UNIT IV

OPTICS WITH LASER AND

OPTICAL FIBRE
 12
Interference

12.1 INTRODUCTION (NATURE OF LIGHT)

Upto the middle of the seventeenth century it was generally believed that light consisted of a stream of
corpuscles. These corpuscles could penetrate transparent materials and were reflected from the surfaces
of opaque materials. When they entered the eye, they caused the sensation of light.
Huygen in 1670 showed that the laws of reflection and refraction could be explained on the basis of
wave theory. The wave theory could however not be immediately accepted. It was objected that if light
were a wave motion, one should be able to see around corners, since wave can bend around obstacles in
their path. We know now that the wavelengths of light waves are so small that the bending, which actu-
ally does take place, is so small that it is not ordinarily observed. However, the bending of light waves
around the edges of an object (diffraction) was noted by Grimaldi and interpreted by Hooke in terms of
a wave picture, but its significance was not recognised at that time.
In about 1827, Young’s experiments enabled him to measure the wavelength of the waves, and Fresnel
showed that the rectilinear propagation of light along with the diffraction effects observed by Grimaldi,
could be explained if light was considered as waves of short wavelengths.
In 1873, Maxwell suggested that light consisted of electromagnetic wave of extremely short wave-
lengths. After some years, Hertz succeeded in producing short wavelength waves of electromagnetic
origin and showed that they possessed all the characteristics of light wave, such as refraction, reflec-
tion, polarisation, etc. This Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light was experimentally justified. The
electromagnetic theory, however, failed to account for the phenomenon of photoelectric emission.
Einstein (1905) postulated that energy in a light beam was concentrated in small packet or photons.
The photoelectric effect thus consisted in the transfer of energy from a photon to an electron. Compton, in
1921, determined the motion of a photon and a single electron, both before and after a collision between
them, and found that they behaved like material bodies having kinetic energy and momentum, both of
which were conserved during collision. The photoelectric effect and Compton effect thus demanded a
return to a corpuscular theory of light.
Thus, the present scenario is to accept the fact that light is dualistic in nature. The phenomenon of
light propagation may best be explained by the electromagnetic wave theory, while the interaction of
light with matter in the processes of emission and absorption is a corpuscular phenomenon.
396 l Engineering Physics
12.2 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
When two waves of the same frequency having a constant initial phase difference traverse simultaneously
in a medium superpose each other, the resultant intensity of light is not distributed uniformly in space.
This modification in intensity is called interference. At some points of the medium the superposition
takes place in such a way that the resultant intensity is greater than the sum of intensities of individual
waves. This type of interference is called constructive interference, while at some points of the medium
the resultant intensity is found to be less than the sum of the intensities of individual waves. This is clas-
sified as destructive interference.

12.3 YOUNG’S EXPERIMENT (DIVISION OF WAVEFRONT)

Thomas Young, in 1801, demonstrated the phenomenon of interference of light as shown in Fig. 12.1. The
sunlight was first allowed to pass through a pinhole S, and then through two pinholes S1 and S2 placed at
a sufficient distance away from S and the light was received on a screen. The two sets of spherical waves
emerging from S1 and S2 interfered with each other and a few coloured fringes of varying intensity were
observed on the screen.
As an improvement of the original arrangement, the pinholes S1 and S2 are replaced by narrow slits and
sunlight by a monochromatic light. The interfering waves are then cylindrical and a number of alternate
dark and bright fringes running parallel to the length of the slits are observed on the screen.
Explanation
On the basis of wave theory of light, the formation of dark and bright fringes can be explained. The cylindrical
wavefronts starting from S falls on S1 and S2. According to Huygens principle, S1 and S2 become centres of
secondary wavelets, i.e., two cylindrical wavefronts emerge out from S1 and S2. Their radii increase as they
move away from S1 and S2, so that they superimpose more and more on each other. At points where crest
(or trough) due to one falls on a crest (or trough) due to the other, the resultant amplitude is the sum of the
amplitudes due to each wave separately. The intensity, which is proportional to the square of the amplitude,
at these points is therefore a maximum. This is the case of constructive interference. At points where a crest
due to one falls on a trough due to the other, the resultant amplitude is the difference of the amplitudes due
to separate waves and the resultant intensity is a minimum. This is the case of destructive interference.
B

D
S1
B
S
S2
D

Fig. 12.1 Young’s experiment showing the phenomenon of interference

 Interference l 397
In Fig. 12.1, the solid arcs indicate the crests while the dotted arcs indicate the troughs. The soild
lines are the loci of the points of maximum intensity and are called anti-nodal lines. The broken lines
are the loci of the points of minimum intensity and are called nodal lines. However, actually these lines
are hyperbola. The intersections of these lines on the screen give the positions of bright and dark fringes
which occur alternately at equal distances.
Young’s experiment demonstrates both the diffraction of light waves at the slits and the interference
between the light waves emerging from the slits.

12.4 RESULTANT INTENSITY DUE TO SUPERPOSITION OF TWO INTERFERING

WAVES
Let S be a narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic light source, and S1 and S2 are two similar parallel
slits very close together and equidistant from S (Fig. 12.2).
P

S1

S
M
S2

Fig. 12.2 Superposition of two waves

Let the waves from S reach at S1 and S2 in the same phase such that the waves proceed as if they started
from S1 and S2. We have to find out the resultant intensity at P on a screen placed parallel to S1 and S2.
12.4.1 Analysis
Let a1 and a2 be the amplitudes at P due to the waves from S1 and S2, respectively. The waves reaching at
P will have different paths S1P and S2P. Hence, they will superimpose with a phase difference d given by
2p
d=  path difference
l
2p 2p
=  (S2P – S1P) =  S2M (12.1)
l l
where l is the wavelength of light used.
The individual displacements at P will then be represented by
y1 = a1 sin wt
y2 = a2 sin (wt+ d)
where w/ 2p is the common frequency of the two waves.
Due to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
y = y1 + y2
= a1 sin wt + a2 sin (wt + d)
= a1 sin wt + a2 (sin wt cos d + cos wt sin d)
398 l Engineering Physics

= a1 sin wt + a2 cos dsin wt + a2 sin d cos wt.

= (a1 + a2 cos d) sin wt + (a2 sin d) cos wt.
Let us make a change in constants as
a1 + a2 cos d = R cos q (12.2)
and a2 sin d = R sin q (12.3)
where R and q are new constants. This will give
y = R cos q sin wt + R sin q cos wt
y = R sin (wt +q) (12.4)
Hence superposition of two simple harmonic waves will not change the frequency and nature of re-
sultant wave.
Squaring and adding Eqs. (12.2) and (12.3) will give the resultant amplitude R as
R2 cos2 q + R2 sin2 q = (a1 + a2 cos d)2 + (a2 sin d)2
 R2 =a 21 + a 22 + 2a1a2 cos d (12.5)
Therefore, resultant intensity at P is
I  R2
 I = kR2
where k is the constant of proportionality whose value is found to be unity if the medium of travelling
of the waves is [Link] is,
I = R2
or I = a 2 + a 2 + 2a a cos d*
1 2 1 2
(12.6)

12.4.2 Conditions for Maxima and Minima

It is clear from Eq. (12.6) that at point P, the intensity will be a maximum whenever
cos d = +1
or d = 2np, n = 0, 1, 2,…
So, path difference (S2P – S1P) = nl [from Eq. (12.1)]
Thus from Eq. (12.6), we have
Imax = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1a2
= (a1 + a2)2 > a 12 + a 22, i.e., Imax > I1 + I2
Similarly, the resultant intensity will be a minimum whenever
cos d = –1
or d = (2n + 1) p n = 0, 1, 2,

So, path difference (S2 P – S1P) = (2n + 1) l 2 .

* This expression gives the resultant intensity at P due to two waves of amplitudes a1 and a2 and having a phase difference d between
them.
 Interference l 399
Then from Eq. (12.6), we get
Imin = a 12 + a 22 – 2a 1a2
= (a1 – a2)2 < a 12 – a 22, i.e., Imin < I1 – I2
Thus, as we move on the screen, the path difference between the two waves gradually changes and
there is a variation in the intensity of light being alternately maximum and minimum. This is called
interference pattern.

Solved Examples
Example 12.1
The path difference between the two interfering rays at a point on the screen is 1/8th of the wavelength.
Find the ratio of the intensity at this point to that at the centre of a bright fringe.
Solution
The intensity at any point is given by
I = a 12 + a 22 + 2 a 1a2 cos d
Here a 1 = a2 = a.
Therefore, I = a 2 + a2 + 2a2 cos d
= 2a 2(1 + cos d)
At the centre, phase difference d = 0
 I0 = 2a 2(1 + cos q) = 2a2(1 + 1) = 4a2
At the point, where the path difference is λ 8 ,
2p
Phase difference =  path difference
l
2p l p
= ¥ =
l 8 4
p
 I1 = 2a 2 (1 + cos ) = 2a 2 (1 + 0.707)
4
= a 2 3.414
Therefore,

I1 3.414 a 2
= = 0.853
I0 4 a2

Example 12.2
Two coherent sources whose intensity ratio is 100:1 produce interference fringes. Find the ratio of
maximum intensity to minimum intensity in the interference pattern.
400 l Engineering Physics
Solution
The ratio of maximum intensity to the minimum intensity is given by
I max (a + a )2
= 1 2 2 (1)
I min (a1 - a2 )

I1 a 2 100
Here, = 12 =
I2 a2 1

a1 10
 =
a2 1
⇒ a1 = 10a2 (2)
Substituting the value of a1 from Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get

I max (10 a2 + a2 ) 2 (11)2 121

= = =
I min (10 a2 − a2 ) 2 (9) 2 81

Example 12.3
In an interference pattern, the amplitude of intensity variation is found to be 5% of the average intensity.
Calculate the relative intensities of the interfering sources.
Solution
It is given that the intensity variation is 5% of the average intensity. So, if the average intensity is 100,
then the maximum intensity is 105 and the minimum intensity is 95.

I max (a + a )2 105
 = 1 2 2=
I min (a1 − a2 ) 95

(a1 + a2 )
or = 1.051
(a1 − a2 )
or (a1 + a2) = 1.051(a1 – a2) = 1.051a1 – 1.051a2
or 0.051 a1 = 2.051 a2
a1 2.051
or = = 40
a2 0.051
 a= 40a
Therefore, the ratio of the intensities of interfering sources is
I1 a 2 (40 a2 )2 1600
= 12 = =
I2 a2 (a2 )2 1

or I1: I2 = 1600:1
 Interference l 401
Example 12.4
Two coherent sources of intensity ratio a interfere. Prove that in the interference pattern,
I max − I min 2 a
=
I max + I min 1+ a

Solution
Let I1 and I2 be the intensities and a and a be the corresponding amplitudes of the two coherent sources.
I1 a2
 = 12 =a
I2 a2
a1
or = a
a2
 a1 = a a2 (1)

I max − I min (a + a ) 2 − (a1 − a2 ) 2 2a a

Now, = 1 2 2 = 2 1 22
I max + I min (a1 + a2 ) + (a1 − a2 ) 2
a1 + a2

2 (a1 / a2 )
= 2
 a1 
 a  +1
 2

2 a
=
1+ a
12.5 INTERFERENCE AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
When we draw a curve between resultant intensity ( I) and the phase difference d, it is a periodic curve
with its all highest and lowest points at (a1+ a2)2 and (a1 – a2 )2, respectively, which are the maximum and
minimum intensities.
The average intensity between d= 0 and d= 2p is given by
2p 2p

Iaverage =
Ú0 Idd = Ú0 (a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos d ) d d
2p 2p
Ú0 dd Ú0 dd

2p (a12 + a 22 )
= = a12 + a22 = I1 + I 2
2p
Thus, the average intensity is equal to the sum of the individual intensities, i.e, whatever energy appar-
ently disappears at minima is actually present at the maxima. Thus, the phenomenon of interference is
consistent with the law of conservation of energy (Fig. 12.3).
402 l Engineering Physics
I
(a1 + a2)2

(a12 + a22 )

(a1 – a2)2

– 6p – 4p – 2p 0 2p 4p 6p d

Fig. 12.3 Resultant intensity and phase difference graph

12.6 DETERMINATION OF FRINGE WIDTH IN YOUNG’S EXPERIMENT

Let S be a narrow slit illuminated by monochromatic light and S1 and S2 be two parallel slits very close
together and equidistant from S. The light waves from S1 an S2 produce an interference pattern on a screen
XY placed parallel to S1 and S2 as shown in Fig. 12.4.
X P

M1 x
S1
d
S 2d
M d O
S2
M2
D Y

Fig. 12.4 Analytical treatment of Young’s experiment

From Fig. 12.4,

(S2P)2 = (S2 M2)2 + (PM2)2
= D 2 + (x + d)2
 ( x + d )2 
= D 2 1+ 
 D2 
1/ 2
 ( x + d )2 
 S2P = D 1 + 
 D2 
Since D >> (x +d ), the binomial expansion up to two terms will give
1/ 2
 ( x + d )2 
S 2 P = D 1 + 
 D2 

=D+
( x + d )2
2D
 Interference l 403

( x − d )2
Similarly, S1P = D +
2D
2xd
 S2P – S1P =
D
Now for maxima or bright fringes, the path difference in given by
S2P – S1P = n l, where n = 0, 1, 2,
2xd
or = nl
D
Dλ
or x=n
2d
and for dark fringes, i.e, for minima the path difference in given by
l
S2P – S1P = (2n + 1) , where n = 0, 1, 2,
2
2xd l
= (2n + 1)
D 2
D l
or x= (2n + 1)
2d 2
Now let xn and xn +1 denote the distances of nth and (n +1)th bright fringes, then
Dλ
xn = n
2d
Dλ
and xn+1 = (n + 1)
2d
 Spacing between nth and (n + 1)th bright fringe or successive bright fringes is
Dλ Dλ Dλ
xn+1 – xn = (n + 1) −n =
2d 2d 2d
It is independent of n. Hence, spacing between any two consecutive bright fringes is same. Similarly, it
can be shown that spacing between two consecutive dark fringes will also be Dλ 2d .

The spacing between any two consecutive bright and dark fringes is called the fringe width (b). Thus,
Dλ
b= (12.7)
2d
12.7 SHAPE OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES
At point P on the screen (Fig. 12.5), there will be a maximum or minimum, respectively, for intensity
according as
S 2P – S1P = nl
l
or S2P – S1P = (2n + 1)
2
404 l Engineering Physics
Thus, for a given value of n, one can write
S2P – S1P = Constant =  (say)
Let the coordinates of S1, S2, and P be (d, 0), (–d, 0), and (x, y), respectively. Then,
1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
S2P = ( x + d )2 + y 2  and S1P = ( x − d ) + y 
2 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
 = ( x + d ) + y  – ( x − d )2 + y 2  =

{ }
1/ 2 2
 2 2
(x + d ) +y = ( x − d ) + y 
2 2 +∆

S1

S2

Fig. 12.5 Shape of interference fringes

x 2 + d 2 + 2xd + y 2 = x2 + d2 – 2xd + y2 + 2 + 2[(x – d) 2 + y 2]

4xd = 2 + 2 [(x – d)2 + y2]
2 [(x – d) 2 + y2] = 4xd – 2
Squaring on both sides will give
42 [(x – d)2 + y2] =  4 + 16x2 d 2 – 82 xd
 42 x 2 + 42 d 2 – 8D2xd + 42 y2 = 4 + 16x2 d 2 – 8D2xd
 4x 2 (4d 2 – 2) – 42 y2 = 42 d2
 x 2 (4d2 – 2 ) – 2 y 2 =  2d 2
 4 1  y2
 x2  2 − 2  − 2 = 1
∆ d  d
x2 y2
 − =1 (12.8)
(
1 4 ∆2 − 1 d 2 ) d2

which is the equation of a hyperbola with S1 and S2 as foci. Thus, the shape of the fringes in Young’s
experiment is a hyperbola.
 Interference l 405
12.8 CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
A well-defined observable interference pattern can be obtained when the constructive and destructive
interferences are maintained at maximum and zero, respectively. This can be attained by fulfilling the
following conditions:
1. Conditions for sustained interference
(i) The two interfering waves should be coherent, i.e., the phase difference between them must
remain constant with time.
(ii) The two waves should have same frequency.
(iii) If the interfering waves are polarised, they must be in the same state of polarisation.
2. Conditions for observation
(i) The separation between the light sources (2d) should be as small as possible.
(ii) The distance D of the screen from the two sources should be quite large.
3. Conditions for good contrast
(i) The amplitudes of the interfering rays should be equal or at least nearly equal.
(ii) The two sources must be narrow.
12.9 COHERENT SOURCES
When two light sources produce waves which have a sharply defined* phase difference that remains
constant with time they are said to be coherent. Under this condition, the resultant intensity at a point is
obtained by squaring the vector sum of the two amplitudes, taking the constant phase difference at the
point into account.
12.9.1 No Interference by Independent Sources
Two independent sources cannot produce interference pattern because there is no steady phase difference
between the light waves emitted from them.
Every source of light is made up of enormous number of atoms which are the ultimate cause of ra-
diation. When an atom gets energy from some external source, one or more of its electrons go to some
higher-energy state only for about 10 –8s, after which the electron jumps back to the lower orbit, resulting
in emission of radiation. This implies that an atom does not emit a continuous train of light waves but at
short intervals. These short intervals are different for different atoms. Thus, the phase of the light wave
from a source varies with time in a random way.
Therefore, the phases of the waves from two independent sources will be changing independently of
each other, i.e., phase difference is not steady. Hence, there is no possibility of steady interference fringes.

12.10 PRODUCTION OF COHERENT SOURCES

Some methods for creating coherent sources of light are as follows:

* When the phase difference between two light waves arriving at a point vary with time randomly, the wave sources are said to be
incoherent. In this case at a certain instant, conditions may be right for maximum intensity and after a very short time 10–8 s they
may be right for minimum intensity and this is true for any point. This results into uniform illumination and no fringe pattern will be
observed. In this condition, the resultant intensity at any point is equal to the sum of the individual intensities.
406 l Engineering Physics
(i) Young’s double slit: In this method (Fig. 12.6), two narrow slits S1 and S2 receive light from the
same narrow slit S. Hence, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources. Here, the two coherent sources are
created by the method of division of wavefront.
X
P

S1

S2

Fig. 12.6 Young’s double slit

(ii) Llyod’s single mirror: In this device (Fig. 12.7), a slit S and its virtual image S  formed by reflec-
tion at a mirror are coherent sources. Here, the division of amplitude is used to create coherent
sources.
S1

S2

Fig. 12.7 Llyod’s single mirror

(iii) Fresnel’s double mirror : In this device (Fig. 12.8), two virtual images S1 and S 2 of a single slit,
formed by reflection at two plane mirrors M1 and M2 inclined at a small angle to each other, are
the coherent sources. Coherent sources are created by the division of amplitude.
S

M1
M2
S1

S2

Fig. 12.8 Fresnel’s double mirror

(iv) Fresnel’s biprism: In this device (Fig. 12.9), S1 and S2, which are images of a slit S formed by
refraction through a biprism, act as virtual coherent sources. These coherent sources are created
by the division of wavefront.
(v) Michelson interferometer: In this device (Fig. 1.6, Section 1.7), a single light beam is broken
into two perpendicular light waves, one by reflection and the other by refraction through a half-
silvered mirror (P), thus producing two waves of same frequency having a constant path difference
 Interference l 407
resulting into the production of fringes. Here, these coherent sources are created by the division
of amplitude.
S1

S2

Fig. 12.9 Fresnel’s biprism

12.11 FRESNEL’S BIPRISM

It is a device which can produce two coherent sources for getting sustained interference. It is made from
a single plate by grinding and polishing, so that it is a single prism with one of its angles about 179° and
the other two obviously 30 each.
12.11.1 Production of Fringes
The arrangement for obtaining interference fringes is shown in Fig. 12.10. S is a narrow vertical slit illu-
minated by a monochromatic light. The light is allowed to fall symmetrically on the biprism, placed at
a small distance from S and its refracting edges parallel to slit. The light rays emerging from the upper
and lower halves of the prism appear to come from virtual sources S1 and S2.
2d
Here, l=b      [From Eq. (12.7)] (12.9)
D
It is clear from this expression that if b, D, and 2d are measured, the wavelength of light can be calculated.

Overlapping
region

Fig. 12.10 Fresenel’s biprism arrangement for obtaining interference

12.11.2 Experimental Method for Determination of Wavelength

The experimental arrangement consists of an optical bench which carries four upright stands having
an adjustable slit, biprism, a convergent lens, and a micrometer equipped with a Ramsden’s eyepiece.
All uprights can be made to move perpendicular to the length of the optical bench and can be adjusted
to a desired height. The slit is made of least width and illuminated by a monochromatic light whose
wavelength is to be calculated.
408 l Engineering Physics
To obtain sharp fringes, following adjustments are made:
(i) The optical bench is properly levelled with the help of sources provided with the optical bench.
(ii) The eyepiece is focused on the cross-wires.
(iii) All the uprights are adjusted to same vertical height.
(iv) The axis of the slit is made vertical so that light can be incident normally on the biprism.
(v) The edge of the biprism and the centre of the slit are made parallel.
12.11.3 Measurements
(i) Fringe width (b): After obtaining sharp and distinct fringes, the cross-wire of micrometer is set
at one of the bright fringes of the pattern and the reading is taken. Now the eyepiece is moved
laterally and micrometer reading is taken for certain counted fringes so that the fringe width can
be calculated as
Difference of micrometer readings
b=
Number of fringes counted
(ii) Measurement of D: The distance between slit and eyepiece on the optical bench will give the value
of D.
(iii) Measurement of 2d: Displacement method is used to calculate the distance between sources. As
shown in Fig. 12.11, at position L1 we have
d1 u
=
2d u
and at position L2 we have
d2 u
=
2d u
d1d 2
which gives =1
4d 2
or 2d = d1d 2 (12.10)
Finally, the wavelength can be calculated by the formula
2d 
l= b  
 D

Fig. 12.11 Determination of 2d

 Interference l 409
12.11.4 Distance between Virtual Sources
We know that the deviation produced in a ray through a prism of very small refracting angle is given by
d= m – 1) a
where m is the refractive index of the material of the prism and a is the refracting angle measured in radians.
From Fig. 12.12, it is clear from the formula
Arc
Angle =
Radius
2d
or 2d=
a
or 2d = 2d a
which gives 2d = 2a ( m - 1) a (12.11)

d
a

Fig. 12.12 Dependence of 2d on prism angle (a)

12.12 DISPLACEMENT OF FRINGES

When a thin transparent plate such as glass or mica is introduced in the path of one of the two interfering
beams, the entire fringe pattern is displaced towards the beam in the path of which the plate is introduced.
Let S1 and S2 be the two coherent sources (Fig 12.13) emitting light of wavelength l. Let a thin plate
of thickness t and refractive index l be introduced in the path of light ray from S1.
As the light ray from S1 has to travel in two media (air and plate), it must travel with two different
velocities in the path from S1 to P. The distance travelled by the ray in air is (S1P– t) while in plate it is
t. If the velocity of the ray in plate be u, the time taken by the ray from S1 to P
S1 P - t t
= +
c u
S1 P − t mt
= +
c c
S1 P + ( m − 1) t
=
c
This follows that the effective path travelled by the ray from S1 to P is [S1P + (m–1) t], i.e., on introduc-
tion of the thin plate, the path is increased by an amount (m – 1)t.
Now at point P, the effective path difference
= S2 P – [S1 P + (m – 1) t ]
410 l Engineering Physics
= S2 P – S1 P – (m – 1) t
However, for the arrangement shown in Fig. (12.13),
2d
S2 P – S1P = x
D n
x
t P
S1 xn
2d O¢
D O
S2

Fig. 12.13 Displacement of fringes

2d
 Effective path difference at P = x – (m – 1) t
D n
If the point P is the centre of the nth bright fringe, we can write
2d
x – (m – 1) t = nl
D n
2d 2d
or xn = nl + (m – 1) t
D D
In the absence of plate (t = 0), the distance of nth bright fringe from centre O is ( 2d D ) nl. Therefore,
the displacement of nth bright fringe is given by
D
OO = x0 = ( m − 1) t
2d
b Ê Dl ˆ
x0 = ( m - 1) t ÁË∵ b = ˜ (12.12)
l 2d ¯
It is independent of n, so that displacement is the same for all bright fringes. The same displacement can
also be obtained for dark fringes. Thus, the entire fringe pattern is shifted by a distance
D B
( m −1) t = ( m −1) t
2d l

Solved Examples

Example 12.5
In a Young’s double slit experiment, the angular width of a fringe found on a distant screen is 0.1°. The
wavelength of light used is 6000 Å. What is the spacing between the slits?
 Interference l 411
Solution
The angular fringe with (bq) is given by
l
bq=
2d
Therefore, spacing between the slits (2d ) is
l
2d =
bq
where l = 6000 Å = 6  10–5 cm
0.1×p
 bq= = rad
180
6 ¥10 -5 ¥180 6 ¥10 -5 ¥180
 2d = =
0.1 ¥ p 0.1 ¥ 3.14
= 3.44  10–2 cm
Example 12.6
A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 6500 and 5200 Å is used to obtain interference fringes
in a Young’s double slit experiment.
(i) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for the wave-
length 6500 Å.
(ii) What is the least distance from the central maximum when the bright fringes due to both the
wavelengths coincide?
The distance between the slits is 2 mm and the distance between the plane of the slits and the screen
is 120 cm.
Solution
(i) The position of the nth maximum is given by
Dnl
xn = (1)
2d
where l = 6500 Å = 6.5  10–5 cm, 2d = 2 mm = 0.2 cm, D = 120 cm, and n = 3.

120 ¥ 3 ¥ 6.5 ¥ 10 -5
 x3 = = 0.117 cm
0.2
(ii) The condition for least distance when the bright fringes due to wavelengths coincide is that the
difference between their order of fringe width should be 1. Therefore,
Dnl1 D (n + 1) l2
xn = =
2d 2d
Here l1 = 6500 Å = 6.5  10–5 cm and l2 = 5200 Å = 5.2  10 –5 cm.
412 l Engineering Physics
Hence, from Eq. (2),
nl= (n + 1)l (2)
or n 6.5 10 = (n + 1)  5.2  10
–5 –5

or 6.5n = 5.2 n + 5.2

or 1.3n = 5.2
or n=4
Substituting the value of n in Eq. (1), we get
Dnl1 120 ¥ 4 ¥ 6.5 ¥10 -5
xn = = = 0.156 cm
2d 0.2
Example 12.7
A two slit Young’s experiment is done with monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 Å. The slits are 2
mm apart and the fringes are observed on a screen placed 10 cm away from the slits, and it is found that
the interference pattern shifts by 5 mm when a transparent plate of thickness 0.5 mm is introduced in the
path of one of the rays. What is the refractive index of the transparent plate?
Solution
The shift of interference fringe is given by
D
x0 = (m – 1) t (1)
2d
Here D = 10 cm, 2d = 2 mm = 0.2 cm, t = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm and x0 = 5mm = 0.5 cm.
∆ x 2d 0.5 ¥ 0.2
 (m – 1) = = = 0.2
Dt 10 ¥ 05
 m = 1.2

Example 12.8
In a double slit interference pattern at a point, 10th order maximum is observed for a light of wavelength
7000 Å. What order will be visible if the source of light is replaced by the light of wavelength 5000 Å?
Solution
The condition of maxima in interference is given by
Path difference = nl (1)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,, l = 7000 Å, and n = 10.
 Path difference = 10  7000  10–8 cm (2)
For light of wavelength 5000 Å,
Path difference = n  5000  10–8 (3)
Equating Eqs. (2) and (3) for path difference at the same point,
n  5000  10–8 = 10  7000  10–8
 Interference l 413

 n = 14
Hence, the 14th order of maximum will be observed.
Example 12.9
Two coherent sources of monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 Å produce an interference pattern on
a screen kept at a distance of 1 m from them. The distance between two consecutive bright fringes on
the screen is 0.5 mm. Find the distance between the two coherent sources.
Solution
The fringe width (b) is given by
Dl
b=
2d
The distance between the two coherent sources (2d) is
Dl
2d =
b
Given D = 1 m = 100 cm, l = 6000 Å = 6000 10–8cm, and b = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm.
100 ¥ 6000 ¥ 10 -8
 2d = = 0.12 cm
0.05
Example 12.10
Two coherent sources are placed 0.2 mm apart and the fringes are observed on a screen 1 m away. It is
found that with a certain monochromatic source of light, the fourth bright fringe is situated at a distance
of 10.0 mm from the central fringe. Find the wavelength of light.
Solution
The position of nth bright fringe from the centre of the central fringe is given by
Dnl
xn =
2d
x 2d
 l= n
nD
Here xn = 10.0 mm = 1.0 cm, 2d = 0.2 mm = 0.02 cm, n = 4, and D = 1 m = 100 cm.
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get
1.0 ¥ 0.02
 l= = 5  10–5 cm = 5000 Å
4 ¥100
Example 12.11
In Young’s double slit experiment, the slits are 0.5 mm apart and the interference is observed on a screen
placed at a distance of 100 cm from the slits. It is found that the 11th bright fringe is at a distance of 8.835
mm from the fourth dark fringe from the centre of the interference pattern. Find the wavelength of light.
414 l Engineering Physics
Solution
The position of nth bright fringe from the centre of the central fringe is given by
Dnλ
xn = (1)
2d
The fringe width (b) is given by
Dl
b= (2)
2d
Therefore, from Eqs. (1) and (2),
xn = nb (3)
Here, for 11th bright fringe, n = 11
 x11 = 11b (4)
Similarly, the position of nth dark fringe is given by
(2n + 1) Dl
xn = , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
4d
 2n +1 
or xn =  b (5)
 2 
For the fourth dark fringe, n = 3. Therefore,
7
xn = b (6)
2
It is given that the distance between the 11th and 4th dark fringe is 8.835 mm or 0.8835 cm.
 7  15
 x11 – x4 = 11b − b  = b
 2  2
15
Hence, b = 0.8835
2
0.8835 ¥ 2
or b= = 0.1178 cm
15
The wavelength (l) given by Eq. (2) is
b 2d 0.1178 ¥ 0.05
l= =
D 100
=5890 cm

= 5890 Å
Example 12.12
In a double slit interference pattern with l = 6000 Å, the zero order and the 10th order maxima fall at
micrometer readings 12.34 and 14.73 mm, respectively. If l is changed to 5000 Å, find the changed
fringe width.
 Interference l 415
Solution
The position of nth bright fringe is given by
Dnl
xn = (1)
2d

10d l [Link]  10 Dl
 x10 – x0 =  − = = 10 b
 2d 2d  2d
It is given that x10 – x0 = 14.73 – 12.34 = 2.39 mm.
Dl b D
 b= ⇒ = 
2d l 2d
Let b be the changed fringe width if l is changed to l.
b′ D
 = (3)
λ 2d
From Eqs. (2) and (3)
b¢ b
=
l¢ l
b 5000
 b = l= =mm
l 6000

Example 12.13
A biprism is placed 5 cm away from a slit illuminated by sodium light l = 5890 Å). The width of the fringes
obtained on a screen placed at a distance of 75 cm from the biprism is 9.424  10–2 cm. What is the
distance between the two coherent sources?
Solution
Given that
l = 5890 10–10 m
b = 9.424 10–4 m
D = 5 + 75 = 80 cm = 0.80 m
From the expression of fringe width,
Dl
b=
2d
The separation between the two coherent sources is given by

Dl 0.80 ¥ 5890 ¥ 10 - 10
2d = =
b 9.424 ¥10 - 4
= 0.0005 m = 0.05 cm
416 l Engineering Physics
Example 12.14
Interference fringes are produced with a biprism of refracting angle 1° and refractive index 1.5 on a
screen placed 80 cm away from it. If the distance between the source and the biprism is 20 cm, calculate
the fringe width when the wavelength of light used is 6900 Å.
Solution
The fringe width is given by the relation
Dl
b=
2d
where 2d = 2a (m – 1)a
p
Given m = 1.5, a= rad, and a = 20 cm.
180
 D = 20 + 80 = 100 cm = 1.0 m
l= 6900 Å= –m
6900 ¥10 -10 ¥1.0 ¥ 7 ¥180
Hence, b=
2 (1.5 − 1.0) ¥ 22 ¥ 0.20
= 0.0001976 cm
Example 12.15
In a biprism experiment, the eyepiece was placed at a distance of 120 cm from the source. The distance
between the two virtual sources was found to be 0.075 cm. Find the wavelength of light used if the eye-
piece has to be moved through a distance of 1.888 cm for 20 fringes.
Solution
1.888
Given b = = 0.0944 cm = 0.000944 m, D = 120 cm = 1.20 m, and 2d = 0.075 cm = 0.00075 m.
20
From the relation b = ( Dl 2d ) , the wavelength
β2d
l=
D
0.000944 × 0.00075
=
1.20
= 5900  10–10 m = 5900 Å
Example 12.16
Fringes are produced with monochromatic light of wavelength l = 5450 Å. A thin plate of glass
(m = 1.5) is then placed normally in the path of one of the interfering beams and the central band of the
fringe system is found to move into the position previously occupied by the third bright band from the
centre. Calculate the thickness of the glass plate.
 Interference l 417
Solution
The thickness of the glass plate in terms of the number of fringe shift is given by the relation
(m – 1)t = nl
Given n = 3, m = 1.5, and l = 5450  10–10 m. Therefore,

nl 3 × 5450 × 10 -10
t= =
( m − 1) (1.5 − 1)
= 0.00000327 m = 0.00327 mm
Example 12.17
When a thin sheet of transparent material of thickness 6.3  10 –4 cm is introduced in the path of one
of the interfering beams, the central fringe shifts to a position occupied by the sixth bright fringe. If
l = 5460 Å, find the refractive index of the sheet.
Solution
Given t = 6.3  10–4 cm = 6.3  10–6 m, l = 5460 Å = 5460  10–10 m, and n = 6.
Using the relation (m – 1) t = n l,
nl
m= +1
t

6 × 5460 × 10 -10
= + 1 = 1.52
6.3 × 10 -6
Example 12.18
On placing a thin sheet of mica of thickness 1.2  10–6 cm in the path of one of the interfering beams
in a biprism experiment, it is found that the central bright band shifts a distance equal to the width of a
bright fringe. Calculate the refractive index of mica (l = 6  10–5 cm).
Solution
Given t = 1.2  10–6 cm = 1.2  10–8 m, l = 6  10–5 cm = 6  10–7 m, and x0 = b.
b
Using the relation x0 = ( m -1) t , we have
l
b
b= (m – 1) t   (Putting x0 = b)
l
or l = (m –1) t
l 6 × 10−7
or m= +1= +1
t 1.2 × 10−8
= 1.50
418 l Engineering Physics
Example 12.19
A monochromatic light of wavelength l = 5000 Å is incident on two slits separated by a distance equal to
5  10–4 m. The interference pattern is seen on a screen placed at a distance of 1 m from the slits. A thin
glass plate of thickness 1.5  10 6 m and refractive index m= 1.5 is placed between one of the slits and the
screen. Find the intensity at the centre of the screen. Also find the lateral shift of the central maximum.
Solution
The path difference due to introduction of thin transparent glass plate
= (m – 1) t
= (1.5 – 1)  1.5  10–6
= 0.75  10–6
The corresponding phase difference is given by
2p
d= ¥ Path difference
l
2p
= -7
 0.75  10 –6 = p
(5 ¥ 10 )
Therefore, the intensity at the centre of the screen
I = a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos d
Here a1 = a2 = a(say) and d = 3p.
 cos p = –1
Hence, I = a2 +a2 – 2a2 = 0
The centre of the screen is therefore dark.
The shifting of central maxima by the introduction of a thin glass plate is given by
D
x0 = (m– 1) t
2d
Here D = 1m, 2d = 5  10–4 m, m = 1.5, and t = 1.5  10–6 m.
1
Hence, x0 = (1.5 – 1)  1.5  10 –6
5 ×10−4
= 1.5 mm

12.13 PHASE CHANGE ON REFLECTION (STOKES TREATMENT)

When a light wave is reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium, it suffers a phase change of
p (but not when reflected at the surface of a rarer medium). This can be explained theoretically on the
basis of the principle of reversibility of light.
Referring to Fig. 12.14, let MN be the boundary of the two media, the lower one being denser. An
incident light wave AB is partly reflected along BC and partly transmitted along BD. Let r be the fraction
of the amplitude reflected and t the fraction transmitted when the wave is travelling from rarer to denser
medium. The amplitudes along BC and BD are ar and at, respectively [Fig. 12.14(a)].
 Interference l 419
Now, when the directions of the reflected and transmitted light reversed, the wave BC gives a reflected
wave of amplitude ar 2 along BA and a transmitted wave of amplitude art along BE. Let r′ and t′ be the
fractions of amplitudes of reflected and transmitted waves when reflected from denser to rarer medium.
Then the wave BD on reversal gives a transmitted wave of amplitude att′ along BA and a reflected wave
of atr along BE. However, according to the principle of reversibility of light none but the original ray be
present. Hence, component along BE should be zero and that along BA should be equal to a, i.e.,
art + atr  = 0 (12.13)
ar + att  = a
2
(12.14)
From Eqs. (12.13) and (12.14), we get
r = – r (12.15)
tt  = 1 – r 2 (12.16)
The negative sign in Eq. (12.15) indicates displacements in opposite directions, i.e., a phase change of
p or a path difference of l 2 will be produced at the surface from rarer to denser medium.

¢
Air

Fig. 12.14 Phase change on reflection

12.14 INTERFERENCE DUE TO THIN FILMS (DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE)

When a thin film of oil (transparent material) spread over the surface of water is illuminated by light,
interference occurs between the light waves reflected from the film and also between the light waves
transmitted through the film.

Fig. 12.15 Interference due to reflected rays

420 l Engineering Physics
Let a monochromatic light SA be incident at an angle i on a parallel-sided transparent thin film of thick-
ness t and refractive index m (>1) (Fig. 12.15). At A it is partly reflected along AR1, and partly refracted
along AB at angle r. At B it is again partly reflected along BC and partly refracted along BT1. Similar
reflections and refractions occur at C, D, etc. as shown in Fig. 12.15. In this way we get the number
of parallel reflected and transmitted rays.
12.14.1 Interference Due to Reflected Rays
Referring to Fig. 12.15, the path difference between the rays AR1 and CR2 is given by
p = Path ABC in film – Path AN in air
= m(AB + BC) – AN (12.17)
But AB = BC = BM sec r = t sec r
and AN = AC sin i
= (AM + MC) sin i
= 2 AM sin i (AM = MC)
= 2 BM tan r sin i (AM = BM tan r)
= 2t tan r sin i
 sin i 
= 2t tan r (msin r)  =m
 sin r 
= 2r mt sin2 r sec r
 Path difference
p = m (t sec r + t sec r) – 2 mt sin2 r sec r
= 2mt cos r
The ray AR, having suffered a reflection at the surface of a denser medium, undergoes a path differ-
ence of l/2. Hence, effective path difference between AR1 and CR is
l
2mt cos r ± (12.18)
2
Conditions of maxima and minima in reflected light
The two rays will give maximum when
l
2mt cos r – = nl, n=0, 1,2,
2
l
or 2mt cos r = (2n + 1) (12.19)
2
In this condition, the film will appear bright in the reflected light.
The two rays will give minimum when
l l
2mt cos r – = (2n –1)
2 2
or 2mt cos r = nl 12.20

* We are considering (–ve) sign.

 Interference l 421
Under this condition the film will appear dark in the reflected light.
12.14.2 Interference Due to Transmitted Rays
The path difference between the transmitted rays BT1 and DT2 is given by
p = m(BC + CD) – BL
= 2 mt cos r
In this case, there is no phase change due to reflection at B or C because in either case the light is travelling
from denser to rarer medium. Hence, the effective path difference between transmitted rays is also 2mt cos r.
Conditions for Maxima and Minima in Transmitted Light
The two rays will reinforce each other if
2 mt cos r = nl (12.21)
The film will then appear bright in the transmitted light. The two rays will interfere distructively if
l
2 mt cos r = (2n + 1) (12.22)
2
and the film will appear dark in this condition.
A comparison of Eqs. (12.19), (12.20), (12.21), and (12.22) shows that the interference pattern in the
two cases are complementary to each other.
12.15 INTERFERENCE DUE TO WEDGE-SHAPED THIN FILM: FRINGE WIDTH
Let us consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index m bounded by two plane surfaces OA and OB at
angle q. The thickness of the film is increasing from O to A.
Referring to Fig. 12.16, S′P is the incident ray of monochromatic light of wavelength l on the upper
surface (OB) of the film. This ray suffers multiple reflections and transmissions in the film.

i
r

Fig. 12.16 Interference due to wedge-shaped thin film

422 l Engineering Physics
So the optical path difference between reflected rays
p = m(PR + RT ) – PK
= m(PN + NR + RT) – PK (12.23)
PK PN
From PKT, sin i = , and from PNT, sin r =
PT PT
sin i PK / PT PK
 m= = =
sin r PN / PT PN
 PK = mPN
Hence, Eq. (12.23) will give
p = m(PN + NR +RT ) – mPN
p = m(NR + RT ) (12.24)
Now,  RTH and RHL are congruent. Hence, RT = RL
 p = m(NR + RL)
= mNL
Now from TNL
NL
= cos(r + q)
TL
NL = TL cos(r + q)
N = (TH + HL) cos(r + q)
= 2t cos(r + q)        ( TH = HL)


 p = 2 mt cos(r +q)
Now path difference as per Stokes treatment will become
l
2mt cos(r + q) + (12.25)
2
(i) For maximum
l
2mt cos(r + q) + = nl
2
l
or 2mt cos(r + q) = (2n – 1) , n = 1, 2, 3, (12.26)
2
(ii) For minimum
l l
2mt cos(r +q+ = (2n + 1)
2 2
2mt cos(r +q = nl (12.27)
 Interference l 423
12.15.1 Fringe Width
From Fig. 12.17, we have
t t
= tan q
xn
q
or t = xn tan q xn = nb
Here, x n= n b, b = fringe width and n = number of fringes. Fig. 12.17 Fringe width of
 From Eq. (12.27), for a dark fringe, wedge-shaped thin film
2m xn tan q cos (r +q) = nl
nl
or xn =
2m tan q cos (r + q )
For normal incidence and thin film r = 0, tan q= q, and cos q= 1. Therefore,
nl
xn =
2 mq
Similarly for (n +1)th fringe,
l
xn+1 = (n+1)
2mq
Therefore, distance or spacing between successive fringes, i.e., fringe width
l l
xn+1 – xn = (n + 1) –n
2mq 2mq
l
or b= (12.28)
2 mq
where q is measured in radian.

Solved Examples

Example 12.20
In Fresnel’s biprism experiment with a source of light of wavelength 5890 Å, a thin mica sheet of refractive
index 1.6 is placed normally in the path of one of the interfering beams and the centre of bright fringe
is shifted to the position of third bright fringe from the centre. Calculate the thickness of the mica sheet.
Solution
When a mica sheet of thickness t is introduced in the path of one of the interfering beams, then
(m – 1) t = nl

nl
⇒ t= (1)
m −1
424 l Engineering Physics

Given n = 3, m = 1.6, and l = 5890 Å = 5.89  10 –5 cm.

3 × 5.89 × 10−5
 t= = 2.945  10–4 cm
(1. 6 − 1)
Example 12.21
A parallel beam of light of wavelength l = 5890 Å is incident on a thin glass plate of refractive index
m = 1.5 such that the angle of refraction is 60°. Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate which will ap-
pear dark by reflection.
Solution
Given m = 1.5, r = 60o, l = 5890 Å = 5890  10–10 m, and n = 1.
We know that the condition for minima in reflected light from a thin film is given by
2mt cos r = nl
2  1.5  t cos 60o = 1  5890  10–10
5890 × 10−10
 t= = 3.926  10–7 m
2 × 1.5 × 0.5
= 3.926 10–4 mm
Example 12.22
Light of wavelength 5893 Å is reflected at nearly normal incidence from a soap film of refractive index
1.42. What is the least thickness of the film that will appear (i) black and (ii) bright?
Solution
Given l = 5893 Å = 5893  10–10 m, r = 0°, and m = 1.42.
(i) The condition for thin film to appear dark in reflected light is given by
2mt cos r = nl
Hence 2  1.42  t cos r = 1  5893  10–10
5893×10−10
 t= = 2075 m
2 ×1.42
= 2.075 m= 2.075 mm
(ii) The condition for thin film to appear bright in reflected light is given by
2mt cos r = (2n– ) l
2
(2 − 1) × 5893 × 10 −10
2  1.42  t cos r =
2
5893 × 10−10
 t= = 1037.5  m
2 × 2 × 1.42
= 1.0375 mm
 Interference l 425
Example 12.23
A thin film of soap solution is illuminated by white light at an angle of incidence i = sin–1(4/5). In reflected
light two dark consecutive overlapping fringes are observed corresponding to wavelengths 6.1  10–7 and
6.0  10–7 m. The refractive index for soap solution is 4/3. Calculate the thickness of the film.
Solution
Given m = 4/3, l1 = 6.1  10–7 m, and l2 = 6.0 10–7 m.
The two dark consecutive fringes are overlapping for the wavelengths l1 and l2, respectively. Then
nl1 = (n + 1)l2
or n = (n =n  10–7 + 6  10 –7
or 6.1n  10–7 – 6n  10–7 = 6  10–7

6 ×10−7
n= = 60
1×10−7
4 sin i
∵ sin i = and m =
5 sin r
4 45
or =
3 sin r
45 3
 sin r = = = 0.6
43 5
2
Hence cos r = 1 − sin 2 r = 1 − ( 0.6 ) = 0.64 = 0.8

Also, 2mt cos r = nl1

nl1 60 × 6.1 × 10−7

 t= = = 1.72  10–5 m
2m cos r 2 × ( 4 3) × 0.8
= 1.72  10 –2 mm
Example 12.24
A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths at an angle of
45°. There is complete destructive interference for l = 5890 Å. Find the thickness of the film.
Solution
Given m = 1.33 and i = 45°.
sin i
 m=
sin r
sin 45° 1
⇒ sin r = = = 0.5317
1.33 2 ×1.33
426 l Engineering Physics

 cos r = 1 − sin 2 r = 1 − (0.5317) 2 = 0.8469

For destructive interference,
2mt cos r = nl
2 1.33  t  0.8469 = 1  5890  10 –10
5890 ×10−10
 t= = 2.614  10–7 m
2 ×1.33× 0.8469
= 2.614  10–4 mm

12.16 FORMATION OF NEWTON’S RINGS

When a planoconvex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with
its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate, an air film is
formed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface
of the plate. The thickness of the film gradually increases from the
point of contact outwards. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on this film, a system of alternate bright and dark concentric
rings with their centre dark is formed in the air film (Fig. 12.18).
These are called Newton’s rings and can be seen through a low-power
microscope focussed on the film.
Newton’s rings are formed as a result of interference between the
light waves reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the air film.
Newton’s rings are concentric and circular because of points equal
to the thickness of film lie on circles with the point of the contact of Fig. 12.18 Newton's rings
the lens and the plate as centre.
Theory: In reflected light, the effective path difference between interfering rays will be
l*
p = 2mt cos r +
2
Now, for air film, m = 1 and r = 0 for normal incidence. Therefore,
l
p = 2t +
2
At the point of contact of the lens, the plate thickness t = 0; hence, p =l. This is the condition for
minimum intensity. Hence, the central spot is dark.
The condition for maximum intensity (bright fringe) is
p = nl
l
2t  = nl
2
l
2t = (2n – 1) (maxima) (12.29)
2
*The path difference is actually 2mt cos(r + ) + ( λ 2) , where q in the angle of film at any point. Due to large raduis of curvature of the
lens, q is extremely small and hence neglected. The factor l/2 corresponds to Stoke’s treatment.
 Interference l 427
The condition for minimum intensity (dark fringe) is
l
p = (2n + 1)
2
l l
2t + 2 = (2n + 1)
2
2t = nl(minima) (12.30)
It is clear that a bright or dark fringe of any particular order n will occur for a constant value of thickness t.
12.16.1 Diameters of Rings
Referring Fig. 12.19, LOL be the lens placed on glass plate AB, the point of contact being O. Let R be
the radius of curvature of the planoconvex lens. Let rn be the radius of a Newton’s ring corresponding
to a point P, where the film thinkness is t.
From the property of a circle,
PN 2 = ON NE
r n2 = t (2R – t)
= 2Rt – t 2
E

2R – t
C

L L¢
rn
N P
t
A B
O O¢
rn

Fig. 12.19 Diameters of Newton’s ring

Since t is very small as compared to R, we can neglect t 2. Hence,
rn2 = 2Rt

rn2
or 2t =
R
Now the condition for a bright ring is given by
l
2t = (2n – 1)
2
428 l Engineering Physics

rn2 l
 = (2n – 1)
R 2
lR
or rn2 = (2n – 1)
2
Incident ray Ray 1 Ray 2

A
Air film
O
t

Fig. 12.20 Formation of coherent sources in Newton’s ring

Figure 12.20 shows the formation of coherent sources in Newton's ring.

If D n is the diameter of nth dark ring, then Dn = 2rn. Therefore,
D n2 = 2(2n – 1) lR
Dn = 2lR 2n − 1
Dn  2 n − 1 (12.31)
Thus, the diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of the odd natural numbers.
The condition for a dark ring is given by
2t = nl
r 2n
 = nl
R
If Dn is the diameter of nth dark ring, then rn = Dn 2 . Therefore,

Dn2
= nl
4R
D n2 = 4nlR
Dn = 4Rl n

Dn  n (12.32)
 Interference l 429
Thus, the diameters of dark rings are directly proportional to the square roots of natural numbers.
12.16.2 Experimental Method for Calculation of Wavelength
To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s ring method, the experimental arrangement
is made as shown in Fig. 12.21. Let S be a monochromatic source placed at the focus of lens L. The
parallel rays are incident at plate G, which is inclined at an angle of 45°. The rays are partly reflected
from the inclined plate and incident normally on the plane surface of a planoconvex lens L, placed over
a plane glass plate N.
The air film is formed between the lens L1 and plate N around the point of contact O. The reflected
rays from the air film are viewed with a microscope M focussed on the air film.

M
G
L1
45°
S
Source
(Sodium lamp)

L
Air film

Glass plate
P

Fig. 12.21 Experimental arrangement for Newton’s ring

We know that for dark rings,

D 2n = 4n lR
For (n + p) dark ring,
D 2n+p = 4 (n +p)lR
Both will give
D 2n+p – D 2n = 4plR
Dn2+ p − Dn2
or l= (12.33)
4 pR
The cross-wire of eyepiece is focussed on the rings and the microscope is moved to the extreme left of
the rings. Now the cross-wire is focussed on any dark ring (say 24th , 16th) and reading of the microscope
is noted. Microscope is now moved towards the centre and is focussed after every 2 or 4 rings. Similar
readings are taken at the other end, i.e., at the extreme right of the rings (24th or 16th), and the diameters
of the different rings are then calculated.
A graph is plotted between the square of the diameter (D2) and the number of rings n. This graph is a
(
straight line (Fig. 12.22). The slope of the curve gives the value of Dn2+ p − Dn2 ) p . Thus, l of sodium
light is determined from Eq. (12.33).
430 l Engineering Physics

Fig. 12.22 Graph between the number of rings and its diameter

12.16.3 Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid by Newton’s Ring

The liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is placed between the lens and the glass plate P
in the Newton’s ring arrangement. The effective path difference between interfering rays is 2mt cos r
+ ( λ 2), for normal incidence r = 0, which gives path difference as 2mt + ( λ 2).
The condition for nth bright fringe is
l
2mt + = nl
2
l
 2t = (2n – 1) (12.34)
2m
We know that if Dn is the diameter of nth bright ring, then
Dn2
2t = (12.35)
4R
Dn2 l
 = (2n –1)
4R 2m
lR
 D n2 = 2 (2n– 1) (12.36)
m
If Dn +p is the diameter of (n + p)th ring, then
lR
D 2n+p = 2 [2 (n +p) – 1] (12.37)
m
4 pl R
 [D 2n + p – D 2n ] liquid =
m
For air, m = 1,
 [D 2n +p – D n2 ] air = 4plR
[ Dn2+ p − Dn2 ]air
 m= (12.38)
[ Dn2+ p − Dn2 ]liquid
Hence, the refractive index of a liquid (m) can be determined by measuring the diameters of Newton’s
rings in the liquid and in the air.
 Interference l 431
12.16.4 Newton’s Rings with Both Curved Surfaces
Case 1: Lower surface is convex [Fig. 12.23(a)]. In this case, the thickness of the air film
t = t1 + t2 (12.39)
If R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of upper and lower curved surfaces, respectively, we can have
rn2 r2
t= + n
2 R1 2 R2
rn2 r2
2t = + n (12.40)
R1 R2
where rn be the radius of nth ring at the thickness t. The condition for dark ring at normal incidence is
2t = nl (12.41)
From Eqs. (12.40) and (12.41),
1 1 
rn2  +  = nl (12.42)
 R1 R2 
If Dn is the diameter of nth ring, rn = Dn 2
Dn2  1 1 
 +  = nl
2  R1 R2 
4 nl
Dn2 = (12.43)
1 R1 + 1 R2
Case 2: Lower surface is concave [Fig. 12.23(b)]. Now,
t = t1 – t2
1 1 
or 2t = rn2  −  (12.44)
 R1 R2 
From Eqs. (12.41) and (12.43),
1 1 
r n2  −  = nl
 R1 R2 
Dn 2 1 1 
 −  = nl
4  R1 R2 
4 nl
 D 2n = (12.45)
1 1 
 − 
 R1 R2 
Thus, combining Eqs. (12.43) and (12.45), we get
4 nl
D n2 =
È 1 1 ˘
Í R ± R2 ˙
Î 1 ˚
432 l Engineering Physics

rn P rn t1P
t1 t2
t2

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.23 Newton’s ring with both curved surface

Solved Examples
Example 12.25
Light of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge-shaped film of refractive index 1.4 forming
fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge.
Solution
Given l = 6000  10–10 m, m = 1.4 , b =2.0 mm = 2.0  10–3 m
The fringe width in the case of wedge -shaped film for normal incidence is given by
l
b=
2mq
l 6000 × 10 −10
Angle of wedge q = = = 1.07  10–4 rad
2mb 2 × 1.4 × 2 × 10−3
Example 12.26
Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a wedge-shaped film of
refractive index 1.4. The angle of the wedge is 10 seconds of an arc and the distance between the suces-
sive fringes is 0.5 cm. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
Solution
Given q = 10 s of an arc = 10 ¥ p 60 ¥ 60 ¥ 180 rad and b = 0.5 cm = 5  10 –3 m, and m = 1.4.
The fringe width in case of wedge-shaped film for normal incidence is given by b = l 2mq
l = b 2mq
2 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 10 ¥ 22 ¥ 5 ¥ 10 -3
 l=
60 ¥ 60 ¥ 180 ¥ 7
= 6790  10–10 m
 Interference l 433
= 6790 Å
Example 12.27
In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.590 cm and that of the 5th
ring 0.336 cm. If the radius of the planoconvex lens is 100 cm, calculate the wavelength of the light used.
Solution
Given D15 = 0.590 cm = 0.590  10 –2 m, D5 = 0.336 cm = 0.336  10–2 m, p = (15 – 5) = 10, and R = 100 cm
= 1.0 m.
The wavelength of the monochromatic light is given by
Dn2+ p − Dn2
l=
4 pR

=
(0.590 × 10 ) − (0.336 × 10 )
−2 2 −2 2

4 × 10 × 1
= 5880  10 –10 m
= 5880 Å
Example 12.28
Newton’s rings are formed in reflected light of wavelength 6000 Å with a liquid between the plane and
curved surfaces. If the diameter of the sixth bright ring is 3.1 mm and the radius of curvature of the curved
surface is 1 m, calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
Solution
Given n = 6, l = 6000 Å = 6000  10–10 m, R = 1 m, Dn = 3.1 mm = 3.1  10–3 m, n = 6.
The diameter of nth bright ring is given by
2 ( 2n − 1) l R
D n2 =
m

2 (12 −1) × 6000 × 10−10 × 1

m= = 1.374
( )
2
3.1 × 10−3

Example 12.29
Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of wavelength 5900 Å. The diameter of the 10th dark ring
is 0.5 cm. Find (i) the radius of curvature of the lens and (ii) the thickness of the air film.
Solution
Given l = 5900  10 –10 m, n = 10, and Dn = 0.5 cm = 5  10 –3.
(i) The diameter of the dark ring is given by
434 l Engineering Physics
D n2 = 4nlR

( )
2
D2 5 × 10−3 25 × 12−6
 R= n = = = 1.059 m
4 nl 4 × 10 × 5900 × 10−10 23.5 × 10−6
(ii) The thickness of the air film is given by
2t = nl
nl 10 × 5900 × 10−10
 t= = = 2.95  10 –6 m
2 2
Example 12.30
The angle of the wedge is 0.3° and the wavelength of sodium D lines are 5890 Å and 5896 Å. Find the
distance from the apex of the wedge at which the maximum due to the two wavelengths first coincide.
Solution
The condition for maxima for normal incidence in air film is given by
l
2t = (2n + 1) (1)
2
Let nth order maximum due to l1 coincides with (n + 1)th order maximum due to l2. Then
l l
2t = (2n + 1)  1 = (2n + 3)  2 (2)
2 2
3l2 − l1
 n=
2 ( l1 − l2 )
Substituting the value of n in Eq. (2), we get
l1l2
2t =
( l1 − l 2 )
If q is the angle of wedge and x is the distance at which the maxima due to two wavelengths coincide
(l1 > l2), then
t
tan q =
x
t
 q= (tan q  q)
x
 t = qx (3)
Substituting the value of t in Eq. (2), we get
l l
2x q = 1 2
l1 − l2
Here l1 = 5896  10–8 cm
l2 = 5890  10–8 cm
 Interference l 435

0.3 ×p
q = 0.3° =
180

5896 ×10−8 × 5890 ×10−8 ×180

x=
( )
2 5896 ×10−8 − 5890 ×10−8 × 0.3× 3.14
= 5.56 cm
Example 12.31
Newton’s rings are observed normally in reflected light of wavelength 6000 Å. The diameter of 10th dark
ring is 0.500 m. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and thickness of the film.
Solution
The diameter of nth dark ring is given by
D n2 = 4nRl (1)
Given D n = 0.50 cm, l=6000 Å = 6000  10–8 cm, and n =10.
Dn2 0.50 × 0.50
 R= = = 104.2 cm
4nλ 4 ×10 × 6000 ×10−8
The thickness t of the film corresponding to nth ring is given by
Dn2
2t =
4R
Dn2
 t=
8R
0.50 × 0.50
= = 2.99 10 –4 cm
8 ×106
Example 12.32
In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of 4th and 12th dark rings are 0.4 and 0.7 cm, respectively.
Find the diameter of 20th dark ring.
Solution
The difference of (n + p)th and nth dark ring is given by
D n2 + p – D n2 = 4 pRl (1)
Here (n + p) = 12 and n = 4, D12 = 0.7 cm, and D4 = 0.4 cm.
 D 212 – D 24 = 4  8  Rl (2)
D – D = 4  16  R l
2
20
2
4
(3)
Dividing Eq. (3) by Eq. (2), we get
D20 2 − D4 2 4 ×16
2 2
= =2
D12 − D4 4×8
436 l Engineering Physics
D220– D42 = 2(D12
2
– D42)
D20
2
= 2D12
2
– D42
= 2  (0.7)2 – (0.4)2
D220= 0.98 – 0.16 = 0.82
D20 = 0.82 = 0.9 cm

Example 12.33
A Newton’s ring experiment is performed with a source of light having two wavelengths l1 = 6  10–5 cm
and l2 = 4.5  10–5 cm. It is found that the nth dark ring due to l1 coincides with (n + 1)th dark ring due to
l2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find the diameter of the nth dark ring for l1.
Solution
The diameter of nth ring is given by
D n2 = 4nRl1 (1)
D 2n +1 = 4 (n + 1) Rl2 (2)
The nth dark ring due to l1 coincides with (n + 1)th dark ring due to l2.
Hence, from Eq. (2),
4nRl1 = 4(n + 1) Rl2
nl1 = (n + 1) l2
nl1 – nl2 = l2
n(l1 – l2) = l2
l2
n=
l1 − l2
Here, l1 = 6  10–5 cm, l2 = 4.5  10–5 cm, and R = 90 cm.
4.5 × 10−5 4.5 × 10−5
n= = =3
6 × 10−5 − 4.5 × 10 −5 1.5 × 10−5
The diameter of nth dark ring for l1 is
D n2 = 4  3  6  10–5  90

 Dn = 6.48 ×10−4 = 0.254 cm

Example 12.34
In Newton’s ring experiment, the wavelength of light used is 6  10 –5 cm and the difference of square of
diameters of successive rings is 0.125 cm2. What will happen to this quantity if
(i) the wavelength of light is changed to 4.5  10–5 cm?
(ii) the liquid of refractive index 1.33 is introduced between the lens and the glass plate?
 Interference l 437
(iii) the radius of curvature of convex surface of the planoconvex lens is doubled?
Solution
In Newton’s rings, the difference of square of diameter for nth and (n + p)th ring is given by
4 pRl
D 2n +1 – D2n =
m
Here, for successive rings, p = 1. Therefore,
4Rl
D 2n +1 – D 2n = (1)
m
(i) When light of wavelength l is changed to l, then
4Rl ′
D  2n+1 – D n2 = (2)
m
Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1), we get
Dn′2+1 − D′n2 l′
=
Dn2+1 − Dn2 l
l′ 2
or D n2+1 – D n2 = (D n+1 – D 2n )
l
Here, l = 6  10–5 cm, l = 4.5  10 –5 cm, and Dn+p
2
– D 2n = 1.25 cm2.
4.5 × 10−5
 D  2n +1 – D n2 = × 0.125 = 0.0937 cm 2
6 × 10−5
(ii) When a liquid of refractive index m is introduced, then
4Rl
D  2n +1 – D n2 = (3)
m′
Dividing Eq. (3) by Eq. (1), we get
D′n2+1 − D′n2 m
=
Dn2+1 − Dn2 m′

 D n2+p – D n2 =
m
m ′
(Dn2+ p − Dn2 )
Here m = 1, m = 1.33, and D n2+1 – D n2 = 0.125 cm.
1
or D n2+p – D n2 = × 0.125 = 0.094 cm
1.33
(iii) When the radius of curvature of planoconvex lens is changed from R to R, then
4l R′
D n2+1 – D n2 = (4)
m
Dividing Eq. (4) by Eq. (1), we get
438 l Engineering Physics

D′n2+1 − D′n2 R′
=
Dn2+1 − Dn2 R
R′
or D n2+1 – D n2 = (D n2 +1 – D n2 )
R
Here R = 2R. Therefore,

D  2n +1 – D n2 =
2R 2
R
(
Dn +1 − Dn2 )
= 2  0.125 = 0.250 cm2

12.17 FORMULAE AND HIGHLIGHTS

1. Interference occurs due to superposition of two waves having constant phase difference.
2. Interference is consistent with principle of conservation of energy.
3. Path difference D = nl (constructive interference)
l
D = (2n  1) (destructive interference)
2
4. Phase difference d = 2np (constructive interference)
d = (2n  1) p (destructive interference)
5. Fringe width in Young’s experiment or in biprism experiment is
Dl
b=
2d
6. For a biprism: 2d = 2a (m – 1)a.
D B
7. Displacement of fringes: x0 = (m – 1) t = (m – 1) t.
2d l
8. Path difference introduced due to plate: D = (m – 1) t.
9. The conditions for maxima and minima in transmitted and reflected light in the interference due
to thin parallel films are complimentary to each other.
10. The fringe width due to wedge-shaped film: b = l 2mq .
11. Newton’s rings are formed as a result of interference between the light waves reflected from the
upper and lower surfaces of the air film.
12. Newton’s rings are concentric and circular because the points of equal thickness of film lie on
circles with the point of contact of the lens and the plate as centre.
13. Diameters for dark rings Dn  n and for bright rings Dn  2n ± 1 .
14. Dn2 = 2 (2n  1) lR (bright ring) and Dn2 = 4n lR (dark ring).
Dn2+ p - Dn2
15. Wavelength from Newton’s ring: l = .
4 pR
 Interference l 439

( Dn2+ p - Dn2 )air

16. Refractive index m = .
( Dn2+ p - Dn2 )liquid

Exercises

Section A
Theoretical Questions

1. What are coherent sources? How are they obtained in practice?

2. What is interference of light? Describe Young’s experiment for demonstration of interference of
light.
3. Define coherent sources. Discuss why two independent sources of light of same wavelength can-
not show interference?
4. Explain the phenomena of interference. What are the conditions to get the sustained interference
of light?
5. Derive an expression for the intensity at a point in the region of interference by two waves of same
wavelength. Explain the statement “the formation of interference fringes is in accordance with the
law of conservation of energy”.
6. Explain the formation of interference of fringes by means of Fresnel biprism using monochromatic
source of light. How is wavelength measured by biprism experiment?
7. Monochromatic light from a narrow slit falls on two parallel slits and interference fringes are
obtained on a screen. Calculate the spacing between consecutive maxima or minima.
8. What are the conditions of maxima and minima in an interference pattern? Derive them.
9. Explain the interference pattern produced by a biprism with a monochromatic source of light.
10. Discuss the effect of introducing a thin plate in the path of one of the interfering beams in a biprism
experiment. Deduce an expression for the displacement of the fringes.
11. Discuss the phenomena of interference of light due to thin films and find the conditions of maxima
and minima. Show that the interference patterns of reflected and transmitted monochromatic light
are complementary.
12. Explain the colours when a thin film illuminated by white light is observed in reflected light.
13. Discuss the formation of interference fringes in a thin wedge-shaped film. Find the expression
for fringe width.
14. What are Newton’s rings? Describe and explain the formation of Newton’s rings in reflected
monochromatic light. Prove that in reflected light,
(i) diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural numbers, and
(ii) diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers.
15. Describe Newton’s rings method for measuring the wavelength of monochromatic light and the
refractive index of a liquid. Give the necessary theory.
440 l Engineering Physics
16. Why is the centre of Newton’s rings dark in case of thin air film? What will happen if (i) a little
water is introduced between the lens and plate, (ii) a plane mirror is used instead of a glass plate,
and (iii) white light is used?
17. Why is a narrow source necessary for biprism experiment, while an extended source is required
for Newton’s rings experiment? Explain.
18. Describe and explain the formation of Newton’s rings in reflected monochromatic light. Explain
briefly why Newton’s rings are circular.
19. How will you locate the fringe of zero-order in biprism experiment ?
20. Why is a broad source necessary for observing colours in thin films? Why are colours not observed
in the case of a thick film?
21. When a thin mica sheet is introduced in the path of one of the interfering beams, show that the fringe
width remains the same. Describe how this method is used for finding the thickness of a thin glass
plate.
22. Describe the interference in thin film. Show that the reflected and transmitted interference patterns
are complementary.
23. Explain what will happen
(i) if white light is used instead of monochromatic light in Newton’s ring experiment.
(ii) when air in the interspace is replaced by a transparent liquid.
24. Explain the formation of Newton’s ring. Why do we prefer a convex lens of large radius of cur-
vature for producing Newton’s rings?

Section B
Numerical Problems

1. The ratio between maximum and minimum intensities is 36:1 in an interference pattern. Find the
ratio between the amplitudes and intensities of the two interfering waves.
( Ans. a1 a2 = 7 5 , I1 I 2 = 49 25)
2. In Young’s experiment, interference bands are produced on the screen placed at 1.5 m from the
two slits 0.15 mm apart and illuminated by light of wavelength 6500 Å. Find (i) the fringe width
and (ii) the change in the fringe width if the screen is taken away from the slit by 50 cm.
(Ans. b= 0.065 m,b = 0.0216 m)
3. In a biprism experiment, the micrometer readings for zero and tenth order fringes are 1.25 and 2.37
mm, respectively, when light of wavelength 6  10–5 cm is used. What will be the position of zero
and tenth order fringes if wavelength is changed to 7.5  10–5 cm.
(Ans. 1.25 mm, 2.65 mm)
4. A double slit arrangement produces interference fringes for sodium light (l = 5800 Å) that are
0.20o apart. For what wavelength would the angular separation be 10% greater?
(Ans. 6479 Å)
5. The inclined faces of glass biprism (m = 1.5) make an angle of 2° with the base of the prism. The
slit is 10 cm away from the biprism and is illuminated by light of wavelength 5500 Å. Calculate
(i) the separation between the coherent source formed by the biprism and (ii) the fringe width at
a distance of 1 m from the slit. (Ans. (i) 0.349 cm, (ii) 0.157 cm)
 Interference l 441
6. The distance between the slit and and biprism and that between the biprism and screen are each 50
cm. The obtuse angle of biprism is 179° and its refractive index is 1.5. If the width of the fringe
is 0.0135 cm, calculate the wavelength of light. (Ans. 5893 Å)
7. Two glass plates enclosing a wedge-shaped air film touching at one edge are separated by a wire
of 0.03 mm diameter at a distance of 15 cm from the edge. Monochromatic light of wavelength
6000 Å from a broad source falls normally on the film. Calculate the fringe width.
(Ans. 0.15 cm)
8. On placing of thin sheet of mica of thickness 12 10 cm in the path of one of the interfering
–5

beams in a biprism experiment it is found that the central bright band shifts by a distance equal
to the width of a bright fringe. Calculate the refractive index of mica (l = 6.0  10–5 cm).
(Ans. 1.5)
9. Two pieces of plane glass are placed together with a piece of paper between the two at one edge.
If on viewing the film with a light of wavelength 6000 Å falling normally on it there are 10 fringes
per centimetre, calculate the angle of the wedge. (Ans. 61.9 s)
10 Find the thickness of a wedge-shaped air film at a point where the fourth bright fringe is situated.
Wavelength of sodium light is 5893 Å. (Ans. 1.03  10 –6 m)
11. A wedge-shaped air film having an angle of 40˝ is illuminated by monochromatic light, and fringes
are observed vertically through a microscope. The distance measured between consecutive fringes
is 0.12 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light used. (Ans. 4656 Å)
12. Light of wavelength 5.9  10–7 m is incident on a thin soap film at 30° and dark bands are observed
5.0 mm apart. If m = 1.33, find the angle between the faces of the film. (Ans. 10°)
13. Newton’s rings are observed by reflection in the air film between a plane surface and a convex
surface of radius 45 cm. If the squares of the radius of six successive bright rings are 50, 76, 99,
124, 151, and 175  10–8 m2, make the best calculation for the wavelength of light.
(Ans. 5566 Å)
14. If the diameters of two consecutive Newton’s rings in reflected light of wavelength 5890 Å are
2.0 and 2.02 cm, respectively, what is the radius of curvature of the lens surface in contact with
plane glass surface? (Ans. 341.2 cm)
15. In a Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the fifth dark ring is reduced to half of its value
after introducing a liquid below the convex surface. Calculate the refractive index of liquid.
(Ans. 4.0)
16. Newton’s rings are formed in reflected light of wavelength 5895 Å with a liquid between the plane
and curved surface. If the diameter of the fifth bright ring is 3 mm and the radius of curvature of
the curved surface is 1 m, calculate the refractive index of the liquid. (Ans. 1.179)
17. Newton’s rings are formed with reflected light (l = 5890 Å) using a planoconvex lens and a
plane glass plate with a liquid between them. The diameter of 10th ring is 4.2 mm and radius of
curvature of the lens is 100 cm. Find the refractive index of the liquid if the ring is (i) dark and
(ii) bright. (Ans. (i) 1.335 mm, (ii) 1.268 mm)
18. In air interference pattern with two coherent sources, the amplitude of intensity variation is found
to be 5% of the average intensity. Calculate the relative intensities of the interfering sources.
(Ans. 1600:1)
442 l Engineering Physics
19. In a typical biprism experiment, the fringe width is 10 m for a wavelength of 5893 Å. If
y x = 20, where y is the distance between the biprism and screen and x is that between the slit
and the biprism, calculate the refracting angle a of the biprism. Given that m = 1.5.(Ans. 0.709°)
20. The inclined faces of glass (m = 1.5) make an angle of 2° with the face of prism. The slit is
10 cm from the prism and is illuminated by light of wavelength 5500 Å. Calculate the separation
between the coherent sources formed by the biprism. (Ans. 0.349 cm)
21. A transparent paper of refractive index 1.45 and of thickness 0.02 mm is pasted on one of the slits
of a Young’s double slit experiment which uses monochromatic light of wavelength 620 nm. How
many fringes will cross through the centre if the paper is removed? (Ans. 14.5)
22. In an arrangement of double slit, the slits are illuminated by light of wavelength 600 nm. Find
the distance of the first point on the screen from the central maximum, where intensity is 75% of the
central maximum. (Ans. 4.8  10–5 m)
23. If fringe width with l = 5.89  10–5 cm is 0.431 mm and shift of white central fringe on introduc-
ing a mica sheet in path of one beam is 1.89 mm, calculate the thickness of the sheet (m = 1.59).
(Ans. 4.4  10–5 cm)
24. A thin soap film (m = 1.33) seen by sodium light (l = 5893 Å) by normal reflection appears dark.
Find the minimum thickness of the film. (Ans. 2.215  10–5 cm)
25. White light is reflected from an oil film of thickness 0.1 mm and refractive index 1.4 at an angle
of 45° to the vertical. If the reflected light falls on the slit of a spectrometer, calculate the number
of dark bands seen between wavelengths 4000 Å and 5000 Å. (Ans. 12)
26. Newton’s rings are observed between a convex lens and a plane glass plate. The diameter of nth
and (n + 5)th rings are 11.37 and 14.28 units, respectively. Find the diameters of (i) (n – 5)th and
(ii) (n + 14)th rings. (Ans. (i) 7.40 units, (ii) 18.40 units)
27. When Newton’s rings are formed with a wavelength 6.0  10–5 cm in air, the difference between
the square of the diameters of the successive rings is found to be 0.125 cm2. Find the changes
in the difference between the squares of the successive ring diameters, if a liquid of m = 1.33 is
introduced between the lens and the plate. (Ans. 0.094 cm2)

Section C
Multiple Choice Questions

1. Two coherent sources of intensity ratio a interfere. In the interference pattern

I max - I min 2 α I max
(a) = (b) =
I max + I min 1+ α I min
I min
(c) =1+ (d) Imax = Imin
I max
2. Formation of interference fringes is in accordance with
(a) law of conservation of momentum
(b) constant amplitude
(c) law of conservation of energy
(d) none of these
 Interference l 443
3. In double slit experiment the fringe width varies with distance between two sources as
(a) directly proportional
(b) inversly proportional
(c) inversly square
(d) none of these
4. When a mica sheet of refractive index m and thickness t is introduced in front of one of the in-
terfering beams, the path difference is increased by an amount
(a) (m – 1)t (b) mt
Dl
(c) (t – 1)l (d)
2d
5. When a light wave is reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium, it suffers a phase
change of
(a) p/2 (b) 2p
(c) p (d) p/4
6. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameters of dark rings are directly proportional to
(a) square root of natural numbers
(b) square root of odd numbers
(c) natural numbers
(d) none of these
7. On placing a liquid of refractive index m between convex lens and plane glass plate in Newton’s
ring experiment, the diameters of circular rings decrease with refractive index as
1 1
(a) (b)
m m 2
(c) m (d) m
8. The condition for destructive interference (dark) of light reflected from a plate is
m
(a) 2mt cos r = nl (b) 2mt cos r = (2n + 1)
(c) 2t sin r = nl (d) none of these 2
9. In Fresnel’s biprism experiment, the distance between two coherent sources is given by
(a) 2d = 2a(m – 1)a (b) 2d = (m – 1)a
(c) 2d = 2a(a – 1)m (d) none of these
10. In an interference pattern 12th order maximum is observed. For l = 6000 Å, the order visible for
l = 4800 is
(a) 15 (b) 13
(c) 10 (d) 9

Answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a)
7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a)
444 l Engineering Physics

Section D
Fill in the Blanks

1. When the resultant intensity is greater than the sum of the intensities of individual waves, the
interference is said to be ............... .
2. Young’s experiment is an example of division of ............... .
3. Phenomenon of interference is consistent with law of ............... .
4. The shape of fringes in Young’s double slit experiment is ............... .
5. On introduction of a mica sheet, the path difference between the waves reaching at a point on the
screen is ............... .
6. In the expression 2d = 2a (m – 1)a, a is the distance between ............... and ............... .
7. The condition of maxima in interference is that the path difference should be an ............... multiple
of ............... .
8. When a light wave in reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium, it suffers a phase
change of ............... .
9. It has been observed that conditions for interference due to thin film in reflected and transmitted
rays are ............... to each other.
10. Newton’s rings are formed in ............... film.
11. In Newton’s rings experiment, the central spot is ............... .
12. The diameters of dark rings are directly proportional to ............... of natural numbers.
13. Refractive index of liquid placed between lens and the plate is ............... .
proportional to the diameter of dark rings.
14. Superposition of two simple harmonic waves will not change ............... and ............... of resultant
wave.
15. If I1 I 2 = a, the value of ( I max − I min ) ( I max + I min ) will be ............... .

Answers
1. constructive 2. wavefront 3. conservation of energy
4. hyperbola 5. (m – 1) t 6. biprism and Source
7. integral, wavelength 8. p 9. complementry
10. air 11. dark 12. square root
13. inversely, square of 14. frequency, nature 15. 2 a (1 + a )