COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION, PURPOSE AND CHALLENGES OF STUDYING COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION
1.0 DEFINITION
Berredy G. Z. F
Looks at theories and practices and defines it as an academic discipline which looks at educational
systems across national borders. The main aim is to compare structure, administration, financing,
curriculum, goals of education etc.

Isaac Kandel
He looks at national systems and how they compare and contrast.

Harold Noah and Max Eckstein

Comparative education is at the intersection of social sciences, education and cross-national study.
You cannot study comparative education in isolation. An education system is a social science.

Peter Raggatt
Comparative education is the cross-national study of general propositions about relationships
between education and society and between educational relationships

Working definition
Comparative education is an academic discipline that analyses in details the education systems
across national boundaries with the aim of identifying similarities and differences in order to
institute educational reforms. Emphasis is on goals of education, structure, administration,
financing, curriculum etc.

Aims
1. Provide a picture or profile of the education system in various countries or regions.
2. Come up with a descriptive classification of education in various parts of the world.
3. Determine relations and aspects in the education and society e.g. how does family size
affect education? How does social status affect education? What are the motivations of
different social classes to participate in education?
4. Determine the fundamental elements of education persistence and change and relate them
with philosophical laws.

Forms of comparative education

1. Comparative pedagogy
2. Intra cultural analysis
3. International education

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 4. Development education
1. Comparative pedagogy.
This entails the study of classroom dynamics in different education systems and looks at
issues such as:
 What goes on inside the classroom?
 How is learning? Is it teacher or student centered?
 How do teachers relate to their students?
 What are the common teaching methods?
2. Intra cultural analysis.
An examination of various factors that impact on education such as:
 Cultural
 Social
 Economic
 Religious
 Political
 Historical
 Philosophical
3. International education.
Includes the study of multinational institutions as well as international efforts in order
to harmonize curriculum, textbooks with the aim of developing objectives for purposes
of creating international norms or standards

It also includes the study of international institutions such as UNESCO with regard to
policy matters intended to harmonize education standards of qualifications, promotions
of education exchanges and initiations of cultural agreements.

There is also a lot of work in the area of equivalences in education e.g. How does a
Kenyan degree compare to an Indian degree or how does a British diploma compare to
Kenyan diploma?
4. Development education.
This is an effort especially by the developed world to produce information and plans
which assist policy makers in developing countries. It also involves the development
of appropriate education methods and techniques for training of human resources in
various programs.

Scope of comparative education

1. It is across national boundaries (comparing countries)
2. Rural/urban ( comparing regions or areas)
3. Cultural aspects- looking at how culture affects education)
4. Policy issues in education
(a) Management of teachers in hardship areas
(b) Educational opportunities for minority groups e.g. administration of KCSE

1.1. RATIONALE FOR STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

1. To know other people.

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 Through comparative education, one develops a reservoir of knowledge which tends to
satisfy ones intellectual curiosity besides enhancing ones intellectual enlightenment.
Vernon Mallinson- argued that “familiarity with what is being done in countries other than
one’s own and why it’s done is a necessary part of training of all serious students of
educational issues of the day”
2. To improve education at home.
By studying other people’s education system, we get to develop a better perspective of our
own education system.
Michael Saddler argues that “the study of education elsewhere enhances understanding of
education at home”
Isaac Kandel- argued that “the study of foreign systems of education means a critical
approach and a challenge to one’s own philosophy and therefore a clearer analysis of the
background and bases underlying the education system of one’s own country”
3. Planning.
Planning requires careful selection of objectives. It’s often a delicate process which
requires scientific and rational decisions to be made. Consequently it entails the
development of human resources. Comparative education therefore provides data upon
which policy decisions that are key to planning are made.
4. To make people practical.
Education is a consumer good. It therefore must have practical utility e.g. utility to read
and write. There is a general belief that an educated person works better. This explains why
most countries spend a lot on education. Hence the task of making education practical is
the duty of the government and educationalists. Comparative education therefore is
considered to be very suitable for studying these aspects.
5. Humanitarian reasons.
The contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for knowledge, peace, equality
and better life. The concern therefore is how education can provide these qualities. In many
countries today, the question of peace and equality are key issues in education.

6. Problem solving.
Since each country is often faced by various problems, it becomes necessary to study how
other countries may solve similar problems e.g. the problem of school dropout, drug and
substance abuse, student’s strikes, teenage pregnancy, HIV/AIDS etc.
7. Expose people to innovations.
Today, people use various media to conduct education activities i.e. the internet,
Television, radio etc. by studying other education systems, one learns how to use such
media and the benefits of the same and this brings about educational reform.
8. Understand economic implication of education.
There is an argument that there is a correlation between education and economic theory
improvement. Comparative education therefore examines whether and where this is true.
9. Contribution to international understanding and goodwill.
After the Second World War, there emerged a consensus that there is need for people to
come together to seek solutions towards international understanding.

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 Today, the world faces problems that can be best solved through cooperation. Comparative
education has played and continues to play a very important role in promoting this
international understanding

1.2. CHALLENGES IN THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION.

The challenges in comparative education are related mainly to its nature which involves
cross-cultural and cross discipline. They are also related to the characteristics and
theoretical aims of comparative education which have limitations. Some of the challenges
include:
(i) Challenge of definition
(ii) Challenge of comparability
(iii) Challenge related to method
(iv) Challenge to subjectivity of analysis
(v) Challenge to culture and language
(vi) Challenge to dynamic character of education
(vii) Challenge of national character
(viii) Challenge of cost and time.

(i) Challenge of definition.

As noted earlier, various scholars define comparative education differently depending on their
orientation. The main challenge in definition has been whether comparative education should

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be defined per its content or method. To date, scholars are still divided on whether comparative
education is a field of study or just a method of researching on educational issues. However,
over the years in most universities, comparative education was seen as a sub-set of history of
education or sociology of education. Consequently, it has been taught by educational historians
or sociologists.
In recent past, three decades, many universities in Africa have been offering comparative
education to both undergraduate and graduate teacher education. This is itself is a recognition
of a fact that comparative education is an academic discipline in its own right weather defined
from the point of view of its content or method.
In Kenyan universities, comparative education is a core unit for the graduate teacher education
training.

(ii) Comparability.
Most issues in comparative education are linked to social-cultural political and economic
realities of particular countries. This are further related to issues like equal opportunity,
curriculum relevance among others which are also interpreted differently in different cultures
and educational systems.

(iii) Method.
Over the years, some of the analytical tools used in the study of comparative education have
been in most cases considered to be primitive when compared with tools used in other social
science inquiries e.g. use of questionnaire send through the post office often prove to be
unsatisfactory in that unreliable data is likely to be provided because of different interpretations
given to different levels of education and the understanding of the purpose for which data is
collected. Also, in comparative education, different issues require unique methods of study.
As it is with other social sciences, each study will require a specific method of study and as
such, comparative education faces the challenges of choice of method of approach in
addressing educational issues and processes being studied. Consequently, scholars in
comparative education have a wide variety of methods from which to choose from and making
the right choice often proves to be a big challenge to the study of comparative education.

(iv) Subjectivity of analysis

In many studies, there is a human tendency to review issues with one’s own social background.
People come from various social backgrounds, some from primitive, conservative and
sometimes ridged while others from modern, open minded and more receptive to changes. The
social background of a person brings with itself divergent views that are of comparative nature.
As such, when people are not natives of countries where the study is being taken, they tend to
have biases and this pause challenges in comparative education. Overall, all studies ought to
be objective rather than subjective for that is the essence of every study.

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(v) Culture and language.
One’s social background is greatly influenced by ones culture and language hence every
country or region in the world has its culture and language which pause a challenge in
comparative education. This is because there is need for fresh studies as one move from one
language to another. For one to have a good understanding, it will require him/her to employ
a thorough examination of the terminologies to be used in the study.
This is because any terminology used needs to be clear in order to make the study meaningful
and useful to the stakeholders. Any ambiguity of terminologies may render the study useless
and meaningless. Thus clarity of terminologies in terms of culture and language is of uttermost
importance in comparative education studies.

(vi). Dynamic Character of Education.

The character of education is often dynamic because of the parameters influencing it e.g. it is
often not possible to find two different communities or societies or countries which are at the
same level of development. This difference in stages of development of various countries of
the world makes it almost impossible to compare two different systems of education. In regard
to time, it is sometimes difficult to access the collected data in good time and as a result
outdated data is often used in comparison. On the other hand, new discoveries are always made
on daily basis which influence the type of education offered in different parts of the world.
In the developed countries, new knowledge that is discoved is often disseminated easily and
quickly because of development in technology while in the third world, they tend to lag behind
in embracing new knowledge hence those dynamic characteristics and others remain as a
challenge in comparative education.

(vii) National Character .

Just as education has its own character, so does each country has a national character. In
education theory and practice, we cannot understand education system of a country without
sufficient knowledge of the physical and social context within which the education system
operate. Consequently, the character of a nation remains a challenge to comparative education
because it influences the educational aims and content of the education system. Many studies
in many countries of the world show that the national character is determined to a large extent
by both physical and social environment.
According to Michel Saddler, “the things outside the school often influence the things inside
the school and they matter even more than things inside the school”. According to him, things
outside school refer to geographical, social, economic, historical, religious, technology and
cultural environment. This aspects often shape the national character, hence understanding
them is very vital because they are what determines the national character which intern
influences the educational system of a country.

(ix) Challenge of Cost and Time.

Comparative studies by a large extend requires substantial amount of money and real time. In
conducting comparative studies, one requires relevant equipment’s, travelling and assembling

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of data from foreign sources. Obtaining the relevant equipment as well as travelling cost often
proves to be very enormous in terms of cost and time hence most comparative studies are done
either through correspondence or documentary analysis if one is not able to travel to the
country where studies are to be conducted. Most universities in Africa and other developing
countries find it increasingly difficult to allocate adequate funds for comparative research.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
The development of comparative education has been divided into several phases. They include,
 Pre-history or period travelers
 Period of pioneers 1817-1900
 Period of philosophers 1900-1945
 Period of social science perspective 1945-todate

2.1. Phase I: Pre-history or period of travellers.

This was before 1817 and is called pre- history because comparative education had not
gotten a methodology. It was marked by descriptive reports by various travellers including
military conquerors, business men and explorers.
Scholars include;
(i) Xenophine.
An Athenian scholar who gave a description of education that was given to citizens
in Persia. He compared the aims and structure of the Persian education system with
that of Sparta. He admired the Spartan education and wished that the Athenians
would copy it.
(ii) Plato.
He wrote two books - The law and The Republican where he described the Spartan
education system. He admired the Spartan education system because it was state
controlled and emphasized discipline that was military type. He argued that the
Athenian education was likely to bring about permisssiveness and lack of social
order because it did not emphasize discipline. He therefore recommended the
Athenians to copy Sparta
(iii) Julius Caesar.
Julius Caesar was a Roman emperor who described how children were educated in
countries beyond Rome. He also admired the Spartan education system that was
state controlled.
(iv) Marco Polo.
He described the Chinese education system. He observed that there were no
quarrels in schools in china. He also noted that honesty and truthfulness were
emphasized. He further observed that men and women lived together peacefully in

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 China a fact he attributed to education system. However in 19th century, scholars
observed that the Chinese education system contributed greatly to the corrupt
government system, breaking of laws and cruelty of prisoners.
(v) Cicero.
He studied in Greece and wrote DE REPUBLICA where he admired the training in
oratory of Greeks and suggested a state controlled education system by Romans
like that of Sparta.
Conclusion
The above accounts and others which are travellers tell were mainly motivated by curiosity. Most
of the travellers were looking for lessons from others. Generally, all these reports were descriptive
and unsystematic, exaggerated at times and understatement at other times hence they were of little
comparative value. But they still formed the basis of comparison.

2.2. Phase II: Period of Pioneers (1817-1900)

Marc Antoine Julian de Paris
Was born in 1775 in Paris and as he grew up, he distinguished himself as a scholar. He became a
diplomat in Napoleons government. His job gave him an opportunity to travel widely. As he
travelled, he noticed the crisis created by Napoleonic wars. He was more concerned about
deterioration of society after these wars. In 1817, he published 2 books

 Comparative education plans

 Preliminary views on comparative education
In the books, he noted that nationalism had brought war and differences in Europe. For France, he
believed that the political and business life was based on self-interest. There were numerous
education challenges in European society. According to Marc, he believed that the solutions to
these problems lay in education.
However, he was concerned that the ability of individual school systems to improve themselves
was limited. He therefore proposed the following;
 Establishment of education commission to collect and distribute
information among member countries.
 Collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical charts which
permit both to be related and compared.
 Establishment of a normal institute of education as a demonstration Centre
for the best teaching methods in Europe.

Impact of major contribution of de Paris on education

He recommended the following in education
 Comparative education methodologies and analytical methods emerged after his
contributions.
 The bureau of education was started in Europe which later become part of United Nations
and eventually gave rise to the establishment of UNESCO.

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  Borrowings become a method in comparative education with aim of transplanting. This
borrowing involved cataloguing of data and lessons on borrowing.
 Scholars after him such as Victor Cousin studied foreign education systems with an
intention to transplant. These studies however were descriptive rather than analytical.
 Following the industrial revolution, came imperialism and missionary movements. The
imperialists and missionaries took their education systems and planted them in the new
lands.
 Education administrators, reformers, politicians and experts in various fields no longer
travelled for general curiosity but to specifically discover what was happening in education
overseas in order to improve their own education systems.
 Various national agencies were established for collection, and distribution of information
about education i.e. United States Office on education.
 By the end of the century, most government were increasingly funding and encouraging
studies on foreign education system and this promoted comparative education.

2.3. Phase III: The period of philosophers (1900-1945)

This period is also called period of cultural analysis. There was a general uneasiness by
many scholars about restrictive studies. Emphasis in comparative education shifted to
analysis. This meant that scholars at this time were increasingly getting interested in the
relations between education and society.
Scholars include:
1. William Dilthey
He argued that comparative studies could bring countries together.
2. William Harris
Comparative education studies could reveal universal relations between education
and society. Education breaks down the caste system and brings democracy in
society.
3. Lavassaur
Studies based on cultural forces or factors beyond national boundaries would
explain variations in education studies.
4. Michael Saddler
Education and society are closely related and that scholars must be studied in the
context of the society. He said comparisons cannot be made on statistics only but
that the social, political, economic and other related factors should be looked into.
“The things outside school often influence the things inside the school and matter
even more”

5. Isaac Kandel
Every nation has a character which is often as a result of its history and philosophy.
According to him, broad social movements and political waves across national
boundaries do affect national systems of education differently, hence he did not
believe in borrowing.
Studies in this period were mainly motivated by the following
 Studying problems of international concern.

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  Promoting humanitarian sentiments e.g. human rights, equality etc.
 Contributing to solutions of world problems.
 Fostering international cooperation and understanding.
 Identifying worldwide movements in education.
During this period, there was great caution on borrowing. Many scholars emphasized that any
borrowed idea should be analyzed thoroughly hence there was a great emphasis on selective
cultural borrowing.

2.4. Phase IV: Period of Social Science Perspective (1945-to date)

This is the period of 2nd world war and it brought a completely new scenario in world order. The
distinct features include;
(i) An explosion of knowledge
The challenge is how this knowledge ought to be disseminated. It has also brought new
roles for teachers.
(ii) Technical development devoted to destruction i.e. nuclear weapons, chemical
weapons.
(iii) Drive for knowledge worldwide
Since then, and up to date, everybody wants education both in developing and
developed countries.
(iv) Drive for liberty
This has brought about liberation struggles (democratic institutions). Education has
been at the Centre of this struggle hence liberation movements have always offered
education for the masses for either political or economic gains. There has also emerged
cultural and intellectual liberalism.
(v) Rapid urbanization and industrialization
(vi) Population explosion
This has led to population related problems e.g. in Kenya, over 50% of population is
of school going age. This means that their education and upkeep has to be catered for
by a very small working population.

(vii) Concerned for quality education

There has been a lot of emphasis on education that is relevant to the life needs of the
learners/students. This has created a lot of interest in education worldwide.
Comparative educationists have been called upon by international agencies to help
solve the myriad educational problems.
(viii) Comparative education has become part of the development of specialized
interdisciplinary fields and this emerged with expansion of graduate education in North
America.
(ix) World power shift
After the 2nd world war, there was an accelerated shift of world power from the Great
Britain to USA and former USSR. Communism and capitalism took Centre stage and
the world was divided accordingly. Consequently, this had a big effect on national
systems of education.
(x) With the USA assuming Centre place in world politics, there was a great need for
American presence in an understanding of the culture and education of other countries.

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 (xi) Many agencies such as ford foundation started to fund and continue to fund research
and development of comparative education as part of the wider USA foreign policy.
(xii) A major issue on methodology in comparative education and research was actively
debated by comparative educationists including Berredy, Brian Holmes, and Arnold
Noah among others.
(xiii) Today, comparative education is taught in many universities both at undergraduate and
post-graduate levels.
(xiv) There are numerous publications in comparative education including magazines,
journals, books and internet.
(xv) There are numerous national, regional and international comparative education
associations which bring together scholars in comparative education e.g. world council
of comparative education societies (WCCES), comparative and international education
society (CIES), south African comparative and history education society (SACHES),
Africa for research in comparative education ( AFRICE)

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AS AN INDIPENDENT

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE
Comparative education has developed as a field devoted to the study of education systems in other
countries. Over the last three decades, there has been an intense debate over its methodology and
content and schools of thought guiding each research and types of knowledge that have been
generated.
Even though comparative education has its roots in 19th century, it’s new in the main stream
academic world. Within universities, comparative education was established as a distinct area of
study after the Second World War. Since that time, it has sort to delineate itself as a distinct area
of inquiry in educational studies.
Unlike other fields such as psychology, sociology, philosophy and history whose subject matter
and methodology are well defined, comparative education has in the last 30years had to develop
as a distinct scholarly discipline. Due to its very wide and varied clientele, comparative education
has seen very eclectic (not restricted to one source of knowledge) and has failed to develop one
simple widely acceptable method of inquiry. Moreover, it has not established a unitary body of
knowledge and rather comparative education remains a field characterized by methodological
debates and diversity of opinions as to what constitutes its subject matter and orientation.
Before the 1950s, comparative education had a long tradition as an outlined field of study that
assisted in education reform locally and internationally. The demands of internal reform and
foreign policy and patterns of research findings shaped the field of comparative education.
In USA, patterns of funding as well as dominant research orientation in the social sciences and
particularly in post second world war period have shaped and continued to shape the field of
comparative.
Modernization theory has until very recently guided much of the research and comparative
education has often been a field to foreign assistance programs and the intellectual and ideological
orientations of the aid giving agencies. However, the fact that a consensus over the methods,
content and parameters of comparative education has not yet emerged, it should not be taken to

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mean that comparative education has no legitimacy within the intellectual world, rather the
continuity debate and fluidity of the field and its wide diversity may be taken to indicate a basic
vitality and dynamism of the study of comparative education.

CLIENTELE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Comparative education has a broad based clientele including;
 Policy makers
 Administrators
 Students
 International agencies
 Other academicians both in education and other social sciences.
One of the most significant accomplishments in the field of comparative education in the last
30years has been the development of an institutional and intellectual community. Comparative
education has developed in a way similar to the establishment of social sciences beginning with
small scale scholars in a few countries working largely on national basis, the field has entranced
itself in international agencies such as UNESCO and other developed national and regional
societies in various countries and this has resulted in publications of various journals regularly.
Also in universities, academic departments and programs have established themselves in the field
and hence attracting a significant number especially at the graduate level. In the area of
professional training, America and British universities have traditionally dominated the field.
Recently however, numerous universities in other countries such as Germany, South Africa,
Botswana and East African countries have established comparative education as an academic
discipline for both undergraduate and postgraduate level.
In addition to those academic Centre, a number of non-university institutions have shown major
interest in comparative education where they provide training and generate considerable research
and data.
Examples of non-university include;

 International institute of application and planning.

 International Bureau of education
 Marks Plank institute in Germany
 UNESCO
 Institute for education in Herzberg
 World bank
 Ford foundation
Also, there are numerous other private agencies which engage in training research and publishing
activities involving comparative education studies. This shows that there are various groups that
are interested in field of comparative education as a field of inquiry and research.
In summary, the clientele of comparative education can be stated as mainly comprising

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 1) Scholars who are based in colleges and universities.
2) Students mainly postgraduate students both masters and doctorate.
3) Policy makers including education planners and although they are not producers of
knowledge in comparative education, they are important in applying research, sponsoring
studies and determining the shape of comparative education through their funding of
comparative research.
4) The broader community of individuals mostly based in universities who from time to time
use materials generated by comparative educationists or who may occasionally participate
in comparative education field e.g. there are various social scientists who may be interested
in relationship between education and politics, education and society or education and
economic development.

CHAPTER THREE
3. DISCIPLINARY AND METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION OF COMPARATIVE
EDUCATION.
There are several methods used by scholars in their attempt to study comparative education.
Methodology in comparative education as in any other education discipline is determined by the
purpose of the study. Comparative education has been studied at different times of its
development with different methodological approaches.
A close look at developmental phases reveal that each phase produced a different type of work
and this mainly depended on the dominant views and motives of the scholars at that time.
Starting with simple narrative abroad during the phase of travellers tells, methodology in
comparative education has progressively evolved into the current application of the sophisticated
and complex methods of social sciences which in most cases are empirically based.

Approaches
 Statistical/quantitative methods
 Descriptive method.
 Historical method.
 Analytical method.
 Synthesis method.
 Modern scientific methods i.e. systematic area studies, problem solving approach and
Scientific method approach.

I. Statistical/Quantitative methods.
It emphasizes collection, interpretation, verification and comparison of data in education by
using statistical/quantitative analytical charts. The main aim is to facilitate borrowing of useful
information or lessons from foreign countries.
Various types of educational data are collected about a country e.g.
i. The data about number of students at certain stage of education.

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 ii. Expenditure on students.
iii. Percentage of passes or failures at various stages of education.
iv. Expenses on teacher salaries.
v. Number of schools and colleges.
From this kind of data, progress or decline of education system on any country can be
statistically analyzed.

Limitations
(i) Unreliability of statistical data- This is often associated with the inaccuracy of local
records compiled by educational officials who may exaggerate figures in order to hide
certain short comings.
(ii) Imprecision of certain non-standardized terms when applied to different national
context. Often, certain terms used do not mean the same in different countries e.g.
standard/grade.
(iii) Problem of feasibility of data interpretation without due regard to social influence and
values to how these affect education ( geographical, economic, social and political)
(iv) The verification of data in international studies is not always possible due to cost and
travel. Consequently, the use of statistical method is quite limited.
II. Descriptive method.
This was mainly used in 19th century because the main purpose then in comparative education
was to in co-operate the good points of another country. Approach call for detailed description of
education affairs of another country. Hence several comparative educationists presented detailed
description accounts of the education systems of the countries they visited. Some of the scholars
include:
 Marc Antoine Jullien de Paris.
 Horace Mann
 Victor Cousin.
 Henry Bernard.
 Mathew Arnold.

III. Historical method.

This method makes effort to study modern educational problems. The method reveals the basis
on which modern educational systems are based. Knowledge gained at this point may help to
eliminate undesirable elements in educational systems and further strengthen the desirable
elements. This method is important because we employ historical method not only to know the
past in order to understand the present better but so that we may improve the future by hinting at
those factors which may be more useful.
Historical method helps us to understand all the geographical, social, racial, political, religious
and linguistic factors which influence the education system of a country. In order to make proper
use of this method, one should observe the following:

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 i. Study each national educational system separately in its historical context taking into
account differences in terminologies and methods of collecting and classifying data.
ii. Analyze the factors/forces responsible for the noted differences that are often grouped
into four categories i.e.
 Natural.
 Religious.
 Social-economic.
 Political factors.
Adopt only those ideas and practices that best approximate and can be adapted to the recipient
countries historical context.

Limitations
(i) The data on which historical studies are based may not be often reliable because in
the collection of data, due care is not often observed.
(ii) Historians generally are not impartial in their accounts. In most cases, they are known
to conceal undesirable elements about the history of their own countries with some
perceived prejudice.
(iii) This approach of using the past is often and unduly emphasized. Consequently, the
comparative study in this context can be said to be unbalanced.
IV. Analytical method.
It brings together relationship that exists between educational system of a country and its social,
economic and political condition. Most people doing comparative education advocate for
analysis in comparative studies. The main argument is; through analysis, one can separate the
various elements and understand the importance of each independently. The analytical method is
considered useful only when the social and education organization are compared.
It follows the following steps:
(i) Collect educational data.
All educational information is gathered through descriptive and statistical methods
which often form the basis of analysis.
(ii) Interpretation of related data.
It involves interpreting social, political, economic and historical data which is
necessary in order to understand similarities and differences found in education
systems of various countries.
(iii) Determine standards for comparison.
In order to compare educational systems fairly, we need to have certain standards e.g.
political philosophy, aims of education, structure of education, administration of
education etc. Hence the analytical method formulates the standards to use.
(iv) Interpretation and conclusion.
From the above three aspects of analysis, one is able to interpret collected data and
make conclusions on basis of comparisons of various education systems of different
countries.
Limitations

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 a) Because of its nature, analytical method does not pay adequate attention to the
totality of education system.
b) This method is often prone to ignoring the inherent similarities which exists in
educational systems in spite of the differences in educational systems of
various countries.

V. Synthesis method approach

This method was advocated by Edmond King, a renowned comparative educationist. In this
approach, the study of comparative education from an international point of view is considered
to be of great significance because problems of education are considered and studied on
international framework. He is further supported by the fact that when we study the problems of
education in various countries, we find some universal truth in their inherent differences; the
main reason being that there is much similarity in the needs and aspirations of the people
globally. However, it’s important to note that the method of synthesis has not been fully
developed and hence comparative educationists need to develop it further.

VI. Modern scientific approach methods.

They emerged in the current phase of development of comparative education hence it dates back
in 1960s. during this period, the intense methodological debate centered on the following four
aspects
(i) The feasibility of relying on a particular method as opposed to multidimensional
approach.
(ii) The feasibility of the nation-state as the dominant research framework as opposed to
intra-national, regional and continental would system analyses.
(iii) The over reliance on quantitative (statistical) approach as opposed to qualitative and
descriptive research.
(iv) The range of research concerns that have traditionally dominated studies in
comparative education.
The result of this methodological debate culminated in new approaches to study comparative
education. This are;
a) Systematic Area studies Approach
b) The problem solving Approach
c) The scientific method Approach

(a) Systematic Area Studies Approach.

This method was developed by Berredy in his book Comparative methods in education (1964).
He used the interdisciplinary approach to systematically survey, analyze education in different
countries. In this method, the main aim is to understand differences and similarities before
borrowing and making any predictions. He argues that since the study has to make sense out of

16
similarities and differences in education system, then it’s possible to seek assistance from other
fields of study such as history, sociology and philosophy. This is because educational facts are
enmeshed in a matrix of sciences that comparative education cannot be studied in isolation.
He proposed the following steps;
(i) Description of aspects of education- this involves identification of the problem by
clearly describing the problem from the eye witnesses’ account or observations or
reading available literature.
(ii) Interpretation of data- in this step, he advocates using the interdisciplinary approach
and this involves giving explanations of data collected by explaining the way things
are in each country. Some of the reasons could be historical, social, cultural or
religious.
(iii) Juxtaposition/ classification of data- this involves putting information into groups
or categories of contrasting and comparable features. In this way, similarities and
differences can be easily and clearly be seen.
(iv) Comparison- involves comparing features in one system with those of another
system. At this stage, hypotheses are formulated.
(v) Conclusion and generalization- involves testing of the hypothesis, drawing of valid
conclusions and making recommendations for new lines of action while focusing on
the causes of similarities and differences.

(b) Problem solving approach.

Was developed by Brian Holmes (1964) when he wrote a textbook “Problem in education: A
comparative approach”. In this book, he borrowed heavily from the ideas of John Dewey the
famous American educator/scholar. Brian based this approach on the five stages of reflective
thinking/critical thinking to the study of comparative education issues. The stages are:
(i) Problem identification.
(ii) Problem analysis.
(iii) Proposed problem solutions.
(iv) Specification of the context.
(v) Comparison and conclusion.
According to Brian Holmes, in the face of a problematic situation, possible solutions often spring
to mind. On further reflection, the problem is further formulated. This further directs the solution
to a certain kind of data out of which emerge refined possible solutions. These refined possible
solutions are then put forward as hypothesis and then tested one after the other until the best
solution is arrived at.

(c) Scientific method approach.

This method was developed by Harold Noah and Max Eckstein (1960) when they wrote a book
“Towards a science of comparative education”
They recommended the following steps:
(i) Problem identification and Review of literature.

17
 (ii) Determination of central concepts, terms and indicators.
(iii) Selection/ sampling of units of study/ cases to be studied.
(iv) Data collection.
(v) Data analysis and manipulation.
(vi) Interpretation of data- findings and results.
(vii) Valid conclusions and recommendations.

CHAPTER FOUR
GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION
Knight (2008) sees it as a process that increase the flow of people, ideas, culture, values,
knowledge, technology and economy across borders resulting into a more interconnected and
interdependent world.
Globalization is a process which regional economies, societies and cultures have become
integrated through a global network of communication, transportation and trade. It also refers to
economic integration or integration of national economies to international economies through
trade, capital flows, migration, spread of technology and foreign investment.
Globalization is often synonymous with internationalization referring to the growing
interconnectedness and interdependences of people and institutions throughout the world.
Globalization denotes the complexities of interconnectedness and worldwide influence on local
settings and responses to these influences.
It is driven by combination of factors i.e. social cultural, political, biological, technological.

General effects of globalization

(i) Emergency of worldwide production markets and broader access to foreign products
(ii) Emergency of better access to financial sources for borrowers i.e. world bank
(iii) Realization of the global common market based on freedom of exchange goods and
capital between markets. Interconnectivity of markets may cause the fall of countries
market.
(iv) Health becomes a commodity with structural adjustment programs, healthy systems
are privatized and subsidized
(v) Politics where there is creation of a world government that regulates relationships
among governments
(vi) Information- increased information flow between geographically remote locations i.e.
fiber optic cables.
(vii) The most popular language of the world i.e. Mandarin-Chinese spoken by over
845million, Spanish over 329million, English328million, English is lingua franca of
globalization i.e. 40% radio, traffic use English.
(viii) Competition where each company has to compete for the new global markets.
(ix) Advent of global environmental challenges which can be solved by international
cooperation e.g. climate change
Negative effects of globalization
(i) Led to lowering the quality of life in areas that are not ready to change.
(ii) Led to increased inequality

18
 (iii) Environmental degradation
(iv) Sweatshops- put industries in china where there is cheap labour (multinationals) not
in Europe. They don’t benefit much but investors get the profits
(v) Cultural effect- influences from other cultures
(vi) Flooding of consumer goods e.g. textile, radio, bicycles etc. leading to death of local
companies
(vii) Brain drain
(viii) Food security
(ix) Diseases- black disease from china to Europe, HIV AIDS spread from one country to
others
(x) Illicit drugs
(xi) Terrorism

Implications of globalization to education

 In influences countries to carry out educational reforms to improve international
competences, improve on quality, enhance their advantages, and adjust educational
policies and systems to strengthen international cooperation.
 The national state that has been as the core of comparative education now unbundled
leading to more similarities of education systems in given world regions.
 Mobility of students and labour- possibility of experiencing others systems
 Harmonization of national educational systems e.g. Europe
 Ease in attaining data for comparison
 Interactions/exchanges/collaborations between different countries
 Comparability/standardization and equation of national qualifications
 Education systems focus on training global citizens
 International dimensions/ comparative perspectives of curriculum
 It has enhanced the essence of comparative education.
 Use of ICT in the teaching and learning
 Some negative consequences such as brain drain, curriculum influences

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EDUCATION SYSTEM IN KENYA
National goals/aims of education
1. To provide nationalism, patriotism and national unity
Nationalism is built through activities e.g. drama, sports and music festivals which are not
just for competition but for cohesion purposes. Kenyan people belong to different ethnic
groups, races and religions but these differences need not divide them. Kenyans must be
able to live and interact as Kenyans. It’s the paramount duty of education to help the youth
acquire this sense of national hood by removing conflicts and promoting positive attitudes
of mutual respect which enable them to live together in harmony.
In reality, people are more divided through education and political leaders and educational
policies e.g. the quota admission system does very well to promote nationalism when
admitting students to national schools. However, the number is very low. On the other
hand, it promotes ethnicity through the criteria of admission of students to county and sub-
county schools. Effort should be made not just to have the goal in print but have modalities
of implementing the same goal.
2. To promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development
The education in Kenya must prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relations
which are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly changing modern economy. In
regard to economic needs, education should produce citizens with skills, knowledge,
expertise and personal qualities that are required to support a growing economy. This is
because Kenya is in the process of building a modern and independent economy which is
in need of adequate, domestic and skilled manpower. In regard to technical and industrial

20
 needs, education should provide the learners with necessary skills and attitudes for
industrial developments. Kenya recognizes the rapid changes in technological
advancement especially in developed world.
3. To promote individual development and self-fulfillment
Education should provide opportunities for the fullest potentials of an individual to be
realized and for development of talents and personality. Education should help children
develop their potential, interests and abilities. Children are exposed to so much knowledge
and later they specialize to certain fields.
4. Promote sound morals and religious values that can take them through life.
Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will
enhance acquisition of sound moral values that will form children to grow up into self-
discipline, self- reliance and integrated citizens.
5. Promote social equality and responsibility
Education should promote equality and foster a sense of responsibility within an education
system by providing equal opportunities for all. Education should leave all children with
varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social service
irrespective of gender, ability or geographical environment e.g. community service.
6. Promote respect for development of Kenya’s rich and varied culture.
Education should instill an understanding of the past and present cultures and there varied
place in contemporary society. Children should be able to blend and accept the changed
requirements that must be followed for rapid development in order to build a stable and
modern society.
7. Promote international conscious and foster attitudes towards other nations.
Kenya is part of the international community which is interdependent network of people
and nations. Education should make the youth accept membership in international
community with all obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits that this
membership entails.
8. Promote positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection
Education should inculcate in the youth the value for good health in order to avoid in
engaging in mental illness related activities. Education should also foster positive attitudes
towards environmental development and conservation and should lead the youth to
appreciate the need for a healthy environment.

Aims/goals of technical training education

1. Develop practical skills and attitude that would lead to income generating activities both
in rural and urban areas either for self-employment or salary employment.
2. Provide/develop technical knowledge and vocational/practical skills necessary for the
growth of agriculture, industrial and commercial development.
3. Produce people who can apply scientific knowledge for the solution of environmental
problems.
Aims/goals of university education in Kenya
1. Produce mature and conscious graduate with ability and desire to contribute the
development of the country
2. Provide for national services and development which reflects the national services and
development which reflects the national cultural heritage that contributes towards te
welfare of others.

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 3. Develop and transmit knowledge and skills through research and training at both
undergraduate and post-graduate level.
4. Foster national consciousness and unity.
5. Preserve knowledge and stimulate the intellectual life and development of the economy.
The university will continue with the task of producing high level manpower in various
scientific and technological fields so as to meet the countries social cultural and economic
needs.

Administration of education in Kenya

The education Act of 1968 provides for the regulation and progressive development of education
in Kenya. The organization and administration of education in Kenya is highly centralized. The
ministry of education oversees the running of education at all levels. It coordinates education
activities from pre-primary to universities.
The administration of education in Kenya is at 3 levels
 National level
 County level
 Sub-county level
Responsibilities of national level
 Designing and developing the curriculum through Kenya institute of curriculum
development.
 Financing education through budgetary allocations
 Evaluation of education system and maintenance of education standards through the quality
assurance and standards department
 Registration, recruitment and appointment and payment of teachers through teachers
service commission
 Setting and administration of national examinations through the Kenya national
examination council.
 Registration of new schools
 Training of teachers through teachers training colleges and universities.

Responsibilities of county level

County director of education has the responsibility of coordinating all education activities at the
county. Duties include:
 Planning, implementation, coordination and development of educational standards in the
county
 Inspection and supervision of all educational institutions within the county
 Coordination of co-curriculum activities in the county e.g. drama, music, sports
 Coordinating, organizing and administering of all public examinations
 Handling inter-sub-county transfers of heads of institutions and teachers
 Providing advice and guidance through seminars and workshops to heads of various
educational institutions in the county on new policies and requirements from national office
 Coordinates registration of schools

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Responsibilities at sub-county level
The sub-county education officer is responsible for:
 Identifying, planning, coordinating, developing and implementing educational projects in
the sub-county.
 Inspection and supervision of all educational institutions in the sub-county
 Coordinating co-curriculum activities in the sub-county is music, drama sports
 Facilitates registration of schools
 Give professional advice, guidance and interpretation of policy matters in the sub-county

Management of educational institutions

a. Primary schools are managed by school management committee
b. Secondary schools and tertiary institutions are managed by Board of managers who are
appointed by the cabinet secretary of education
c. Universities are managed by university councils.
N/B the above bodies deal with the following
i. Discipline of students and teachers
ii. Hire/recruiting of teachers
iii. Procurement processes

Financing of education in Kenya

There are various financing agents of education in Kenya. They include:
 Government- the commitment of the government to provide for education is reflected in
the large and consistent budgetary allocation and expenditure in the education sector since
independence. Through this budgetary allocation, the government caters for
a) Personal emolument
b) Operation and maintenance of various programs e.g. scholarships, bursaries, loans,
curriculum development, feeding programs
 Parents
 Funding by schools and educational institutions
 Funding by private sector
 Funding by donors, NGOs, international cooperation’s and foreign governments e.g. world
bank, European union, Africa development bank, UNESCO, UNICEF,JICA USAID,
CIDA-Canadian international agency
 Students loan scheme
 Self-financed education
 Charitable organizations and well-wishers i.e. Lions club, Rotary association of Kenya,
Kenya charity sweepstake, American relief Programme
 Religious organization
 Fund raising
Structure of education in Kenya
The structure of education is 8-4-4 meaning

23
 A minimum of 8 years in primary school, minimum of 4 years in secondary school and
minimum of 4 years at the university.

Challenges facing education development in Kenya

 Quality
Providing of quality education in Kenya is a major challenge because the education process
is not merely passing of examinations or certification but also development of independent,
analytical, creative minds plus development of spiritual and ethical values of the individual
learner. Quality must ensure the identification of talents and enhance them.
 Dropout problem/challenge
There is increasing high rates of premature termination of education for the young and also
the adults. Causes of drop out include pregnancy, drug and substance abuse and prevailing
economic activities in the some areas i.e. quarrying, Khat, Rice, Tea which are offering
jobs.
 Crises of HIV/AIDS
Both teachers and students are infected or affected. There is need to support HIV positive
students, teachers and parents so as to live positively and also care for themselves.
 Increasing danger of effects of drug abuse on the performance of young boys and girls.
Some are pushed to such behavior by peer pressure, others by poverty while others are
easily cheated to be peddlers.
 The massive expansion of technology is a challenge to those who have no knowledge of
the same. There is need to expand scientific and technological education at all levels for
the purpose of producing adequate human resources to meet the new technological
demands.
 The curriculum and structure of education in Kenya is still a challenge
Though there is free education, there is need to make it compulsory so as to enhance high
transition and completion rates. The curriculum should be tailored to meet the current
economic and social requirements.
 Gender disparity
This is prevalent at secondary and tertiary levels where more males acess education
opportunities at this levels than females.

 Special education challenge

Developing an education system that is sensitive to the needs with those with special needs
is very important. Special education is designed to meet the unique needs of a child with
special educational needs e.g. physically handicapped, those with hearing impairment,
visual problems, language and emotional unstable and others with multiple handicapped.
These types of handicapped tend to interfere with regular education unless modifications
and related services and equipment’s together with specially trained teachers are provided.

 Regional disparities in education

The challenge in addressing the regional disparities with special reference to the marginal
and low economic potential areas that is arid and semi-arid land and slum areas, where
there is poor sanitations, poor housing, poor lighting which affect the learner negatively.
 Relevance of curriculum

24
 Refers to the applicability of what is learned towards a particular environment and life
situations. Real life situations demands that education must respond to the actual needs,
interest and problems of their communities.
 Accessibility
This refers to availability of opportunities at all levels and sectors of education for all those
that are eligible and meet the desired criteria.
 Examination cheating
Every time the national examinations when released, a number of candidates don’t receive
their results because of cheating.

FRENCH EDUCATION SYSTEM

France as a country is located in Western Europe with several islands and territories located on the
other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel
and North Sea and from Rhyme to Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered by Belgium, Luxembourg,
Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. France is the largest country in a European Union area and
the second largest in Europe behind Ukraine.
During the 19th century and 20th century, France built the second largest empire of the time
including large portion of north, west and central Africa, south East Asia, and many pacific islands.
It’s a developed country and possesses the 5th largest economy. It is the most visited country in the
world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually. It’s one of the founding members of the
European Union. It’s one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council
and possesses the 3rd largest number of nuclear weapons in the world.

Evolution of the French education system

The history of modern France is heavily influenced by the French revolution of 1789. Before the
revolution, it was a feudal state (minority rulers and majority ruled) where the privileged classes
enjoyed all the luxuries including education while the majority underprivileged struggled to ensure
that the ruling class enjoyed.
Prior to the revolution, education was a preserve of the aristocracy (privileged and bourgeoisies)
and was mainly provided by the Catholic Church. In 19th century, primary education developed
slowly from parish schools. The modern era of French education begins at the end of the 19 th
century. A lawyer by the name Jules Ferry holding the office of minister of public instructions in
1880s is widely credited for creating the modern republican school by requiring all children under
age 15 to attend school. He also made public instructions mandatory, free of charge and secular.

Aims of French education system

i. Promotion of social equality
Education serves an important role of ensuring that there is social equality among the
people of France.
ii. Promotion of human culture
This aim ensures that education curriculum helps to transmit the culture of freedom and
respect for all.
iii. Creation and cementing of unity among the French people. Like in many countries,
French educational system serves the purpose of uniting the people.

25
 iv. Transform the French society into an industrialist scientific and technological
culture. This is meant to promote the society through various technological changes as
currently seen through the information communication and technological education
practices.
Currently, further aims have been added to the education system in France following rapid
changes in various economic sectors of French education. They are:

v. Reformation of higher education.

Currently, France has declared university education reform a priority by promising to
modernize it. The main aim is to turn the universities into Centre’s of research and
excel in those who research so as to ensure that half of the young students pursue higher
education.

vi. Provision of universal primary education.

Like in many countries, the education system in France aims at proving basic education
to all its population by providing universal primary schooling.

vii. Quest for education tailored towards individual needs and abilities. The education
system has brought more flexibility by trying to cater for individuals abilities at
different levels right from nursery school.

Structure of French education system

The French education system is structured into three cycles.
i. Elementary/primary
ii. Secondary education
iii. Higher education
Nursery/kindergarten
Parents can send their children to kindergarten classes as early as 3 years. These nurseries are
usually affiliated to a primary school. Some children begin schooling at 2 years in day care centers.
The last year of kindergarten classes is an important step for the education process as it is in this
year that pupils are introduced to reading. Preparation classes start at 4 0r 5 years and focus is
mainly on language/ reading.

Primary school
School attendance in France is mandatory as from 6years i.e. primary education is compulsory and
lasts for 5years. It starts at age 6. It’s in the 1st year that the children learn to write and develop
their reading skills.
French primary school students usually have a single teacher who teachers the complete
curriculum such as French language, math’s, natural sciences, humanities like history and
geography.

26
One day is set for the children to receive religious instructions. School hours and lesson duration
are set by the government and are uniform for the whole country. The children are evaluated each
year and those who do not qualify are not promoted to the next class.

Secondary education
All students go for secondary schools for 4 years which are divided into two cycles of 2 years.
From here, they proceed to Lycees (colleges) for the next 3years. Junior secondary 2years
(compulsory)
In colleges, they enroll in the academic or vocational branch. Those who join the academic branch
undergo a rigorous Programme leading to baccalaureate examination for entry to university.
Students are tested on French language, math’s, natural sciences, history/ geography/ citizenship.
Since the 1980s the baccalaureate has been reformed due to public demand for more young people
to access higher education as well as to address each issues of relevance in education. The
examinations now has 3 categories: general education, technology (ICT) and vocational
knowledge
N/B elementary/primary education and the 1st cycle of secondary education are free and
compulsory. Students receive a certificate of completion of compulsory education.

Higher education
Higher education in France is divided into Grande ‘Coles and universities. Grande ‘Coles are
considered are considered more prestigious than universities. They offer professional training in
engineering and business together with other prestigious professions. Grande ‘Coles are small
specialized institutions that offer undergraduate courses to a small group of students. They
comprise about 10% of the total education enrolment. University education is taken in 3 cycles of
2 years each.
1st cycle – offers general studies for the award of university diploma. 2nd cycle leads to the 1st
degree/license. 3rd cycle leads to doctorate in research.
There are about 75 universities and numerous university institutes. Higher education has no tuition
costs since its founded by the state to a great extent. Students from low income families can apply
for scholarships from the government. The universities are autonomous.

Curriculum
The French education system is demanding because the education of all parties involved considers
the rigorous programs necessary to train enrich and broaden the mind. All parties agree that “the
school is for the mind and the child had better pay attention to it”

Primary school curriculum

It has the following aspects

27
i. Basic instruction in French and arithmetic
ii. Humanities like history, geography, religious instruction which are all geared towards
stimulating the interest like physical, environmental, exploration, music and hard work.
iii. Physical education and sports. There is emphasis of consultation between the parents
and teachers on the kind of sport that the child should enroll in.
iv. Counseling services are part of the curriculum. Teachers are expected to provide
pastoral services and facilitate co-curriculum activities.

Secondary school curriculum

Secondary school is supposed to provide a community education and also permit deepening
activities for the student. Students are exposed to a common core course of basic subject which
include French, a foreign language (Graded I choice according to the children’s competence)
math’s, chemistry, biology, physics, manual education and sports. There is increased guidance
and counseling to help parents, pupils and teachers to address issues that could be affecting the
learners.

Higher education
It’s seen as a continuation after baccalaureate which is the final qualification at the end of the
lycees (College). Baccalaureate has been a terribly difficult exam for many years with only
50% of candidates passing but in recent years, there has been improvement in pass rate. This
has caused great pressure on the university inform of overcrowding. However, this has been
reduced through creation of university colleges. In the university, a student takes 2years
diploma in general studies. The 2nd cycle leads to 1st degree (License) while 3rd cycle leads to
doctorate research or diploma of Grande ‘Coles. The universities offers units which put
together various disciplines for particular training to foster combination of humanities with
others or science and technology.
Grande ‘Coles are prestigious professional institutions which provide training in engineering,
business and administration. The entrance to these institutions is highly competitive and
requires a year of preparation beyond baccalaureate. The curriculum is standardized for all
French public and private institutions. Changes to the programs are made every year by French
ministry of education and published in the ministries bulletin for educators.

Administration
The French education system is highly centralized unlike other developed countries and is a
state responsibility. Authority is centralized in the ministry of education and through the
ministry; the government is responsible for the following
i. Designing the programs of studies for the schools including the methods of instruction.
ii. Training of teachers
iii. Recruitment of teachers
iv. Paying teachers’ salaries

28
Authority lies in the minister of national education. The country is divided into 26 educational
regions called academies. Each academy is under a rector who is a professor appointed by the
president. He is answerable to the minister and is responsible for all educational matters from
nursery to high school. Under the rector, there are academy inspectors for each of the
departments. The inspectors visit educational institutions or establishment to inspect on
quality, content delivery in each academy. They ensure that educational policies are followed
and that the teaching staffs are left with minor issues to attend to. At the school level, the school
head teacher has been given ground and greater freedom to govern the school.

Financing
1. The state provides about 67% of the total funding of the education system. This includes
teachers’ pay and other forms of disbursement of financial assistance such as scholarships
and new school year allowance. Each year, the chief education officer receives a single
sum of money for each item of expenditure which then themselves allocates to various
educational establishments.
2. Local authorities provide 20% of the total educational cost.
3. The other 15% is provided by other stakeholders e.g. church.
N/B higher education is funded by the state therefore the fees are very low. Students from low
income families can apply for scholarships and get a monthly allowance. Some public schools
have other ways of gaining money e.g. charging a small fee for new students.
Debates are going on as the church insists that the government should fund its schools while
those in favor of secular education do not want to see their money being spend on private
institutions.

Teachers
Teachers training colleges are attached to the universities and they are in 3 categories:
i. Primary colleges which forms part of the 1st cycle.
The training lasts for 1 year following success in a competitive examination (Pre-
primary and primary). Candidates must hold a license or a 3years diploma granted
within the European Union to be advised to sit for the competitive examination. In
order to prepare themselves, candidates can decide to be trained in one year at an
institute in the university or they can privately prepare themselves.
ii. Training of secondary school teachers
Colleges are attached to university and also done at secondary college which forms part
of the 2nd cycle. Secondary school teachers train for one year following success in a
competitive examination. Candidates must hold a license or a 3 year diploma granted
within European Union or for a 4 year diploma granted outside European Union to be
allowed to sit for the competitive examination. In order to prepare for themselves,
candidates can decide to prepare for 1 year at an institute attached to university or
privately prepare themselves hence this year of preparation is not compulsory.
iii. Training of higher education teachers

29
 It is done at colleges of aggregation attached to the university and forms part of the 3rd
cycle. The doctorate is pre-requisite to sit for competitive examination. The entrance
exams is very competitive and focuses on the following aspects
 Sensitivity to human beings
 Mental alertness
 Exposition of issues to expound on them
This is highly emphasized as teachers play an important role in molding highly cultured citizens.
A university degree is a basic requirement for secondary school teachers.

Summary of French educational system

Despite concerted efforts to reform the education system, France has remained one of the most
conservative systems since the end of the 2nd world war. This evidenced by the following:
 Overemphasis on the public school system, only about 15% of students is enrolled in
private schools.
 A centralized system under the direction of the government.
 Dual system for the elites and the other for ordinary. It has been difficult to democratize
the system since it is identified with different classes i.e. the halves and ordinary.
 French education system is excessively intellectual at the expense of vocational subjects.
 French educational system is highly exam oriented where by students are ruthlessly sorted
out by the use of examinations. Only a small % has the entrance examinations to the most
prestigious institutions.
 Through the difficult exams, the French education system is very competitive and allows
only the best brains to proceed to higher education and prestigious institutions leavening
out the majority with no formal training after secondary.

TEACHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN

Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip and protect teachers in
the knowledge, attitude, behavior and skills they require to perform tasks effectively in the school
and classroom.
It is often divided into two categories
1. Initial teacher training education
This is pre-service course before entering the classroom as fully responsible teacher.
2. In-service
This is the process of providing training especially on emerging issues, to those teachers
who are already practicing. It is also known as teacher development or continuing
development.
N/B there is also another form of training called induction training. This is the process of providing
training and support during the 1st few years of teaching or the 1st year in a particular school.

Overview of education in Japan

30
The ministry of education, science, sports and culture plays an active role in establishing the
framework for education in Japan through its involvement in areas such as curriculum, school
management and teacher certification and training. The national education laws define compulsory
education as 6 years of elementary school and three years of lower secondary school.
After completing compulsory education, about 95% of students enter upper secondary schools.
Most upper secondary schools offer a general curriculum but they are independent according to
the academic goals and abilities of the students and in some cases academic or vocational
specialization.

Role of teacher in education

1. Teachers play an important role in fostering the intellectual and social development of
children during their formative years. The education that teachers impart plays key role in
determining the future prospects of their students. Weather in pre-schools, high schools or
in private or public schools, teachers provides the tools and environment for their students
to develop into responsible adults.
2. Teachers act as facilitators/coaches using classroom presentations or individual instruction
to help students learn and apply concepts in subjects as science, mathematics or language.
They plan, evaluate, prepare, administer and grade test. They also listen to oral
presentations and maintain classroom discipline. Teachers observe and evaluate students’
performance and potential in order to judge students overall progress. They can provide
additional assistance in areas in which a student needs help.
3. The pre-school, kindergarten and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the
development of children. What children learn and experience during their early years can
shape the views of themselves and the world and can affect their later success or failure in
school, work and their personal life.
4. Middle school teachers and secondary school teachers help students have a more deep
understanding into subjects introduced in elementary school and expose them to more
information about the world. Middle and secondary school teachers specialize in a specific
subject like languages, mathematics, history or biology. They also teach subjects that are
career oriented e.g. vocational education teachers instruct and train students in work in a
variety of fields such as health care, business, auto repair, communication and technology.
They often teach courses that are in high demand by employers. Middle and secondary
school teachers may include career guidance and job placements and follow-ups with
students after graduation.
5. Teachers also supervise co-curriculum activities and accompanying students on field trips.
6. Secondary school teachers occasionally assist students in choosing courses, colleges and
careers.
7. In recent years, site based management which allows teachers and parents to participate
actively in management decisions regarding school operations has gained popularity where
by teachers are increasingly getting involved in making decisions regarding the budget,
books, curriculum design and teaching methods.

Teacher education in Japan

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It’s said in japan that worthy education becomes possible only with the presence of worthy
teachers. Japanese teachers see themselves as professionals who have a sense of pride on their
profession.
They enjoy a career that gives them handsome pay scale, job autonomy, high sense of
accomplishment and a collaborative community with their colleagues that affords them chances to
grow and develop as educators. The majority of teachers remains in the teaching profession and
only leaves at the age of retirement. In japan, there is both pre-service and in-service teacher
training programs and all teachers from pre-school to upper secondary are graduates.

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