿頻
constipation 便秘 47
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.8

Health advices during pregnancy

A pregnant woman should take extra care to maintain her own and her baby’s health. Some
health advices during pregnancy are shown below. Discuss why a pregnant woman should
follow these advices.

DO NOT take drugs without a doctor’s approval.

DO NOT smoke.

DO NOT drink alcohol.

Maintain a balanced diet.

Have regular health check-ups.

Exercise regularly.

Besides the health advices above, search for more information on the Internet about what a
pregnant woman should do to maintain her own and her baby’s health during pregnancy.

Learn more
Length of pregnancy in mammals
The lengths of pregnancy in different mammals are different. For example,
• 21 days for rats
• 38 weeks for humans
• 17 months for whales
The length of pregnancy usually increases with the size of the mammal.

When a woman is having a baby, her body will show some signs
of pregnancy . She should take extra care to maintain
health.

48
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

B Parenting
Newborn babies cannot take care of themselves. They need much
care and protection from their parents. Parenting is essential for the
healthy growth of babies.

We need to provide our baby

with daily necessities, such as
food, clothing and shelter. We also need to guide the
baby and teach the baby
different basic skills, like
how to walk and talk.

feed the baby change nappies

for the baby

Teaching notes teach the teach the

When talking about baby to walk baby to talk
parenting, be aware of
students' family background
(e.g. single parent; family
violence, etc.)
Fig. 4.48 Different aspects of parenting

Besides humans, many other animals also feed, protect and look
after their babies. Dolphins are just one example.

• The length of pregnancy in dolphins is around 12 months.

• The baby dolphins soon learn to swim. They swim close to their
mothers so that their mothers can protect them.

• They get milk from their mothers. The milk contains antibodies
which help protect them from diseases. The whole milk-feeding
period lasts up to two years.

parenting 親代撫育
antibody 抗體
49
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.9 Teaching notes

• Length of pregnancy of other mammals:
chickens (22 days); cats or dogs (2 months);
monkeys (5 months to 9 months, depending on kinds);
Parenting in other mammals polar bears (8 months); horses (11 months); elephants (21 months)
Search information on the Internet about the length of pregnancy and parenting in other
mammals, such as elephants and monkeys. Share the information with your classmates.
• Parenting in sometimes hold • Parenting in monkeys:
elephants: on to their - Breastfeed their
- Breastfeed their mother’s tails babies.
babies for up to with their trunks, - Clean and groom
10 years, with while other their babies.
three gallons of elephants - Take the babies
milk a day. surround them everywhere on their
- They usually to protect them backs or in their arms.
walk in a line one from danger. - Play with their
behind the other babies.
when they are on
the move. The
babies will Elephants Monkeys

Parenting is essential for the healthy growth of babies.

C Family planning
Parents have a great responsibility to care for their children.
Married couples should plan carefully before having children.
They have to decide on the number of children they want and when
Active learning to have children. This is called family planning. Family planning
Useful website
(Family Planning helps married couples make sure that they can give each child
Association of Hong Kong) enough support and love.

1. Birth control methods

To reach their goals of family planning, married couples may

practise birth control to avoid pregnancy. Preventing the fusion of a
sperm and an ovum is one of the basic principles of birth control.
This can be achieved in the following ways:

• preventing sperms from reaching the ovum

• preventing ovulation
family planning 家庭計劃
birth control 控制生育
50
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Preventing sperms from reaching the ovum
Birth control method How it works

Condom Acts as a barrier to • Male condom

prevent sperms from It is rolled over the erect penis of
reaching the ovum the husband before intercourse so
that semen is trapped.

• Female condom
It is placed inside the vagina of the
wife before intercourse to catch
semen.

EXTENSION
Diaphragm Teaching notes It is placed at the opening of the
Women have to be measured
by a doctor for a suitable uterus of the wife so that sperms
diaphragm size as the size of cannot enter the uterus.
the opening of the uterus
varies in different women.

Rhythm method A natural method This is to avoid having sexual

without using birth intercourse around the days when
control devices ovulation occurs, so that the
sperms have no chance of meeting
the ovum.

Sterilization A surgery is done to • Male sterilization

Teaching notes permanently prevent The sperm ducts are tied and cut
• After sterilization, the pregnancy so that sperms cannot be passed
male and female still
produce sex hormones. respectively. The out of the body.
Also, sex hormones are sperms and ova will
carried by blood rather break down and
than sperm ducts or simply be absorbed
oviducts. Therefore, the by the body. • Female sterilization
secondary sexual • People who have
The oviducts are tied and cut so as
characteristics still exist. undergone
• The testes and ovaries sterilization can still to prevent the ova from passing
are still able to produce have babies by down the oviducts.
sperms and ova carrying out IVF.
Preventing ovulation
Birth control method How it works

Birth control pills Stop ovulation by These are taken by the wife
using sex hormones regularly according to a
doctor’s instructions.

Table 4.4 Different birth control methods and their working principles

condom 避孕套 sterilization 絕育 barrier 屏障

diaphragm 子宮帽 birth control pill 避孕丸
rhythm method 周期避孕法 51
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Think about
More reliable: sterilization None of the birth control methods in Table 4.4 is 100% effective. Think about the
Comparatively unreliable: working principle of each birth control method. Which one do you think is more
rhythm method reliable in preventing pregnancy, and which one is comparatively unreliable?

• Married couples should decide how many children they want

and when to have them. This is called family planning .
• Preventing the fusion of a sperm and an ovum is one of the
basic principles of birth control.
EXTENSION

4.8 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i08.e

Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.
(a) Taking birth control pills is a permanent method to prevent pregnancy. F

(b) Condoms act as a barrier to prevent the sperms from reaching the ovum. T

(c) Rhythm method is 100% effective in avoiding pregnancy. F

2. Prevention of sexually transmitted diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infectious diseases that can

be passed from one person to another through sexual contact. Some
birth control methods can help prevent the transmission of STDs.

Using condoms (including male condoms and female condoms) in

sexual intercourse prevents STDs. Condoms act as a barrier to
prevent direct contact between the penis and the vagina. Other
Fig. 4.49 The use of
condoms can help prevent the
methods such as the rhythm method, birth control pills, diaphragms
transmission of AIDS, one of and sterilization cannot prevent STDs.
the STDs. (The red ribbon is the
international symbol of support
and care for AIDS patients.)

Using condoms can help prevent the transmission of STDs.

5-minute Quiz
(Quiz 9: Being parents)
sexually transmitted disease (STD) 性病 infectious disease 傳染病

52
Section objectives
Students should be able to
4
• acquire some knowledge

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

about heredity.
• give examples of continuous
variation and discontinuous
variation in humans.
4.5 Heredity and variation
• recognize that variations are
determined by heredity and
the environment.
A Passing of traits to the next generation
• draw and interpret bar
charts and histograms.
SPS: OB, CS

Activity 4.10

Matching the parents with their children

The photos below show the members of three families. Can you match the parents with their
children? What common features does each family have? (Answers may vary. Students should point
out that parents pass some of their features to their child.)
Parents 1 Parents 2 Parents 3

Child C Child A Child B

Child A Child B Child C

1. How do parents pass their traits to the next

generation?

Children often look like their parents. For example, a boy may have
his father’s size of eye and have his mother’s shape of nose. The
features each generation inherits from their parents are called traits.
The passing of traits from parents to the next generation is called
heredity. How do parents pass their traits to the next generation?
Fig. 4.50 A father and his son.
Do they look alike?

trait 性狀
heredity 遺傳
53
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Traits are determined by the DNA in the nucleus of cells. DNA

carries genetic information. The zygote formed after fertilization
receives half of its genetic information from the father and half from
the mother. Therefore, a child inherits traits from both parents.
Through the transmission of genetic information, traits can be
passed from one generation to the next.

father’s DNA mother’s DNA both parents’ DNA

father’s sperm mother’s ovum zygote

Fig. 4.51 The zygote receives genetic information from both parents.

Heredity is the passing of traits from one generation to

the next, as a result of the transmission of genetic information.

2. How do we study the passing of traits in a family?

The passing of a particular trait through several generations in a

family can be shown in a tree diagram. By analysing the ‘genetic
traits tree’, we can trace the passing of the trait through each
generation. We may also predict how likely the trait will occur in
the next generation.

Before we analyse a ‘genetic traits tree’, let us first learn the symbols
commonly used to construct the tree.

Symbol Meaning

Male

Female

Mating

I Parents (I) and children (II);

Children in order of birth, from left to right
II (I and II are generations)

Table 4.5 Common symbols used to construct a ‘genetic traits tree’

genetic traits tree 遺傳性狀樹

54
 4
SPS: IF

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.11

Analysing a ‘genetic traits tree’

Study this ‘genetic traits tree’ showing
whether different members in a family
have ear lobes. Then, answer the
questions.

I
 With ear lobe  Without ear lobe
1 2

Key:

Male with ear lobes

II
3 4 5 6 Male without ear lobes

Female with ear lobes

III Female without ear lobes

7 8

1. Do the sons and daughters of Individuals 1 and 2 have ear lobes? Complete the table
below.

Individual Son or daughter? Does he or she have ear lobes?

3 son have ear lobes

4 daughter have ear lobes

5 son have ear lobes

2. Does the next generation of Individuals 5 and 6 inherit the trait of ear lobes?
Individual 7 does not inherit the trait of ear lobes while Individual 8 inherits the trait.

3. Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.

(a) The next generation of Individual 7 must all have no ear lobes. (Individual 1 does F
not have ear lobes but his next generation all have ear lobes. Therefore, this statement is false.)
(b) The next generation of Individual 3 will be a boy. F
(Theoretically there is an equal chance, that is 50%, of having a boy or a girl.)

By analysing a ‘genetic traits tree’, we can study the passing of

traits through each generation in a family.

ear lobe 耳垂

55
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

B What are variations?

You and your family members usually have some common
features. However, there are still many differences between
each of you. No two people look exactly the same, even
twins. The differences in features among individuals of a
species are called variations.
Fig. 4.52 There are many variations
among individuals.

SPS: OB, IF, CM

Activity 4.12

Observing variations in humans

Part A: Variation in hand span
1. Measure the distance between your thumb and your
little finger as shown. This is your hand span.

What is your hand span? cm

(to the nearest cm) hand span

2. Record the data for the whole class in the table below.

Hand span (cm) 15–16 17–18 19–20 21–22 23–24

Number of students (Answers depend on the class.)

3. Draw a histogram below to show the distribution of hand spans of the students in
your class. Distribution of hand spans of Teaching notes
the students in the class Remind
students to
p.221
label the
horizontal Drawing bar charts
axis with and histograms
class boundaries, which is
taught in the lower
secondary mathematics
curriculum. See Skills level-
(Answers depend on the class.)
Number of students up on p.221.
Hand Class
span (cm) boundaries
15–16 14.5–16.5
17–18 16.5–18.5
19–20 18.5–20.5
21–22 20.5–22.5
Quick Spreadsheet 23–24 22.5–24.5

Hand span (cm) Cont'd

variation 變異 histogram 直方圖

56
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

4. Answer the following questions by referring to the histogram in Step 3.

(a) Which range of hand span do most students in the class have? How many students
have this range of hand span? (Answers depend on the class.)

(b) How many students have hand span of 23–24 cm? (Answers depend on the class.)

(c) How many students have hand span of 15–16 cm? (Answers depend on the class.)

Part B: Variation in ear lobe

5. Ask your classmate to observe and tell you whether you have ear lobes.

Do you have ear lobes? (Answers may vary.)

6. Count and record the number of students with ear lobes and the number of students
without ear lobes in your class.

With ear lobes Without ear lobes

Number of students (Answers depend on the class.)

7. Draw a bar chart below to show the number of students with ear lobes and the number
of students without ear lobes in the class.
Numbers of students with ear lobes
and without ear lobes in the class

p.221
Drawing bar charts
and histograms

Number of students (Answers depend on the class.)

Quick Spreadsheet
With ear lobes Without ear lobes

bar chart 棒形圖

57
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

In Activity 4.12, you have observed two types of variations in

humans. They are continuous variation and discontinuous variation.

1. Continuous variation

What other examples of continuous Continuous variation shows a continuous range of differences.
variation can you think of?
Features showing continuous variation include height, body mass,
Head circumference, foot hand span and intelligence quotient (IQ). We can draw a histogram
length, pulse rate, size of
leaves in plants, etc. to present the data of a continuous variation (Fig. 4.54).

166 cm
163 cm 161 cm
155 cm
151 cm
145 cm

Fig. 4.53 Height shows a continuous range of differences.

Distribution of heights of a group of students

20

15

Number of students 10
Teaching notes
If the mid-points at the top of 5
each bar are joined with a
smooth line, a bell-shaped 0
curve will be obtained. This is 139.5 142.5 145.5 148.5 151.5 154.5 157.5 160.5 163.5 166.5 169.5
known as normal distribution
Height (cm)
curve (常態分布曲線). Most
individuals fall in the middle of
the range with approximately
equal numbers on either side.
Fig. 4.54 A histogram showing the distribution of heights of a group of students
This is one of the characteristic
features of continuous variation.
continuous variation 連續變異
histogram 直方圖
58
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

2. Discontinuous variation

What other examples of Discontinuous variation shows clear-cut differences. For example,
discontinuous variation
can you think of? people either have ear lobes or no ear lobes; some people have
curved thumbs while others have straight thumbs. Blood group and
Colour of eyes, colour of
flowers, etc. gender are also examples of discontinuous variation (Fig. 4.55).

a ear lobe b thumb bending ability

with ear lobe without ear curved thumb straight thumb

lobe

c blood group d gender

A B AB O

A B AB O male female

Fig. 4.55 Examples of discontinuous variation

We can draw a bar chart to present the data of a discontinuous

variation. The following is an example of bar chart showing the
discontinuous variation in blood groups.

Number of students with different blood groups in a class

Skills Practice 20
(Drawing bar charts and
histograms) 15
SPS: CM Number of students
10

0
A B AB O
Blood group

Fig. 4.56 A bar chart showing the number of students with different blood groups
in a class

discontinuous variation 不連續變異

bar chart 棒形圖
59
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

C Causes of variations
Some variations are determined by heredity while some are
determined by the environment. Besides, there are variations that
are determined by both factors.
Blue eye
1. Heredity

Variations determined by heredity are called inherited variations

(or genetic variations). These variations cannot be changed. They
Brown eye
are not affected by the environment. For example, our natural hair
colour is inherited from our parents and it cannot be changed. You
can dye your hair red, but the new hair growing out is always in
your natural hair colour.
Green eye
Other examples of inherited variations in humans include natural
Fig. 4.57 Natural eye colour
is a genetic variation. eye colour and the discontinuous variations that you have learned
(e.g. blood group and gender).

2. Environment

Teaching notes Variations determined by the environment are called environmental

The gene that controls variations. For example, the Himalayan rabbit is well known for its
pigment production is only
able to function at lower dark colour around the ears, nose, legs and tail. The dark colour
temperatures. around these parts changes with the environment. Himalayan rabbits
raised in hotter climate have lighter colour around these parts.

Fig. 4.58 A Himalayan rabbit raised in a cold climate (left) and in a hot climate (right)

Another example is the hydrangea. Its colour varies (e.g. pink,

purple, blue, etc.) depending on the conditions of the soil in
Teaching notes
which it grows. Acidic soil: flowers are blue or purple
Alkaline soil: flowers are pink or red
Fig. 4.59 The colour of hydrangea
varies with the environment.

inherited variation 遺傳變異 Himalayan rabbit 喜馬拉雅兔

environmental variation 環境變異 hydrangea 繡球花
60
 4
Some variations are determined by both heredity and the

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

environment. For example, our skin colour is determined by
heredity. At the same time, it is also affected by the environment.
The skin will become darker if we expose it to the sunlight for a
longer time.

The continuous variations that you have learned (e.g. height and
Fig. 4.60 Human skin body mass) are usually determined by both heredity and the
colour is an inherited variation
environment.
but it is also affected by the
environment.

• There are two types of variations, continuous variation

and discontinuous variation.
• Variations are determined by heredity and the
environment .

4.9 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i09.e

1. Below are some variations found in humans. Classify them into continuous variations
and discontinuous variations.

blood group gender height IQ ear lobe body mass foot length

Continuous variations Discontinuous variations

height, IQ, body mass, foot length blood group, gender, ear lobe

2. Which of the following variations is NOT determined only by heredity?

A. Natural hair colour B. Blood group
C. Body mass D. Gender C

5-minute Quiz
Section objectives
Students should be able to
D Twins (Quiz 10: Traits and variations)

• distinguish between the

occurrence of identical Usually, only one embryo develops in the uterus of the mother
and non-identical twins. during pregnancy at a time. However, in some cases, two embryos
• recognize that variations
between identical twins develop at the same time. The two babies born from a single
are due to differences in pregnancy are called twins. There are two types of twins, identical
their experiences and the
environment. twins and non-identical twins.
twins 雙生

61
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

1. Identical twins

Identical twins result from a single zygote. The zygote formed after
fertilization splits into two cells and each cell develops into a baby.
The two babies have the same genetic materials, so they are of the
same gender and they look like each other.

Fig. 4.61 Identical twins

ovary
An ovum is The ovum is The zygote
released fertilized by a splits into
sperm two cells
Each cell
develops Identical twins
into a baby
Fig. 4.62 Formation of identical twins

2. Non-identical twins

If two ova are released from the ovary at the same time and both are
fertilized, they will develop into two babies. As these two babies are
developed from two different sperms and ova, they have different
genetic materials. They are called non-identical twins. The two
babies are just like babies of two separate pregnancies. They may be
of the same gender or different genders. They may look different
Fig. 4.63 Non-identical twins from each other.

ovary

Two ova are The ova are Two different Each zygote
released fertilized by zygotes are develops into
Non-identical twins
two different formed a baby
sperms

Fig. 4.64 Formation of non-identical twins

identical twins 單卵雙生

non-identical twins 非單卵雙生
62
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

SPS: OB, CS

Activity 4.13

Are there any differences between a pair of identical twins?

The photo below shows a pair of identical twins. They do not look completely alike after
they have grown up.

Elder Younger
brother brother

1. What differences do you observe between them? 1. Skin colour, length of hair, height

2. Do they have the same genetic materials? 2. Yes, because they are identical twins.

3. Why are there differences between a pair of identical twins? Discuss with your classmates
the factors that may cause the differences. 3. These differences are caused by environment.
Darker skin colour may be due to longer exposure to sunlight. Length of hair is different due to each of
their own preference. Height is different because they may have different diet and amount of exercise.

Identical twins have the same genetic materials. However, identical

twins can still have variations in their features when they grow up.
This is due to differences in their living habits and environments.
For example, their height and body mass may be different if they
have different exercise and eating habits. Their skin colours may be
different if they have different levels of exposure to sunlight.

• Identical twins are of the same gender and look

like each other. Non-identical twins may be of the same
gender or different genders. They may look different from
each other.
• Variations between identical twins are due to the differences
in their living habits and environments.

63
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Section objectives
Students should be able to E DNA and heredity
• state that there are only four
different kinds of bases, A, DNA contains all information needed to control the activities within
T, C and G on the DNA. [E]
• state that the double helix our cells. It also determines the traits we inherit from our parents. In
structure of DNA is based
this section, we will learn more about the structure of DNA and the
on the base pairing of A with
T and C with G. [E] role it plays in heredity.
• recognize that the
instructions encoded in DNA
depend on the sequence of
1. Structure of DNA
bases on the DNA. [E]
DNA consists of two strands. On the strands, there are four different
Teaching notes kinds of bases: A, T, C and G for short. The bases on the two strands
• A and T are held together by
2 hydrogen bonds. pair up in a way that makes DNA a double helix:
EXTENSION

• C and G are held together

by 3 hydrogen bonds. • A on one strand always pairs with T on the other.
• The difference in the
number of bonds ensures • C on one strand always pairs with G on the other.
the accuracy of the pairing.
• Our DNA contains The way how the bases pair up is known as complementary base
approximately three billion
of base pairs. pairing. If the sequence of bases on one strand is known, the
• A: Adenine, T: Thymine, sequence of complementary bases on the other strand can also be
C: Cytosine, G: Guanine
known.
Supplementary notes
More about the structure
of DNA double helix
T A (See p.T26)

A T

C G
chromosome
G C
cell

A T
complementary
C G base pairing:
G C A with T
C with G
nucleus
T A

A T

G C

T A

C G
strands of DNA twisted
Teaching notes
around one another to
DNA 10 interesting facts
form a double helix
about DNA:

[Link]/r/
Fig. 4.65 The structure of DNA isteu4i04.e
base 鹼基 strand 長鏈
double helix 雙螺旋
64 complementary base pairing 互補鹼基配對
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.14

Constructing a paper DNA model

In this activity, you are going to construct a DNA model with a paper. Use the
template and the stickers provided at the end of this book to construct your DNA model.
Follow the instructions below.

template sticker strands

1 2

EXTENSION
Put the appropriate stickers on the template for complementary base pairing. Now, follow Steps 2–6 to fold and
twist the paper into a DNA double
helix. First, fold the paper into half.

both strands are folded

3 4

Flip the paper over and

fold the other strand

Fold the DNA strand along the dotted line. Flip the paper over and fold the Fold along all the horizontal
other strand. dotted lines.

5 6

Turn the paper over. Fold along all Twist the paper and then pull open slowly.
diagonal dotted lines.

65
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

connec t i o n 4.1

Designing and making a DNA model

In the above activity, you have made a paper model of DNA. Now, take
a challenge to design and make a DNA model using materials of your
own choice. You may make a DNA model with pipe cleaners and colour
beads, metal wires and foam balls, straws or even candies! Use your
creativity to make your own DNA model.
[Link]/r/
EXTENSION

Let’s explore more. isstemu4i01.e

DNA consists of two strands twisted around one another to

form a double helix . There are four different
kinds of bases : A, T, C and G for short.
A always pairs with T . C always pairs with G .

Learn more
The discovery of the structure of DNA
Teaching notes In 1943, scientists discovered that DNA is the
Scientists used to believe genetic material in the nucleus of a cell. Later
that genetic information is in 1953, James Watson (born in 1928) and
stored in proteins until 1943 Francis Crick (1916–2004) discovered the
(i.e. less than 80 years ago). structure of DNA. This provided the foundation
for further studies on heredity.

 Watson (left) and Crick (right)

2. Sequence of bases on DNA and genetic code

The sequence of bases on DNA acts as genetic code, which encodes

‘messages’ that determine our traits. Every three bases encode one
‘message’, so it is called a triplet code.

Now, let us do the following activity to understand more about how

the genetic coding system works.

genetic code 遺傳密碼

triplet code 三聯體密碼
66
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Activity 4.15

Understanding the genetic coding system

Study the following coding system for the 26 alphabetic characters using DNA bases.

a b c d e f g h i j k l m
AAA AAC ACA AGG AGT ATT CAA CAT CGT CGG CTT GAG GAC
n o p q r s t u v w x y z
GAT GCA GCT GTA GTC GTT TAA TAC TAT TCA TCC TCT TTA

EXTENSION
Try to decode the ‘messages’ below to find out the traits of Mr. X.

Body part Sequence of bases Trait

eyes AACGAGTACAGT blue

ears AGTAAAGTCGAGGCAAACAGT ear lobe

mouth GTTGACAAAGAGGAG small

nose AACCGTCAA big

hair AACGTCGCATCAGAT brown

skin GCTAAAGAGAGT pale Mr. X

Teaching notes
The sequence of bases in human DNA contains as many as three billion of bases. About 99.9% of DNA is
identical in all humans. In other words, only 0.1% of DNA is different between each of us. Nevertheless, this
involves 3–15 million of From the above activity, we can see that the sequence of bases on
bases, and the instructions
encoded are complicated. DNA encodes ‘messages’. These ‘messages’ are actually instructions
This makes every one of us for the cells to make different types of proteins in the body. Proteins
different.
have various functions. For example, they are the structural materials
Enzymes speed up chemical that make up cells and tissues. They can also be enzymes and
reactions in cells. You will learn
more about proteins and enzymes hormones that regulate cell activities. By controlling the types of
in Unit 12, Book 3A. proteins a cell makes, DNA can determine our body features, that is,
traits inherited from our parents.

Supplementary notes
DNA and protein synthesis
(See p.T27)
Instructions encoded on DNA depend on the sequence of
bases on the DNA.

enzyme 酶

67
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Learn more
Human Genome Project
A genome is all the genetic materials in the nucleus of a cell.
The Human Genome Project (HGP) started in 1990 as an
international project. One of its aims was to determine the
sequence of the three billion bases in human DNA.

Could mammoths be brought back to life?

EXTENSION

Have you seen a mammoth on TV or in movies?

Mammoths were elephants that had long curved
tusks and thick hair covering their bodies. The
species has been extinct for a long time.

A picture of mammoths

In recent years, scientists have found

some preserved bodies of mammoths in
ice. They obtained some DNA from the
preserved mammoths. Some scientists
think it is possible to make a mammoth
based on the DNA. If they can decode the
‘messages’ in the mammoth’s DNA, it is
possible that they can ‘instruct’ an
A preserved body of mammoth found in ice
elephant cell to grow into a mammoth.
1. This allows us to
• study organisms in the past showing
Search more information on the Internet and discuss: how they adapted to the environment.
• better understand why they have been
1. What are the advantages of bringing back extinct species? extinct and how the Earth was
changed.
2. If scientists could bring back extinct species, do we still need to conserve
2. Yes, because our knowledge today is not enough to bring back all
endangered species? Why? extinct species. Conserving endangered species is important in
maintaining the biodiversity in Nature.
3. With knowledge of DNA, it is possible to clone a species. Scientists have already
cloned sheep, mice and pigs. What advantages and drawbacks of cloning can you
think of? 3. Advantage: can clone organisms with desirable characteristics for human uses
Drawback: this may violate the law of Nature and ethical issues may be raised

genome 基因組 preserve 保存

Human Genome Project (HGP) 人類基因組計劃 clone 複製
68 tusk 長牙
 4

Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

4.10 e-Checkpoint
[Link]/r/
iscpu4i10.e

1. Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.
(a) DNA is a double helix. T

(b) The sequence of bases on DNA encodes the instructions for making proteins. T

2. Which of the following diagrams correctly shows the structure of DNA in humans?
(Keys for the bases:             
A C T G )
A.         B.         C.         D.

EXTENSION
A

5-minute Quiz
(Quiz 11: Twins, DNA and heredity)

69
 Learn from
scientists
Sometimes, babies may be born with chromosomal disorders such
as Down syndrome. To screen for these chromosomal disorders
before the babies are born, many mothers used to take
amniocentesis. In this test, a syringe needle is inserted into the
amnion to withdraw a sample of the watery liquid inside. However, k Ming
Professor Dennis Lo Yu
this test carries a 0.5% chance of causing a miscarriage. Thanks to
his work and his team’s effort, mothers now can have a safe test.
He is Professor Dennis Lo Yuk Ming.

Back in 1997, Professor Lo discovered that a mother’s blood contains foetal DNA floating
outside cells. Later in 2008, he developed a new safe test to screen for chromosomal disorders.
This test has an accuracy of 99.9% and only requires 10 mL of the mother’s blood. Foetal DNA
is extracted from a sample of the mother’s blood. Then, it is sequenced to detect if the foetus
has any chromosomal disorder. Today, this test is widely used in more than 90 countries.

Teaching notes
The test is called safeT21expressTM. T21
refers to ‘Triosomy 21’ which is Down
syndrome. Details can be found at:

[Link]/r/
isteu4i05.e

Foetal DNA is extracted

and sequenced

Mother’s blood Mother’s DNA and

sample foetal DNA

Professor Lo has been conducting research in this field more than 28 years.
In recent years, he has even developed screening tests for cancers at early
stages. He received the ‘Future Science Prize—Life Science’ in 2016.

amniocentesis 羊膜穿刺術
miscarriage 流產
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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Concept map

Living things

differences
are made up of produce offspring by among individuals
of a species

cells reproduction variations

two types
can include
• continuous variation
• divide • animal cells • discontinuous variation
• grow • plant cells
determined by
• differentiate
can be
observed
levels of with a heredity environment
organization
microscope controlled by

DNA
• tissue
• organ has four coils around some
E human
• system bases proteins to form
reproduction
• organism
A, T, C chromosomes
E
and G

involves the
requires
fusion of

sex cells birth

• sperm control
• ovum

process of human are

reproduction produced in

1. fertilization reproductive
2. implantation systems
3. development become
of the embryo mature at
4. birth of a baby
puberty

71
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Unit summary
4.1 Cells
1. Cells are the basic unit of living things.
2. The table below summarizes the structures found in animal cells and plant cells:

Cell membrane Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell wall Large vacuole Chloroplast

Animal cells ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗
Plant cells ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

3. Below are the key steps in using a microscope:

(a) Place the microscope near a light source.
(b) Use a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective.
(c) Adjust the mirror to obtain the most suitable brightness.
(d) Place the slide on the stage and hold it in place using the clips.
(e) Turn the coarse adjustment knob until the objective is just above the slide.
(f) Turn the coarse adjustment knob in the opposite direction until you see a clear image.
(g) Turn the fine adjustment knob to obtain the sharpest image.
4. DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid.
5. Inside the nucleus, there are chromosomes, which are made up of DNA coiling around some
proteins.
6. Each human body cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes, of which one pair is the sex chromosomes.
7. Living things grow by increasing the number and size of cells.

4.2 How are cells organized in living things?

8. The process of cells becoming specialized is called cell differentiation.
E 9. The levels of organization of multicelluar organisms include:

Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

4.3 Human reproduction

10. Human reproduction involves the fusion of a sperm and an ovum. There are differences between a
sperm and an ovum:

Can move by its Without a food

Sperm Smaller in size
tail store

Cannot move by
Ovum Larger in size With a food store
itself

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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

11. Important steps involved in human reproduction are:

Fertilization Implantation Development of the embryo

A sperm fuses with an The zygote undergoes In the uterus, the embryo
ovum to form a zygote. cell division to form an develops by the exchange of
embryo which implants materials through the
to the uterine lining. placenta.

Birth of a baby
The muscles of the uterus
contract strongly to push the
baby out through the vagina.

12. The sperm and the ovum each carries 23 chromosomes (one set of chromosomes). The zygote
formed carries 46 chromosomes (two sets of chromosomes).
13. At puberty, boys may experience wet dreams and girls start to have menstruation.

4.4 Being parents

14. Parenting is essential for the healthy growth of babies.
15. Married couples can practise birth control to reach their goals of family planning.

4.5 Heredity and variation

16. There are two types of variations, continuous variation and discontinuous variation. Variations are
determined by heredity and the environment.
17. There are two types of twins:

Identical twins Result from a single Have the same Of the same gender
zygote genetic materials and look like each
other

Non-identical twins Result from two Have different May not be of the
different zygotes genetic materials same gender and
may look different
from each other

E 18. DNA consists of two strands twisted around one another to form a double helix. On the strands,

there are four different kinds of bases: A, T, C and G for short. A always pairs with T. C always pairs
with G.
E 19. Instructions encoded on DNA depend on the sequence of bases on the DNA.

73
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Key terms e-Dictionary

[Link]/r/
isedict.e

4.1
cell division (細胞分裂) p.21 placenta (胎盤) p.39

cell membrane (細胞膜) p.5 puberty (青春期) p.43

cell wall (細胞壁) p.5 secondary sexual characteristic

(第二性徵) p.43
chloroplast (葉綠體) p.5
wet dream (夢遺) p.45
chromosome (染色體) p.18
zygote (合子) p.36
cytoplasm (細胞質) p.5

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

4.4
(脫氧核糖核酸) p.18
birth control (控制生育) p.50
microscope (顯微鏡) p.7
family planning (家庭計劃) p.50
nucleus (細胞核) p.5
E sexually transmitted disease (STD)
vacuole (液泡) p.5
(性病) p.52

4.2
4.5
cell differentiation (細胞分化) p.22
bar chart (棒形圖) p.59
E organ (器官) p.25
E base (鹼基) p.64
E system (系統) p.26
E complementary base pairing
E tissue (組織) p.25 (互補鹼基配對) p.64

continuous variation (連續變異) p.58

4.3
discontinuous variation
embryo (胚胎) p.38
(不連續變異) p.59
exchange of materials (物質交換) p.39
E double helix (雙螺旋) p.64
fertilization (受精作用) p.36
histogram (直方圖) p.58
foetus (胎兒) p.40
twins (雙生) p.61
implantation (植入) p.38

menstrual cycle (月經周期) p.46

ovulation (排卵) p.34

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Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

Unit exercise Unit Test (U4) Online Test (U4)

A. True or false (1 mark each)

Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement.

1. Light microscopes can magnify the image of an object up to 10 000 times. F

2. A male body cell and a female body cell have different numbers of chromosomes. F
E 3. Tissues group together to form an organ. T
4. Compared with a baby girl, a baby boy receives more genetic information from his father. F
5. Body mass of a person is only determined by heredity. F

B. Multiple-choice (1 mark each)

Choose the correct answer for each question. 3. Which of the following cells have the
chromosomes shown in the
1. The diagram below shows a plant cell.
photomicrograph below?
Which of the structures are NOT found in an
animal cell?

1
4

2
5

3 6
A. A male body cell
B. A female body cell
A. 1, 3 and 6 C. A male sex cell
B. 2, 4 and 5 D. A female sex cell C
C. 2, 4 and 6
D. 4, 5 and 6 B 4. In which parts of the female reproductive
system do fertilization and implantation
2. Some cells are observed under a microscope. take place?
Which of the following combinations of the
magnifications of the eyepiece and the 2
objective of a microscope can give the most 3
details of these cells? 1
4
Eyepiece Objective
A. 5X 10X 5

B. 10X 4X
C. 10X 15X
D. 15X 40X Fertilization Implantation
D
A. 1 3
B. 2 4
C. 3 4
D. 4 5 B

75
4 Cells, Human Reproduction and Heredity

E 5. Which of the following statements about DNA is INCORRECT?

A. DNA is only found inside the cytoplasm of cells.
B. DNA encodes instructions for the cells to make proteins.
C. DNA consists of two strands twisted around one another to form a double helix.
D. DNA determines the traits we inherit from our parents. A

C. Questions (15 marks)

1. The diagram below shows how a new life begins.

process A

cell X cell Y cell Z

(a) Name process A and cells X, Y and Z. (4 marks)

process A: fertilization (1m) cell X: sperm (1m)

cell Y: ovum (1m) cell Z: zygote/fertilized ovum (1m)

(b) Complete the table below to summarize the number of chromosomes in cells X, Y and Z.
 (3 marks)

Cell X Y Z
Number of chromosomes 23 (1m) 23 (1m) 46 (1m)

(c) (i) Cell Z splits into two cells and each cell develops into a baby. Name the type of twins
formed. (1 mark)

Identical twins (1m)

(ii) Fill in the blanks below to summarize the information about the twins. (2 marks)

Genetic materials: the same (1m) (the same/different)

Gender: the same (1m) (the same/different)

(iii) 
A student has this opinion. Is he correct?
The twins must look
Explain your answers. (5 marks)
completely alike
He is incorrect (1m) (correct/incorrect). when they grow up.
Identical (1m) twins can still have
differences (1m) in their features when they

grow up. This is because differences in their

living habits and environments (1m) can cause

Score: /25
variations between them (1m) .

76