Syllabus Summery

• Stress and Strain

• Mohr’s Circle of Stress
• Elasticity and Hooke’s Law
• Tensile Test and Stress-Strain Curve
• Springs
• Columns and Struts
• Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Materials and Environments
 Stress

•
 Strain

Strain is the measure of deformation of a material due to applied

stress. It is defined as the change in dimension divided by the original
dimension.
Strain=Change in Length (ΔL)/Original Length (L)
Unit: It is dimensionless (no units)
Types of Strain:
• Tensile Strain
• Compressive Strain
• Shear Strain
 Types of Stresses

Tensile Stress
• Occurs when a material is stretched.
• The force tries to increase the length of the material.
• Example: Pulling a steel wire from both ends.
Tensile Stress=Tensile Force (F)/Cross-sectional Area (A)
Compressive Stress
• Happens when a material is compressed.
• The force tries to reduce the length.
• Example: A concrete column supporting a roof.
 Types of Stresses
Shear Stress
•Happens when forces act parallel to the surface of a material.
•Causes sliding of layers.
•Example: Scissors cutting paper.
Bending Stress
•Occurs when a bending moment is applied.
•Combination of tensile and compressive stress on opposite sides.
•Example: Bending a ruler.
Torsional Stress
•Caused by twisting a material.
•Acts due to torque or moment.
•Example: Twisting a screwdriver shaft.
 Types of Strains
Tensile Strain
• Due to tensile stress.
• Causes elongation.
Tensile Strain=ΔL/L
Compressive Strain
• Due to compressive stress.
• Causes shortening.
Shear Strain
• Due to shear stress.
• Measured as the angular deformation (in radians).
• Shear Strain=tan(θ)≈θ
Volumetric Strain
• Change in volume of a body due to uniform stress.
Volumetric Strain=ΔV/V
 Summary Table
Type Stress Strain Effect

Tensile Pulling force Elongation Increases length

Compressive Pushing force Shortening Decreases length

Shear Parallel force Angular change Layers slide

Moment One side

Bending (combination of Curved deformation stretches, other
stress) compresses

Rotational
Torsional Twisting force Angular displacement
distortion
 Calculation on Various Stresses
Tensile Stress
• Formula:
• σ=F/A
• Where:
σ = tensile stress (N/m² or Pascal)
F = tensile force (N)
A = cross-sectional area (m²)
• Example:
A steel rod of cross-sectional area 0.0005 m² is pulled by a force of 1000 N.
σ=1000/0.0005=2,000,000 Pa=2 MPa
 Calculation on Various Stresses
Compressive Stress
Formula:
σ=F/A (Same formula as tensile, but the force is compressive.)
Example:
A concrete block with area 0.01 m² is compressed by a force of 5000 N.
• σ=5000/0.01=500,000 Pa=0.5 Mpa
Shear Stress
Formula:
τ=F/A
• τ = shear stress
• F = shear force
• A = shear area
• Example:
A rivet with a cross-sectional shear area of 0.0003 m² is under a shear force of 600 N.
• τ=600/0.0003=2,000,000 Pa=2 MPa
 Calculation on Various Stresses
Bending Stress
• Formula
• σ=M⋅y/I
• M = bending moment (N·m)
• y = distance from neutral axis (m)
• I = moment of inertia (m⁴)
• Example
If M=200 Nm, y=0.01 m, I=4×10−6 m4
• σ=200×0.01/4×10−6=500,000 Pa=0.5 MPa
 Calculation on Various Stresses
Torsional
StressFormula
• τ=T⋅r/J
• T = torque (N·m)
• r = radius of shaft (m)
• J = polar moment of inertia (m⁴)
• Example
If T=150 Nm, r=0.02 m, J=2×10−6 m4
• τ=150×0.02/2×10−6=1,500,000 Pa=1.5 MPa
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 1 N/mm²
 Mohr’s Circle of Stresses
Mohr’s Circle is a powerful tool in engineering mechanics, especially in
the fields of mechanics of materials, solid mechanics, and structural
engineering. It graphically represents the state of stress at a point and
provides critical insights into material behavior.
Mohr’s Circle of Stresses

• σx=80 Mpa σy=20 Mpa, τxy=30 MPa

 Key Points in the Diagram
• Point A: Represents stress on x-face → (σx,τxy)
• Point B: Represents stress on y-face → (σy,−τxy)
• Center: At (σx+σy)/2, which is the average normal stress
• Principal Stresses: Located where the circle intersects the σ-axis

Mohr’s Circle is not just a diagram—it's a complete graphical method to

analyze and understand stress conditions in materials, ensuring safety
and efficiency in engineering design.
 Calculation Using Mohr’s Circle of Stresses
• Given:
• Normal stress in the x-direction, σₓ = 80 MPa (tensile)
• Normal stress in the y-direction, σᵧ = 20 MPa (tensile)
• Shear stress τₓᵧ = 30 MPa (clockwise)
• Find:
• Principal stresses (σ₁, σ₂)
• Maximum shear stress (τₚₐₓ)
• Orientation of principal planes (θₚ)
 Solutions
• Step 1: Center and Radius of Mohr’s Circle
• Center of the Circle, C:
• C=(σx+σγ)/2=(80+20)/2=50 Mpa
• Radius, R:
R=sqr(σx−σγ)/2)2+τxy2=(80−20)/2)2+302
R=sqr(302+302)=sqr(900+900)=sqr1800≈42.43 Mpa
Step 2: Principal Stresses (σ₁, σ₂)
σ1=C+R=50+42.43≈92.43 MPa
σ2=C−R=50−42.43≈7.57 MPa
 Solution

Step 3: Maximum Shear Stress (τₚₐₓ)

• τmax=R=42.43 Mpa
• And average normal stress at τₚₐₓ:
• σavg=C=50 MPa
• Step 4: Orientation of Principal Planes (θₚ)
• Orientation of principal planes:
• tan2θ=2τxy/(σx−σγ)=2⋅30/(80−20)=60/60=1⇒2θ=45∘⇒θ=22.5∘
 Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

Hooke’s Law is a fundamental principle in mechanics that describes the

linear relationship between stress and strain in elastic materials.
Statement of Hooke’s Law: "Within the elastic limit, the stress applied
to a material is directly proportional to the strain it produces.“
σ=E⋅ε
Where:
σ = Stress (N/m² or Pa)
ε = Strain (dimensionless)
E = Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus) in N/m² or P
Hooke’s Law of Elasticity
 Calculation Using Hooke’s Law
• Hooke’s Law Formula
• σ=E⋅ε
Where:
• σ = stress (Pa or N/m² or MPa)
• E = Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity (Pa or MPa)
• ε= strain (unit-less)
A steel rod is subjected to a tensile force and undergoes an elongation of 1.2
mm over an original length of 2 m. The Young’s modulus (E) for steel is
200 GPa=200×109 Pa.
Find:
• The strain
• The stress using Hooke’s Law
 Calculation Using Hooke’s Law
• Step 1: Calculate Strain
• ε=ΔL/L=1.2 mm/2000 mm=0.0006
• Step 2: Use Hooke’s Law to Find Stress
• σ=E⋅ε=(200×109Pa)⋅0.0006=1.2×108Pa=120MPa
 Applications of Hooke’s Law
• Spring design
• Material testing in labs
• Structural and mechanical engineering
• Predicting deformation of metals, plastics, etc.
 Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)

The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of normal stress to linear strain within the elastic limit of
a material.
E=σ/ε=Normal Stress/Linear Strain
Symbol: E
Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m²
Describes: A material's resistance to elongation or compression.
Example: Steel has a high modulus of elasticity, meaning it's very stiff and resists stretching.
Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)
The modulus of rigidity is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the elastic
limit.
G=τ/γ=Shear Stress/Shear Strain
Symbol: G or sometimes C
Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m²
Describes: A material’s resistance to shape change when sheared.
Example: Rubber has a low shear modulus, meaning it easily deforms
under twisting or shearing forces.
Relationship Between E, G, and Poisson’s Ratio (ν)
E=2G(1+ν)
Where:
E = Modulus of Elasticity
G= Modulus of Rigidity
ν = Poisson’s Ratio
 Calculation

• Example
Let’s assume:
• G=80 GPa=80×109 Pa
• ν=0.3
• E=2G(1+ν)=2⋅80⋅(1+0.3)=160⋅1.3=208GPa
 Key Points on the Stress-Strain Curve
Region Description
Linear portion where Hooke’s Law is obeyed. Material returns to
O to A – Elastic Region
original shape after removing the load.
• A – Proportional Limit Maximum stress where stress is still proportional to strain.
Point
Beyond this, material starts to undergo permanent
Point B – Elastic Limit
deformation.
Sudden drop in stress as the material begins to yield or
Point C – Upper Yield Point
plastically deform.
Stress level where plastic flow continues with little or no
Point D – Lower Yield Point
increase in load.
Material becomes stronger due to dislocation movement. Stress
C to E – Strain Hardening
increases until ultimate point.
Point E – Ultimate Stress Maximum stress the material can withstand. After this, necking
(σu) starts.
Cross-sectional area reduces, stress appears to drop. Actual
E to F – Necking Region
load drops but stress calculated using original area.
Point F – Fracture /
 Key Points on the Stress-Strain Curve
Yield Stress
• Stress at which plastic deformation starts.
• For mild steel, both upper and lower yield points are observed.
Ultimate Stress
• Maximum stress the material can take before necking.
Breaking Stress
• Final stress at which fracture occurs.