Unit-1 Computer System

Er. Bhisma Raj Joshi

Department of Computer Science
( NAST )
 Objectives
1.1 Introduction of computer, its characteristics and application.
1.2 Describe the evolution of computer.
1.3 Measurement unit of processing speed and storage unit.
1.4 Super, Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers
1.5 Introduce mobile computing and its application
1.6 Computer Architecture and Organization.
1.7 Components of Computer System.
1.8 Microprocessor and Bus System.
1.9 Memory and It’s Types.
1.10 Input and Output devices and It’s Types
1.11 Hardware interfaces and Types.
Exam Point of View 20hr

1 Long Question = 1*8

1 Short Question = 1*5
2 MCQ = 2*1
Introduction of Computer
- Computer is an electronic device which takes input from users
through different input devices, process it and finally gives output
to the users through different output devices.
- The word ‘computer’ is derived from the Greek word ‘computare’
which meaning is to calculate.

Fig:-Block diagram of Computer System

Characteristics of Computer
- The major characteristics of computer system are explained below:-
a) Speed
- Computer is a very high-speed electronic device. It can perform several
calculations much faster than humans. It can perform million, billons of
operations on data within a second. The time used by computer to
perform an operation is called processing speed.
b) Accuracy
- In addition to being very fast, computer is very accurate device. The term
accuracy simply refers to the act of providing results without error. The
output of computer depends on the given instruction and input data.
- If input data is incorrect then the resulting output will be incorrect. In
computer terminology it is called GIGO(garbage in garbage out)
condition.
c) Reliability
- The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure
rate. The modern computer can perform very complicated calculation
without creating any errors and produces reliable results. So, we can say
computers are very reliable machines.

d) Storage
- A computer can store large amount of data permanently. Users can use
this data whenever required. It can store data in different forms like
image, text, audio, video etc.
- Computers are equipped with various types of storage devices including
RAM, ROM, hard drives, SSD and other external devices each serving
different purposes.
e) Automation
- Computer can automatically perform operations without intervention of
the user during the operations. It controls automatically different devices
attached with the computer and executes the program instructions one by
one.

f) Versatility
- A computer is a versatile machine due to its ability to perform a wide
range of tasks across various domains. The same computer can be used
for various purposes such as accounting, generating bills, playing games,
listening music, watching movies etc.

g) Diligence h) Non-Intelligent
 Assignment 1

Write down the merits and demerits of

computer.(Advantages/Disadvantages)
 Application of Computers
- Computers can be used in various fields some of them are explained below
a) Education
- In different education sectors like schools, colleges and universities uses
computer as information resource, teaching tool, library system and
different research projects.
b) Entertainment
- Computer also play a very important role in entertainment. Computers are
essential in entertainment for creating and editing films, producing music,
and developing video games with advanced software and technology.
Additionally, artificial intelligence and machine learning enable
innovative content creation and personalized recommendations.
c) Business
- Computers are used in several business operations like data management,
financial analysis, and communication using software like spreadsheets,
accounting programs, and email platforms.
- They enable e-commerce, digital marketing, and customer relationship
management (CRM) systems, improving efficiency and customer
engagement. Additionally, computers support remote work and
collaboration through tools like video conferencing and cloud storage.

d) Healthcare :- Computers in healthcare facilitate patient record

management, diagnostic imaging, and treatment planning using electronic
health records (EHRs) and advanced imaging software. Additionally,
computers support medical research and data analysis, leading to improved
outcomes and innovations.
e) Science and Engineering
- Computer is used in all branches of science and engineering to collect and
analyze data. Computers are essential for data analysis, enabling researchers
to process and interpret vast amounts of information quickly and accurately.
They also facilitate complex simulations and modeling, allowing scientists
and engineers to predict behaviors and outcomes in various scenarios.

f) Communication
- Computers are integral to modern communications, powering the internet
and enabling email, social media, and instant messaging, which connect
people worldwide instantly. Additionally, computers facilitate secure data
encryption and management, protecting information and ensuring privacy in
digital communications.
g) Financial Institution h) Government and e-governance etc.
 History of Computer
- The development of computer was not spontaneous. Many
scientists and many activities contributed to the history of
computer.
- The historical time period can be divided into different eras:-
1. Pre-mechanical era(500BC- 1642)
2. Mechanical era(1642-1890)
3. Electro-mechanical era(1890-1945)
4. Electronic era(1946- today)
1. Pre-mechanical era(500BC-1642)
- This was the time period between 500BC to 1642 AD. The details of the
different devices invented during this era are given below.
a)Abacus
- The Abacus is the earliest and the simplest
calculating device.
- It is also known as “Soroban” and it was
developed and used in China about 500
BC(Before Christ).
- It consists of rectangular wooden frame
having parallel wires(strings) and each wire
contain numbers of beads.
- It was used for simple addition and subtraction. Fig:-Abacus
b) Calculating Device of John Napier(1550-1617)
- In the early17 th
century, the famous
logarithms idea was developed by
John Napier (Scottish Mathematician).

- He created logarithm tables for

arithmetic calculations. He also
developed a new manual calculating
device known as Napier’s Bone.
- It is used for Multiplication and Fig:-Napier Bones
Division.
c) Slide Rules
- The commonly used calculating device known as “Slide Rules” was
also developed using the concept of Napier’s idea of logarithms.

Fig:-Slide rule

- Slide rule was first built in England in 1632. With the modern
slide rule we can perform simple arithmetic calculations as well
as calculate square roots, logs, sine cosine and tangents etc.
2. Mechanical Era(1642-1890)
a) Calculating Device of Blaise Pascal(1642-1662)
- In 1642 famous mathematician Blaise Pascal of
France invented the mechanical calculating machine
called Pascaline.
- It is used to perform arithmetic calculations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
and display the numbers by rotation of different
wheel.
- The Pascal’s calculating machine could perform the
addition and subtraction operations directly but
multiplication and division operations were
performed by repeated addition and subtractions.
Fig:-Pascaline
b) Calculating Device of Gottfried Von Leibniz(1646-1716)
- In 1671 German mathematician Gottfried developed first calculator for
multiplication as well as for other simple arithmetic calculations.
- It was the modified form of Pascal’s calculating machine and it was more reliable
and accurate.

Fig:-Leibniz-Wheel Gottfried
c) Punched Board System of Joseph Marie Jacquard
- Joseph Marie an engineer of France, invented
the machine called Jacquard loom(1801) used
in weaving.
- It was a programmable manufacturing device.
It was the first machine that used punched
cards that store information.
- This machine can store information which
helps in computer evolution and textile
industry.

Fig:-Jacquard Loom
 d) Calculating Machine of Charles Babbage
- In 1822, the English Mathematician
Charles Babbage at Cambridge University
U.K, proposed a steam driven calculating
machine having the size of room which
is called the Difference Engine.

- The Difference Engine was intended to

compute and print mathematical tables,
such as logarithmic and trigonometric
tables, which were essential for
navigation, engineering, and science.
Fig:-Difference Engine
- In 1833 AD after 10 years of inventing of
difference engine Charles Babbage invented
another device called Analytical Engine.
- This device was very big in size and powered
by six steam engines.
- Analytical engine had several features
including provision for input data, storing
information and performing arithmetic
calculations.
- However, Babbage never completed the
Analytical engine but his proposal for this
device reviewed the basic elements of modern Fig:-Analytical Engine

computer such as input, output, storage,

processor etc. on which modern electronics computers are based, that’s
why Babbage is known as “father of computer”.
e) Lady Augusta Ada(First Lady Programmer)
- A lady student Augusta Ada Byron, when she was 19 heard a lecture about
the Difference and Analytic engine designed by Babbage and was fascinated
by Babbage’s idea.
- Through several meetings and letters with Babbage she learned about design
of Babbage engine and start to write programs for still uncomplete machine.
- Ada wrote a series of “Notes” and subroutines(set of instructions) for the
Analytic Engine.
f) George Boole
- George Boole is a 19th-century mathematician who created Boolean
algebra, which uses true (1) or false(0) values to solve problems.
- His work is crucial for modern computers and digital technology. Boole's
ideas help make computers work the way they do today
3) Electro Mechanical Era(1890-1945)
- The end of the mechanical era occurred when physics paved the way for
electrical innovation. The beads of the Abacus were replaced by bits in the
modern computer. The creation of bit marked a transition from the
decimal system for humans to a binary system for computers.

- The different devices invented during this era are given below.

a) Punched Cards by Herman Hollerith

- In 1890 an American scientist Herman Hollerith used the idea of punched
board system and introduced the punched cards as input media in
computer.
- He developed the first electro mechanical punched card tabulator. This
machine could read information that had been punched into cards.
b) Atanasoff-Berry Computer
- In 1939 Dr. John Atanasoff a professor of
lowa state university and his assistant
Clifford Berry designed an electronic
machine which was called Atanasoff-Berry
Computer.
- It was the first to use binary representation
of data and electronic switching elements.
- The ABC was designed to solve linear
algebra problems and helps to derive
principles for modern computing, such as
binary arithmetic and electronic logic
circuits.
Fig:- Atanasoff-Berry Computer
c) Mark-1 or ASCC
- In 1944 an American professor
of Harvard University Dr.
Howard Aiken design first fully
automatic calculating machine
which was named as Mark-1.
- It is also known as
ASCC(Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator).
- This machine operated under the
control of given instruction
which are given through the Fig:- Mark-1
punched paper tape.
4) Electronic Era (1946- today)
- The electronic era, marked by rapid advancements in technology,
communication, entertainment, and information access.
- Innovations like the internet, smartphones, and digital media have
transformed daily life, business operations and social interactions.
- The different devices invented during this era are:-

A) ENIAC(1943-1946)
- ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer”.
It was the first electronic computer.
- It was developed in 1943 by J.P Eckert and John Mauchly at Moore
School of Engineering in USA.
- It contained about 18000 vacuum tubes and occupied more than
1500square feet with weight of 30 tons.
B) EDVAC(1946-1952)
- The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one
of the earliest electronic computers and marked a significant advancement
in the field of computing.
- It was programmed by physically
connecting wires in proper order.
Which was very difficult.
- This problem was overcome by
a new concept of stored program
(store both instruction and data in
the binary form)presented by
John Von Neumann
C) EDSAC(1947-1949)
- EDSAC stands for “Electronic Delayed
Storage Automatic Computer”.
- It was developed in1949 at Cambridge
University by groups of scientists headed
by Professor Maurice Wilkes.
- This device was used for computational
biology(calculating mutation rate),
mathematics(solve differential equations,
numeric integration), physics and
engineering(Simulating physical systems and Fig:- EDSAC
engineering problems like stress analysis in
materials and aerodynamics calculations. )
D) UNIVAC-1(1951)
- UNIVAC stands for Universal Automatic
Computer. It was also developed by J.P
Eckert and John Mauchly(designer of
ENIAC) in 1951.
- It was the first digital computer and the
input were fed in this computer through
magnetic tape.
- The was one of the first commercially
produced computers in the United States.
- UNIVAC was notable for its use in
business and government applications,
such as the U.S. Census and predicting the Fig:- UNIVAC-1
outcome of the 1952 presidential election.
Generation of Computer
- The term "generation of computers" refers to the evolution and
advancements in computer technology over distinct time periods,
characterized by significant changes in hardware and software.
- Depending upon the technology used, system architecture, processing
mode and language used computers are categorized into five generation.

1.First Generation(1940-1956)
2.Second Generation(1956-1963)
3.Third Generation(1964-1971)
4.Fourth Generation(1971-present)
5.Fifth Generation(present-beyond)
1. First Generation(1940-1956)
- These computers were the earliest electronic computers and represented
significant advancements in technology. Here are some detailed
Characteristics of first-generation computers:
- Vacuum Tubes: The primary technology used in first-generation
computers was vacuum tubes.
- Punch Cards: Input was typically provided via punch cards, which were
pieces of paper with holes.
- Output: The output was usually in the form of printed paper.
- Storage : The first generation computers used magnetic drum memory.
- Programming and Software : These computers were programmed in
machine language(In the form of 0 & 1) and no operating systems used.
Examples:- ENIAC, UNIVAC-I etc.
Disadvantages
- Very big in size : Due to the use of vacuum tubes these
computers were enormous and consumed huge amount of
electrical power.
- Limited storage capacity(can store only few KB).
- High cost
- Limited reliability or less reliability.
- Heat Generation.
2. Second Generation(1956-1963)
- The key features of this generations are follows.
- Transistor Technology:- The major component used in second
generation computer was transistor. Transistors are semiconductor
devices that amplify or switch electronic signals.
- Input and output devices:- Punched cards and magnetic tapes are
used for input and output was printer.
- Storage:- Magnetic core memory was widely used as main memory
while magnetic tape were used as secondary memory.
- Programming Language:- The introduction of high-level
programming languages like FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and
COBOL(Common Business_ Oriented Language).
Examples IBM 1401, IBM 7030, IBM 7090 etc.
Disadvantages
- cheaper than first-generation computers, still expensive to
purchase and maintain.
- Although smaller than first-generation computers, second-
generation machines were still large.
- Graphics capabilities was limited.
- Being more efficient than vacuum tubes, transistors still
generated a considerable amount of heat, requiring cooling
systems to prevent overheating and damage to the
components.
3. Third Generation(1964-1971)
- The key features of this generations are follows.
- Integrated Circuits (ICs): The major component used in third-generation
computer was integrated circuits (ICs), which replaced the individual
transistors used in second-generation computers.
- I/O devices: In third-generation computers, input devices included
keyboards, punch cards while monitors (VDUs) and printers were for
output.
- Storage: In third-generation computers, storage devices included magnetic
tapes, magnetic disk drives (like hard drives), and early forms of removable
media such as floppy disks.
- Faster than second generation computer.
- Smaller than Second generation computer.
- Examples IBM 360 series, PDP-8, Honeywell 6000series etc.
Disadvantages

- High Cost: The development and manufacturing of integrated circuits

made third-generation computers expensive.

- Complexity: The advanced technology increased design,

manufacturing, and maintenance complexity, requiring specialized
knowledge for operation and repair.

- Heat Generation: As third-generation computers packed more

components into smaller spaces that leading to potential overheating
problems.
4. Fourth Generation(1971-present)
- Microprocessor Technology: The most defining feature of fourth-
generation computers is the use of microprocessors having LSI and
VLSI technology.
- I/O devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick etc. are used as input devices
and Monitor, Printers, Speakers etc. are used as output devices.
- Storage: Storage capacity is increased different storage devices like
floppy disk, hard disk drives, CD-ROM etc. are used for storing
purpose.
- Cost and Accessibility: Computers became much more affordable
and accessible to the general public.
- Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computer.
Examples IBM PCs, Intel Pcs, Macintosh PCs etc.
5. Fifth Generation(Present-Beyond)
This generation is characterized by advancements in artificial intelligence
(AI), parallel processing. Key Features of Fifth-Generation Computers are:
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI involves the use of machine learning,
neural networks and expert systems.
- Parallel Processing: Previous generations relied on sequential processing,
fifth-generation computers utilize parallel processing to perform multiple
computations simultaneously.
- Multi-Core Processors: Fifth-generation computers utilize multi-core
processors, where multiple processing units (cores) are integrated onto a
single chip.
- Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP is process of enabling
machines to understand and interpret human language.
- Technology like 5G, IOT, Bio-Chips, Virtual Reality etc. are introduce.
Measurement unit of processing speed and storage unit
a) Processing Speed
- The processing speed of the computer simply refers, how quickly the
CPU can retrieve and interpret instructions.
- Generally, the processing speed of computer is measured in terms of
seconds.
b) Storage Unit
- The measurement units for digital storage represent the amount of
data and program that can be stored in a computer storage device.
- The different unit includes:-
Classification of computer on the basis of size and speed
- The classification of computers based on speed and size refers to
grouping computers according to their physical dimensions (size)
and their processing capabilities (speed).
- On the basis of size and processing speed computer can be
classified into following types:

1. Super Computer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Mini Computer
4. Micro Computer
 1. Super Computer
- A supercomputer is a highly advanced computing machine designed to
perform complex and large-scale computations at exceptionally high
speeds.
- Key Characteristics of Supercomputers:
- Processing Speed: Supercomputers are the fastest computers available,
capable of performing trillions to quadrillions of calculations per second
and speed is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per
Second).
- Parallel Processing: Supercomputers use a technique called parallel
processing, where multiple processors work on different parts of a
problem simultaneously. It contain tens of thousands of processors.
- Massive Storage and Memory:
Supercomputers require
enormous amounts of memory
to handle the vast amounts of
data involved in their
calculations. The memory can
be in the range of terabytes (TB)
or even petabytes (PB).
- Applications of
Supercomputers: Scientific
Research, Engineering,
Medicine, AI etc.
- Examples: Fugaku, Summit,
PARAM etc.
2. Mainframe Computer
- A mainframe computer is a large, powerful, and highly reliable
computing system designed to handle and process vast amounts of
data quickly. It is primarily used by large organizations for bulk data
processing such as static, census data processing, transaction
processing etc.

- Key Characteristics of Mainframe Computers

- High Processing Power: Mainframes are capable of processing
billions of instructions per second (BIPS—Billions of Instructions Per Second).
- Mainframes are built for reliability with features like redundancy and
failover, ensuring continuous operation.
- Mainframes are designed with
robust security features, including
advanced encryption, access
control etc. and are often used in
industries where data security is
critical.
- Mainframes support thousands of
users concurrently without
degradation in performance.
- Applications : Banking and
Finance, Healthcare, Government,
Airline etc.
Ex:- IBM Z series, system z9, z10
3. Mini Computer
- A minicomputer is a class of smaller, mid-range computers
that emerged and were widely used through the 1980s. They
were designed to fill the gap between the larger, more
expensive mainframe computers and the smaller, less
powerful microcomputers.
Key Characteristics of Minicomputers
- Size and Cost: Minicomputers were smaller in size as compared to
mainframes, often fitting into a single cabinet, office or lab
environment and are less expensive than mainframes.

- Multi-User Capability: Supports multiple users through terminals.

- Minicomputers were often highly
customizable, with a variety of
peripheral devices and software
options available to suit different
needs.
- These computers typically supported
a wide range of peripherals, including
disk drives, tape drives, printers, and
network interfaces.
- Applications: Scientific research,
Educational Institutions, Business,
Laboratories etc.
Examples: PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM
system3 etc. Fig:- PDP-8
4. Micro Computer
- A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer that
includes a microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU).
Microcomputers are designed for individual users and They became
the foundation of personal computing and are the predecessors of
modern-day personal computers (PCs), laptops, tablets, and
smartphones.
Key Characteristics of Microcomputers
- Microprocessor-Based: The defining feature of a microcomputer is
the use of a microprocessor as the CPU.
- Compact Size: Microcomputers are significantly smaller than
minicomputers and mainframes. They can be small enough to fit on
a desk (desktop computers) or be portable (laptops).
- User-Friendly: Microcomputers were designed to be operated
by individuals without requiring specialized knowledge of
computer programming or hardware.

- Storage and Peripherals: Early microcomputers used floppy

disks, cassette tapes, or small hard drives for storage. As
technology advanced, larger hard drives, CDs, DVDs, and
eventually solid-state drives (SSDs) became standard.

- Microcomputers were typically intended for single-user

operation.
- Examples :- IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, Dell etc.
Mobile Computing
- Mobile computing refers to the technology that allow us to
transmission of data like voice, audio, video, text, images
etc. via a computer or mobile devices without having to be
connected to a physical link.

- It simply refers to the use of small and portable computing

devices which are normally called mobile devices and
wireless enabled networks that provide wireless connection.
The mobile devices includes laptops, notebook PCs,
Palmtop, PDAs and other portables devices.
- A radio-signaling device inside these mobile devices is used for
receiving and transmitting electric signal.
- All these devices are necessarily connected to a Wi-Fi networks.

Applications of Mobile Computing

1. Mobile Commerce (Business)
- Users can browse, purchase and sell products and services via mobile
devices. Similarly different mobile banking apps and wallets enables users
to manage accounts, transfer money and pay bills.

2. Health-Sector
- Mobile devices and wearables track health metrics, enabling telemedicine
and medication management. Apps offer remote consultations and health
monitoring.
3. Location-Based Services (LBS)
- GPS-enabled devices provide navigation, geotagging, and asset tracking.
Businesses use geofencing to target customers with location-specific
offers.

4. Mobile Learning (Education)

- Educational apps like Coursera, Khan Academy, Udemy LinkedIn etc.
offer on-the-go learning. Similarly remote collaboration tools like teams,
zoom enable virtual classrooms and group projects.

5. Social Networking and Communication

- Messaging apps and social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter etc. keep users connected. Mobile access to these apps facilitates
instant communication and content sharing.
6. Entertainment and Multimedia
- Streaming services and mobile gaming provide entertainment anywhere.
Apps also enable Virtual Reality experiences through mobile devices.

7. Remote Work and Productivity

- Office apps, task management tools, and cloud services boost mobile
productivity. Users can work, collaborate, and manage tasks from anywhere.

8. Smart Homes and IoT Integration

- Mobile apps control smart home devices and IoT gadgets. Users manage
home security, lighting, and appliances remotely via their phones
Computer Architecture and Computer Organization
- Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a
system visible to a programmer or those attributes that
have a direct impact on the logical execution of a
program.
- It includes series of instructions, addressing modes,
data types and registers.
- Computer Organization concerns with the operational
units and their interconnections. It consists of physical
units like circuit design and peripherals.
assignment:- write
down the
major differences between
computer architecture and
computer organization.
Components of Computer System
- A computer system is an
integrated set of hardware and
software designed to perform
computational tasks.

- It includes the central

processing unit (CPU),
memory storage, input/output
devices, and the operating
system, which work together
to execute programs and
process data.
Fig:- Block diagram of Computer System
1) Input Unit :- Input units are those units that are used for providing
data and instruction to the computer. The input can be provided either
by clicking on mouse or by typing on keyboard.

2) CPU:- It is the major component of the computer system. It acts as a

heart and brain of computer and performs all the processing related task.
The CPU is the combination of three component ALU, CU and
Register.

a) ALU:- All the arithmetic and logical calculations are performed by

ALU. Arithmetic operations includes addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. Whereas logical unit perform logical operation like
AND, OR, NOT etc.
b) CU:- It controls all the other unit in the computer by providing the control
signal. The control unit fetch the instruction from memory decode it and
finally execute the instructions.

c) Register:- Register is a special temporary storage location within the CPU.

To execute an instruction the control of the CPU retrieves it from main
memory and place it onto a register.

3) Memory:- Memory in a computer system refers to the hardware

component where data and program entered through the input unit are stored.
It main function is to stores data, information or final results before display or
sent to the output devices.
Memory can be divided into two types:-
a) Primary memory b) Secondary memory
a) Primary memory:- The primary memory is also called main memory
of the computer. It stores and provides information very quickly. This
memory is generally used to hold the program being currently executed
in the computer. RAM and ROM are the examples of the main memory.

a) Secondary Memory:- The secondary memory is also called Auxiliary

memory and has very large storage capacity. This memory is used as a
backup memory for future reference. It stores several programs,
documents, databases etc.
- The programs that you run on computer are first transferred to the primary
memory before it run, whenever the results are saved again they get stored
in the secondary memory. Hard disk, Floppy disk, SSD etc. are the
examples.
4) Output Unit
- The output unit in a computer system refers to the different hardware
components that provides information and results of computation to
outside world in the form that can perceive, such as text, images, sounds
etc.
- Examples Monitor, Printers, Speakers etc.
Concept of Microprocessor
- The CPU contains three components ALU, CU, and Register when all
these three components are integrated into a single chip then it is called
Microprocessor.
- The diagrammatic representation of microprocessor is shown in figure
below.

ALU

CU Register
Array
Fig:- Block diagram of Microprocessor
Functions of Microprocessor
- It controls the input and output devices of computer.
- It controls the storage of data inside a computer.
- It performs arithmetical and logical operations.
- It handles every other parts of the computer.

Characteristics of Microprocessor
Instruction set:- The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth:- The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed:- The clock speed determines how many instructions per second
the processor can execute. It measures in Megahertz(MHz) or Gigahertz(GHz).
Word Length:- It refers to the number of characters present in a word. word
length depends upon the width of internal structure. The word length ranges
from 4bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of microprocessor.
Types of Microprocessor
CISC(Complex Instruction Set Computer):- It is an architecture that uses
large and complex set of instruction to perform tasks. It has large instruction
set that leads slower execution times. CISC processor were used in early
personal computers and mainframe.

RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computer):- It is a type of microprocessor

architecture that uses a smaller, simpler set of instructions compared to
complex instruction set computers (CISC). This simplicity leads to faster
processing speeds, lower power consumption, and smaller chip size. RISC
processors are widely used in modern devices like smartphones, tablets, and
embedded systems.
 Bus Structure
- Bus structure simply refers the pathway through which data and
information can be exchanged between the different components of the
computer system.
- It consists of the data bus, address bus, and control bus, each serving
different roles. The diagrammatic representation is shown in figure below.

Fig:- Block diagram of bus structure

Types of Computer Bus
1) Data Bus :-This bus is bidirectional. It allows data to be transferred both
to and from the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

2) Address Bus:- This bus is Uni-directional. Address bus carries

information about the location of data in memory.

3) Control Bus:- The control bus carries the control signals that make sure
everything is flowing smoothly from place to place it is also bidirectional.
Major Functions of System Bus
Data Transfer: Carry data between different components of a computer
system.

Addressing: Determine the location in memory or device where data should

be read from or written to.

Control Signal Transmission: Carry control signals from the processor to

other components to manage operations.

Power Distribution: Distribute electrical power to various components

within a system.
# Memory
- In computers, memory is a device that stores data and
instructions for a computer system. It's crucial for the
computer to function, as it holds everything from the
operating system to the data being processed.
- On the basis of levels it is divided into the following
categories.
1) Level 1 or Register
2) Cache Memory
3) Primary Memory
4) Secondary Memory
1) Register
- Registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU that
temporarily hold data and instructions being used by the processor.

- They facilitate rapid data access and manipulation, enabling efficient

execution of operations. Examples include the accumulator, instruction
register, and program counter.
2) Cache Memory
- It is the special high speed memory and use to speed-up the execution
time of CPU.
- It is costlier than primary memory but cheaper than register. It acts as
buffer between RAM and CPU. It hold the frequently requested data and
instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU when
needed.
Types of cache
L1 Cache: Fastest, smallest cache directly on the CPU for immediate data access.
L2 Cache: Larger, slightly slower cache near the CPU for frequently accessed data.
L3 Cache: Largest, slowest cache shared across CPU cores for less frequently used data.

3) Primary Memory
- The primary memory is also called main memory of the computer. It stores
and provides information very quickly. This memory is generally used to hold
the program being currently executed in the computer.
- Primary memory is categorized into two types they are..
a) RAM
b) ROM
a) RAM(Random Access Memory)
- RAM is a type of volatile memory used by computers to store data that is
actively being accessed or processed.

- It allows the CPU to quickly read and write data, enabling efficient
multitasking and smooth operation of applications.

- Unlike permanent storage devices, RAM loses all stored information

when the computer is powered off.

- Increasing the amount of RAM can enhance a system’s performance by

allowing more applications to run simultaneously without slowing down.

- It is simply divided into two types:- SRAM and DRAM

i) SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory)
- It is a type of memory that uses bistable latching
circuitry(flip-flop) to store each bit, which makes it faster
and more reliable than DRAM.
- SRAM does not need to be periodically refreshed, which
allows for quicker access times.
- It's commonly used in cache memory and other applications
where speed is critical.
- However, SRAM is more expensive and takes up more
space than DRAM, limiting its use to specific high-
performance areas.
ii) DRAM(Dynamic Random Access Memory)
- It stores each bit of data in a capacitor-transistor pair, making it more
space-efficient and cost-effective than SRAM.
- However, the capacitors leak charge, requiring periodic refreshing to
maintain the data.
- DRAM is slower than SRAM but is widely used as the main memory
in computers due to its high density and lower cost.
- Its simple design allows for large amounts of memory to be packed
into a small space.

Assignment:- Write down the MAJOR

differences between SRAM and DRAM.
b) ROM
- It is a type of non-volatile memory, meaning it retains its data even when the
power is turned off. This makes it essential for storing firmware and other critical
software.

- ROM is typically programmed during the manufacturing process, containing data

that doesn’t need to be modified, such as the BIOS in computers.

- Unlike RAM, which can be written to and erased multiple times, traditional ROM
can only be written once. There are, however, some variations like EEPROM that
allow limited rewriting.

- It is commonly used in various devices, including computers, smartphones, and

gaming consoles, to store software that must not change, such as the operating
system bootloader.
Types of ROM
i) Mask ROM:- The data is written during the manufacturing process. It cannot be
altered or reprogrammed once it is made. Used in devices where the firmware is fixed
and does not need updates.
ii) PROM (Programmable ROM):- This type of ROM is manufactured as blank, and
the data can be written onto it only once using a special device called a programmer.
Suitable for applications where the content is written after manufacturing but doesn’t
need to be changed.
iii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):- The content on EPROM can be
erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light and then reprogrammed.
Used in applications where the firmware might need updates but not frequently.
iv) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):- Data on EEPROM can
be erased and reprogrammed electrically. This process can be done multiple times.
Common in devices like microcontrollers and BIOS where updates are needed
periodically.
4) Secondary Memory
- Secondary memory, also known as auxiliary or external memory, is a
type of computer memory used for long-term storage of data and
programs.
- Unlike primary memory (RAM), which is volatile and used for temporary
storage, secondary memory is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even
when the computer is turned off.
- Some examples are
1. Hard Disk Drives(HDDs)
2. Solid-State Drives(SSDs)
3. Optical Discs
4. Flash Memory
5. Magnetic Tapes
1) Hard Disk Drives(HDDs)
• Technology: HDDs use magnetic
storage to read and write data on
spinning disks called platters. A
read/write head moves across the
platters to access data.
• Capacity: They offer large
storage capacities, typically
ranging from hundreds of
gigabytes to several terabytes.

• Speed: HDDs have slower read/write speeds compared to SSDs.

• Durability: They are prone to mechanical failures due to moving parts.
• Usage: Commonly used for desktop computers, laptops, and servers.
2) Solid-State Drives (SSDs)
•Technology: SSDs use NAND flash memory, which is
a type of non-volatile memory that retains data without
power.
•Speed: SSDs are much faster than HDDs, with
read/write speeds ranging from 500 MB/s to over 3,000
MB/s .
•Durability: More durable than HDDs as they have no
moving parts, making them resistant to physical shock.
•Capacity: Typically range from 128 GB to several
terabytes.
•Usage: Widely used in modern laptops, desktops, and
as external storage devices.
3. Optical Discs
Types: Includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays.

Technology: Use laser technology to read and

write data. The laser burns tiny pits into the disc
surface to represent data.

Capacity: CDs hold about 700 MB, DVDs up to

4.7 GB (single-layer) or 8.5 GB (dual-layer), and
Blu-rays up to 25 GB (single-layer) or 50 GB
(dual-layer).

Usage: Commonly used for media storage,

software distribution, and backups.
4. Flash Memory
Types: Includes USB flash drives and memory
cards (SD cards, microSD cards).

Technology: Uses NAND flash memory,

similar to SSDs.

Capacity: Ranges from a few gigabytes to

several terabytes.

Durability: Highly portable and durable, with

no moving parts.

Usage: Used in cameras, smartphones, tablets,

and as portable storage devices.
5. Magnetic Tapes
Technology: Uses magnetic tape to store
data. Data is written and read sequentially,
which makes access times slower.
Capacity: Can store large amounts of data,
often used for archival purposes. Modern
tapes can hold several terabytes.
Durability: Durable and reliable for long-
term storage, but access times are slow.
Usage: Primarily used for backups and
archival storage in data centers and
enterprises.
# Input Devices
- An input device is hardware that allows users to enter data
and control signals into a computer. Examples include
keyboards, mice, scanners, cameras, joysticks, and
microphones.
- These devices enable interaction with the computer,
facilitating various tasks and operations. Input devices are
essential for user-computer communication. They convert
user actions into data the computer can process.
- The different input devices are followings
1) Keyboard
- A keyboard is an input device used to enter
text, numbers, and other commands into a
computer or similar device.
- It consists of a set of keys, each of which
corresponds to a specific character, symbol,
or function. Keyboards are essential for
tasks like typing documents, coding,
gaming, and general computer tasks.
- A normal keyboard contains 104 keys while
a laptop contain 78-84keys depending upon
model and manufacturer.
- QWERTY, Mechanical, Gamming etc. are
the examples of keyboards.
2) Mouse
- A computer mouse is a handheld pointing device that detects two-
dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is translated into the
movement of a cursor on a display, allowing users to interact with the
computer’s graphical user interface. Here are some common types are:-
wired mouse, wireless mouse, laser mouse, optical mouse, gamming
mouse etc.

3) Trackpad/Touchpad
- A flat, touch-sensitive surface that translates the motion and
position of fingers into cursor movement on the screen.
- Trackpads are found on laptops and supports advanced gestures like pinch,
zoom, and rotation.
- Uses: Cursor control, gestures, and replacing the need for a mouse on laptops.
4) Digital Scanner
- A digital scanner is a device that converts physical documents, images, or
objects into digital formats, making them accessible on computers or
other digital devices.
- The scanner captures the image or text from the physical document
converts the captured data into a digital format and then the digital data is
sent to the computer for storage or manipulation.
5) Microphone
- A microphone is a type of input device used to capture audio by
converting sound waves into electrical signals. It serves as an
essential tool in various applications, ranging from communication to
recording and voice recognition.

6) Digital Camera
- A digital camera is a versatile input device that captures images and
videos by converting light into digital data.
- Digital cameras store images in electronic form, making it easy to
view, edit, share, and store photos and videos on digital devices such
as computers, smartphones, and cloud storage.
# Output Devices
- The output unit in a computer system refers to the different hardware
components that provides information and results of computation to
outside world in the form that can perceive, such as text, images,
audios, videos etc. types of output devices are..
1. Softcopy Output devices:- Softcopy output devices refer to devices
that display or present data electronically, rather than producing a
physical copy. Common examples include: Monitors, Projectors,
Speakers
2. Hardcopy Output devices:- Hardcopy output devices produce a
physical, permanent copy of data. Examples include printers, plotters,
fax-machine.
Monitor:- A monitor is an output device that displays visual information from
a computer. Monitors are essential components of a computer system,
providing a visual interface for users to interact with the machine. They vary
in size, resolution, technology. Types and their key features:

1.CRT Monitors(Cathode Ray Tube)

•These were the earliest types of monitors, using
a electron guns to project images onto a
phosphorescent screen.
•Bulky and heavy.
•Limited to lower resolutions compared to modern
monitors and consume more power.
•Mostly obsolete, replaced by more modern
technologies.
2) LCD Monitors (Liquid Crystal Display)
- Type of flat-panel display that use liquid crystals
to control the passage of light.
-Slim and lightweight and available in various sizes.
-Energy efficient as compared to CRTs.
-Offer good color reproduction and sharpness.
-Used for desktop monitors, laptops, television
3) LED(Light Emitting Diode) monitors
are a type of flat-screen display that use light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) as backlights. They offer
superior image quality, energy efficiency, and
thinner designs compared to traditional CRT
monitors. LEDs provide brighter, more vibrant
colors and a wider viewing angle, making them
ideal for gaming, video editing, and graphic design.
Speaker
- A speaker is an output device that converts electrical signals into audible
sound. It allows users to hear music, speech, or other audio from devices
like computers and smartphones.
- Speakers can be built-in or external, with various connection options such
as wired or wireless. They support different audio formats for a richer
listening experience.
Projector
- A projector is an output device that displays visual content by projecting
images or videos onto a large screen or surface. It is commonly used for
presentations, movies, and events, providing a bigger display than a typical
monitor.
- Projectors can connect to computers, smartphones, or media players via
wired or wireless connections.
Printer
- A printer is a hard copy output device that transfers digital data from
a computer or other electronic devices into physical form, typically
on paper.
- The printer receives digital text, images, or graphics from a
computer or other devices and translates this data into a format that
can be printed.
- Depending on the type of printer, it may use various methods to
apply ink or to paper and result hard copy which can be physically
handled, stored or distributed.
- Printers are categorized into two types:-
A) Impact Printers
B) Non-Impact Printers
A) Impact Printer
- Impact printers are a type of printer that creates text and images on paper
by physically striking an inked ribbon against the paper.
- This method is quite different from non-impact printers like inkjet and
laser printers, which do not make direct contact with the paper.
Examples:
•Dot Matrix Printers: Uses a print head that moves back and forth, striking
pins against the ink ribbon to form characters and images with a series of
dots.
•Daisy Wheel Printers: Uses a wheel with pre-formed characters that strike
against the ribbon to print text.
•Line Printers: Common in older computing environments, these print an
entire line of text at once by striking against the paper.
b) Non-Impact Printer
- A non-impact printer is a type of printer that prints without physically
striking the paper, unlike impact printers such as dot-matrix printers.
Non-impact printers are generally quieter, faster, and offer higher print
quality.
Examples..
Inkjet Printers:
•Use tiny nozzles to spray ink directly onto the paper.
•Common for home and office use.

Laser Printers:
•Use a laser beam and toner to transfer text and images to paper through
electrostatic attraction.
•Known for high-speed and high-quality output.
Hardware Interfaces
- It is the part through which data is transferred between a computer and
other devices connected to the computer.
- In simple word, we can say that hardware interfaces are ports, plugs or
sockets through which flow of information occurs between the CPU and
different peripheral devices.
- The different types of hardware interfaces are as follows:-
1) Serial Port
- It is also called RS-232 port. It is an interface that is use to connect
devices that are capable of transferring data serially i.e. one bit at a
time.
- It has normally nine pins and are leveled with COM which means these
ports are for communication purpose.
2) Parallel Port
- It is an interface that is used to connect the devices that are capable of
transferring multiple bits at a time. It allows us to transfer 8 bit at a time.
- This port normally contains 25 pins and are used for faster speed devices
such as printers, scanner etc.

3) USB port
- The term USB stands for Universal Serial Bus and this bus is use to
connect up to 127 peripherals to a micro computer through a single
general port.
- It doesn’t need any type of adapter card and installation. It was design to
allows many peripheral to be connect using a single standardized socket
and improve the plug capability without rebooting the computer.
Types of USB
4) Slots
- It refers to the physical connectors or expansion port on a computer’s
motherboard. It allows you to expand or enhance the capability of your
computer by inserting various hardware components like RAM slots(for
inserting RAM), PCI slot(Peripheral Component Interconnect) for
Network card, AGP(Accelerated Graphics Port) slot for inserting Graphics
Card etc.
5) IDE(Integrated Drive Electronic) Port
- It is an electronic interface standard that defines the connection between a
bus on a computer’s motherboard and computer’s disk storage devices.
- There are two types of IDE
a) PATA
b) SATA
a) PATA
- It refers to Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment. It is slower and
older type of IDE port. These cables are long flat with 40pins connectors
on either side of cables.
- It supports data transfer rate up to 133Mb/s.
b) SATA
- It refers to Serial Advanced Technology Attachment. It is the newer and
faster standard for connecting storage devices like hard drives to the
computer motherboard.
- SATA cables are long thin and 7 pins cables. It can transmit data twice
faster than PATA.
- SATA version includes SATA-I(1.5 GB/s), SATA-II(3 GB/s),
SATA-III (6 GB/s).
- It replace PATA because it connects the storage device with more
advanced technology like high clock frequency, better error handling, hot
swap ability etc.