Title: Classification

Date: October 26, 2020

Aim: To observe and classify at least five animals and five plants.
Apparatus/Materials: Notebook, ruler, pens, pencils and tablet.
Method:
1. Habitats at home such as; large trees, open grasslands and farms were visited to start
observing animals and plants.

2. The characteristics of five animals and five plants were observed and recorded.

3. The information gathered was placed in tables.

Observation:
1.1 TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIX ANIMALS
Name Where Appendages Body Color Behavior
found covering
Bull Farm Two horns, tail Cowhide Brown and Eating grass
and four legs black and ‘mooing'
Doves Open walk Two wings and Feathers White Picking up
way two legs crumbs

Goats/ Ram Farm Two horns, tail, Coat/ fur White black Eating grass
four legs and brown
Owls Large Tree Two wings and Feathers Brown and Hooting
two legs white
Lizard Large Tree Tail, four legs Scales Green Climbing the
tree
Ants Late tree Mandibles, Chitin Red and Carrying
maxillae, antennae black pieces of
and six legs food.

1.2 TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SIX PLANTS

Names Where found Features of Leaves Color and
Interest Description texture
Hibiscus / Garden Yellow Red leave with Red with
Gumamale pollen round edges smooth
leaves
Peppermint/ Herba Greenhouse Minty scent Rough around Green and
Buena the edges with rough
circular edges
Starpple/ Kaymito Large tree Leaves Curving inwards Green and
curving with a lot of smooth
inwards to veins
protect fruit
Mimosa Open grasslands Closes on Spacious Leaves Green with
impact purple tips
and rough
Mango Large tree Leaves have Long curvy Green and
curvy edges leaves rough
Oregano Garden Spade shaped Spade shape Green rough
leaves with
rough edges

Discussion: Classification is a way of dividing things into groups or types according to their
features and characteristics. It is necessary to classify organisms because it helps in the
identification of living organisms as well as in understanding the diversity of living organisms.
Classification helps I learn about different kinds of plants and animals, their features, similarities
and differences.
The five kingdoms of Classification are; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae( plants ) and
Animalia (animals). Monera are prokaryotic bacteria some make us sick but many more help us
They don't have a true nucleus. Protists are usually small single celled organisms that can
contain qualities of both plants and animals together. Fungi are not plants or animals as many
like to think. They are mushrooms, toadstools and molds that grow on bread. They have a cell
wall made of chitin
We recognize plants because they are usually green in color. This is because they contain
chlorophyll to photosynthesis and therefore make their own food. They are autotrophic and have
a cell [Link] can come in all shapes or forms; from humans to corals to snails to sharks to
sea anemones. Don’t have a cell wall and are mostly mobile.
Based on the information gathered in the observation, the animals and plants can be
placed in their designated kingdoms (Animalia and Plantae) according to their features.
● Animalia Kingdom ( Animals )
Cow – because cattles are animals
Dove – because it belongs to the Columbidae
Goat – because it is apart of the animal family Bovidae and it has been used for milk, met, fur
and skins
Owl – because owls are Strigiformes; Strigidae because of its round faces.
Lizard – is a vertebrate and a reptile belonging to the animal kingdom. It has dry waterproof skin
with scales and lays eggs with a rubbery shell on land
Ants – Hymenoptera to group of animals that ants are categorized as. An ant is divided into three
main parts; the head, thorax, and the abdomen. Ants have a hard, waterproof exoskeleton, which
is made of a material called chitin
● Plantae Kingdoms ( Plants)
Hibiscus – It’s a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family because the leaves are large,
conspicuous, trumpet-shaped with five or more petals.
Peppermint - the peppermint plant falls under the domain eukarya because it is a multicellular
organism with membrane- bound organelles including a nucleus. The plant Kingdom is
characterized by cell walls made of cellulose and a chloroplast that goes through the process of
photosynthesis.
Star apple – because star apples are Chrysophyllums
Mimosa – The reason why the Mimosa plants are a part of the plant kingdom because it folds
itself or it leaves as a defense mechanism there is an energetic trade off things to fold in its leaves
reduce the amount of photosynthesis the Mimosa can perform during the closed period by 40%,
but provides a rapid defensive mechanism against potentially harmful predators or external
stimulation.
Mango - mangoes are a part of the plant taking them because it is an angiosperm meaning it
produces flowers and fruits the mango trees and you don't cut due to the presence of two
cotyledons in the embryo and flowers with four or five petals.
Oregon - the Oregon is placed in the plan taking them because it contains eukaryotic cells and
has and contains vascular tissues.

Limitations: It was difficult for me to properly observe things because of the type of weather
conditions and also hard to find information on some of the reasons why certain plants are
classified in the Plantae Kingdom.

Conclusion: Animals and Plants can be classified according to their features and characteristics.

Reflection: After doing this experiment I learnt more about Classification/ Taxonomy. I learnt
how to properly classify animals and plants according to their features and characteristics. This
experiment helped me to expand on my knowledge of the five Classification kingdoms; Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae and how things fit into these kingdoms.
Title: ECOLOGY
Date: November 16, 2020
Aim: To find out the specie density and frequency of different plants in an habitat
App/MAT: Quadrat, books,pencil calculator and ruler
Method:
1. An habitat was chosen on the school compound.
2. Five different Species of plants were identified in the area.
3. The names of the plant species were recorded.
4. The quadrat was thrown randomly in the habitat.
5. The number of each plant seen in the quadrat was recorded in a table
6. Steps 4-5 were repeated 9 times.
7. The frequency of each plant species seen in the habitat was calculated.
8. An histogram was constructed to show the frequency of each plant species.

Observation: TABLE SHOWING THE FREQUENCY OF EACH PLANT SPECIES

AFTER EACH QUADRAT THROW.
# OF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Frequency% Density
Quadrat m2
throws

Plants
Species

A 0 2 5 1 0 8 2 0 0 1 60 1.9

B 1 0 3 10 3 11 4 15 0 3 80 5

C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 10 0.5

D 0 4 7 2 12 4 0 0 0 60 3.4
5

E 1 2 1 0 0 3 0 0 2 50 0.9
0
Discussion: Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of living organisms with each other
and with their environment. Frequency is the number of times a plant species occurs in a given
number of quadrats. You calculate the frequency by checking how many times a species is found
in a quadrant multiplied by how many throws there were in all. Whilst density in plant ecology is
defined as the number of individuals of a given species that occurs within a given sample unit or
study area. You calculate the density by adding the amount of species found in each throw then
dividing the sum by the amount of throw there was in all. Frequency is calculated in percentage
while density is calculated in meters square.

Species A,B and D had higher frequency and density than E and C.
Abiotic factors are important in determining the types and numbers of organisms that exist in a
given environment that influence the distribution and behavior of living organisms.
It can be said that spices A, B ,D and E adapted to the environment that they are in, whilst
species C are barely adjusting. It means that the climatic and edaphic factors are not
corresponding with species C, Specie C is barely surviving in the habitat that it is in now.
Maybe it’s not getting the nutrients it needs or maybe it has to do with the type of climate it’s
living in so there isn’t a lot in that habitat.

Limitations:
- It was hard to figure out the different abiotic factors that affected each organism.

Conclusion: The species frequency and density of different plants in their habitats can be
calculated using a Quadrat.

Reflection: Doing this experiment has helped me to understand how to properly calculate the
frequency and density of things. I’ll use this knowledge across other subject areas like
mathematics and physics.
Title: Food Chains/Web

Aim : To construct a food chain and web from organisms found in habitats at my home.

App/MAT: Habitat,pencil,book

Method:

1) Three habitats in home environment was visited

2) Ten organisms in the habitats, food eating or behavior were observed and recorded.

3) Another table was created with a list of organisms that are producers, herbivores,

carnivores and omnivores.

4) The information gathered was used to construct one food chain and food web.

Observation;

TABLE 1 SHOWING THE ORGANISMS FOUND WITHIN EACH HABITAT AND

HOW THE BEHAVE.

Organisms Habitat Food eating/ Behavior

Hibiscus Open Grasslands Bending in the wind

Owl Tree Sitting on the tree in the night

Cow Farm Eating Grass

Hummingbird Farm Flying around the yam field

Grass Open Grassland Bending in the wind

Spider Tree On a web that it created in the

tree
Caterpillar Tree Crawling on a Leaf that was

on the tree

Lizard Tree Climbing the tree

Grasshopper Open Grasslands Moving around when I got

close.

Centipede Tree Under the tree bark with other

insects

TABLE 2 SHOWING THE CATEGORIZATION OF EACH ORGANISM

Producer Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore

Grass Grasshopper Lizard Owl

Hibiscus Caterpillar Spider Hummingbird

Cow Centipede

Food Chain

Hibiscus ➡️ Caterpillar➡️Lizard➡️ Hummingbird ➡️Owl

Discussion: A food chain is formed based on how the organisms in an ecosystem obtain their
organic food. A food chain consists of; Primary producer (plant), primary consumers, secondary
consumers, tertiary consumers and some food chains may also have quaternary consumers. The
consumers are classified based on what they consume; Herbivores consume plants, Carnivores
consume animals and Omnivores consume both plants and animals. Food chains are interrelated
to form food webs. A food web consists of more than one primary producer and most consumers
have more than one source of food. Animals that feed on pieces of decomposing organic matter,
breaking them down into smaller fragments are called detritivores. Whilst the micro- organisms
which feed saprophytically on dead and waste organic matter causing it to decompose are called
decomposers. They secrete digestive enzymes that break down complex organic compounds into
simple organic compounds which they absorb, during this process they release carbon dioxide
and inorganic minerals nutrients in the form of ions, example; nitrates and sulfates into the
environment. These can then be reabsorbed and reused by plants.

Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species
benefits. Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit. Communalism is a
symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the other species is not affected.
Whilst in parasitism, one organism the parasite gives benefit and the other organism in the host is
harmed. One such act of communalism is when the cows graze in the grasslands and the insects
try to disturb them while they’re feeding, the cows egrets eat the disturbed insects and they
benefit from this action but the cow is not affected by this.

Not all the energy Incorporated in organic food molecules made by green plants (as in the
grass) during photosynthesis is passed along a food chain, some is used and some is lost at each
trophic level. So some of the food produced by plants is used by the plants in respiration, this
releases energy that the plants use in life process the rest of the food is used by the plants for
growth or is stored. When plants are eaten by herbivores, a cow or grasshopper some of the
organic matter that contains energy is lost in faces and some is lost in organic excretory products
(example urea). Some is used in respiration during which the energy stored energy is released
and used in life processes or is lost as eat the remaining food that contains energy is used to
build body tissues or is stored and is then passed on to the next trophic level when the herbivores
are consumed by a carnivore like a lizard ,spider and centipedes.
This then continues at each trophic level in a food chain so when it goes up to the tertiary
consumer is also a carnivore in this case the hummingbird the cycle of energy transfer continues.
In general only about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next level so
after the hummingbird is consumed by an owl (quaternary consumer) the energy decreases.
These dead organisms and the organic matter in the feces and excretory products are
decomposed by decomposers, which release the energy during respiration .Energy therefore
flows from producers to consumers and decomposers in one direction and is not recycled.
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio
productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. Because there is less energy and biomass
at each trophic level in a food chain, fewer organisms can be supported at each level. Energy,
biomass and number of at successive levels can be represented by ecological pyramids. Due to
the loss of energy and biomass at each level, food chains rarely exceed four or five trophic level.

Conclusion: Organisms found in the Habitats at home can be used to construct a food chain and
a food web.

Limitations: It was hard to find certain organisms in their habitats due to the downpour of rain
in the environment.

Reflection: This experiment will help me to properly categorize different organisms found in
the Habitats in my environments into the correct statues ( primary producer producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumer and quaternary consumers). I also learnt
how to identify if the organism is a herbivore, carnivores, omnivores and how to properly
construct a food chain and food web.
Date: February 6, 2021
Title: Diffusion
Aim: To demonstrate diffusion in a liquid
Apparatus/materials: glasses, water, spoon, Grape Kool aid and spoon
Method:
1. Half of the glass was filled with water.
2. A spoon was used to add Kool aid into the glass of water.
3. The glass was left undisturbed for 20 minutes.
4. Observations and results were recorded and diagrams were drawn to show the experiment at
the beginning and at the end.
Observation:
Discussion:
Diffusion is the process by which molecules or particles move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration across a concentration gradient due to the random
molecular motion and collision between the particles. This process has led to new discoveries
every day for biologists, finding out to which extent diffusion can go and it’s limitations, seen as
it’s in us and all around us. This experiment could not have been carried out using a thick
membrane, so using the water was the prime aspect. The particles were able to move in liquids
and gasses because their particles move randomly from place to place.
Concentration is not the only factor that affects the rate of diffusion. When the
temperature of a liquid or gas is raised, molecules move faster and rebound farther after
collisions. An increase in the temperature of a substance causes an increase in the rate of
diffusion. The molecules of a substance under high pressure are squeezed more closely together
than those under low pressure. Nonetheless, under a high pressure a particle has less empty space
through which it can move before a collision sends it in a new direction. While particles under
low pressure diffuse slowly because there is a less chance of collision.
During the experiment the Grape Kool aid particles moved from where it settled in the
water which is where it was highly concentrated. After being left undisturbed for twenty minutes
the particles started to collide, spreading further away from each other changing the color of the
water to purple as it dispersed or diffused throughout the water reaching a level where it was
lowly concentrated.
Limitation/Source of Error/Precaution:
Limitation – Not enough time for the particles to properly diffuse.
Source of Error – Bad time management
Precaution – Research the accurate timing that the potassium permanganate crystals take to
diffuse.
Conclusion: Kool aid can be used to properly demonstrate how diffusion occurs in liquids.
Reflection: The experiment was an eye opener for me, I learnt a lot from it especially when I
went ahead and also got additional information. Learning about how diffusion works I can cross
relate it to other subjects and real life. Like where diffusion occurs in our body and other places.
Examples;
- Glucose and amino acids are the substances that are diffused in the small intestine, from
the small intestine throughout the capillary walls into the blood.
- Carbon dioxide is one of the substances that is diffused in the lungs, from the blood
through the alveoli walls into the exhalation.
Title: Osmosis
Date: February 6, 2021
Aim: To observe osmosis using potato strips in pure water and salt solution.
Apparatus/Materials: An Irish potato, dishes, hypertonic solution ( salt water) hypotonic
solution (water), knife, ruler, paper and pen.
Method:
1. An Irish potato was peeled and cut into thin strips.
2. A ruler was used to measure the length and width of the potato strips and the
measurements were recorded.
3. Two potato strips were added to each prepared solution.
4. Both dishes were left undisturbed for 30 minutes.
5. The potato strips were removed after 30 minutes, and the new lengths and widths of
potato strips were measured.
6. The results were recorded and placed in a suitable table.
Results:
Title: TABLE SHOWING HOW EACH POTATO STRIP CHANGED WHEN PLACED IN
EACH SOLUTION.
Solution Initial Length Final Length and Appearance of Strips
and width width
(cm) (cm)

Hypotonic
4x1 4.4 x 1.3 Turgid

Hypertonic
4x1 3.6 x 1 Flaccid

Discussion:
Osmosis is the process by which Water molecules move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis is also the
movement of dissolved materials throughout the cell membrane. The solutions that were used in
this experiment were a hypotonic solution and a hypertonic solution.
Hypotonic solution is when an extracellular solution has less concentration of solute than that
inside the cell, when a cell is placed in this solution, the movement of water occurs into the cell
resulting in endosmosis. ( The cell in this solution will swell and might even burst). Hypertonic
solution is when an extracellular solution has more concentration of solute than that inside the
cell, when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the movement of water occurs outside of the
cell resulting in exosmosis. ( The cell shrinks down, losing the ability to divide and even
function).
The potato strips that were placed in each solution changed. Due to osmotic pressure,
water diffuses into the cell, and the cell becomes turgid when it’s placed in a hypotonic solution.
In the pure water the contents of the cell, cytoplasm and vacuoles push against the cell wall,
causing the cell to become swollen. In the hypertonic solution the potato strip water leaves the
cell by osmosis. The cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall and makes the cell become flaccid.

Limitation/Source of Error/Precaution:
Limitation - It was hard to collect the apparatus due to the limited amount of time.
Source of error - Wrong Calculations.
Precautions – Make sure to double check each measurement.
- Have better time management.

Conclusion: By using plant tissue, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions, osmosis was clearly
demonstrated by this experiment. Osmosis occurred in both solutions causing each potato strip to
change their initial size.

Reflection: Based on the osmosis experiment, I learnt not just how potato strips but how cells
overall would react in each solution they were placed in. I will apply this knowledge when I’m
doing circumposing and potting. Because osmosis basically assists plants in getting water. In
Circumposing you have to be able to properly circompse a plant and when it’s time to pot it, I
have to have an understanding of how my plant will live, I have to know which solution it can
strive in or die in. And when I pot it, I should be knowledgeable enough to know how my plant
will have access to water and dissolved materials.
Title: Soil
Aim: To compare the water holding capacity of two (2) different soil types
Apparatus/Materials: sandy soil, loamy soil, funnel, measuring cylinder, filter paper, water,
beaker, Triple Beam balance
Method:
1. All apparatus were gathered
2. The filter paper was folded in the ratio 3:1 and placed in the filter funnel.
3. The filter funnel was placed at the mouth of each measuring cylinder.
4. 20g of soil sample was then added into the funnel over the cylinder marked sample A
then 20g of soil sample into the other funnel over the cylinder marked sample B.
5. 50ml of water was measured and added onto each soil sample and left to water to drain.
6. The amount of water drained from the soil was read and recorded.
7. The amount of water retained by each soil sample was calculated.
8. All results were recorded in a suitable table.
Results:
Title: TABLE SHOWING WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY OF TWO DIFFERENT SOIL
SAMPLES

Discussion:
Soil is the part of the earth's surface, which includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and
organic materials. Water holding capacity is the amount of water that a given soil can hold for
crop use. Field capacity is the point where the soil water holding capacity has reached its
maximum for the entire field. Soil texture and organic matter are the key components that
determine soil water holding capacity. Soil that can hold more water requires less water from
rainfall or irrigation. In times of drought, the soil with higher water-holding capacity is important
for farmers.
Clay soil is a heavy soil type that benefits from high nutrient content. It remains wet and
cold in winter and dry out in summer. The particles are packed closely which leaves little to no
airspace. Additionally, It has very good water storage capacity ;Thus, making it hard for moisture
and air to penetrate it. Sandy soil is light, warm, dry and tends to be acidic and low in nutrients
and has poor water holding [Link], it is one of the poorest types of soil for growing
plants. Loam soil is a combination of sand, silt and clay. Therefore, beneficial properties from
each are included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and also has humus; Hence, it
is more suitable for farming.
The results in the table above shows that Sample A drained more water because the water
that was retained is 6Ml. The reason for this is that this soil has the largest particle size and feels
gritty to touch. Moreover, its particles do not bind very well and easily warms up in the spring
because it has more pore spaces that fill with air. Therefore, it can be said that sample A is
‘Sandy soil’. The results also show that Sample B drained less water because the water that was
retained was 8ML. Hence, it retained more water because of its smaller size particles. The small
particles tend to have a much larger surface area than larger soil particles. This large surface area
allows the soil to hold a greater quantity of water. Due to this , Sample B is Loamy soil.
Furthermore, The amount of organic matter in a soil also influences the water holding capacity.

Limitations: Due to the Covid-19 pandemic I had to use a video to understand the experiment.
(Link to the video : [Link]
Conclusion: It can be concluded that water holding capacity can be compared using different
soil samples.
Reflection: I learned more about water holding capacity, how it works and its importance to
farmers. With my father being a farmer I can now share my knowledge with him to help
optimize crop production and conduct more experiments similar to this one. With the knowledge
I acquired from this experiment I am able to decide which area to plant specific plants like;
Lettuce which grows best in loose, cool soil with good drainage or Carrots, in which the
optimum soil for carrots is loose, free of debris and clods, and either loamy or sandy.
Title: Photosynthesis
Names: Shanoya McLeod, Sharona Waugh, Najzwua Clare, and Yulanda Williamson
Date: March 18, 2021
Aim: To test if starch is present in the leaf with the use of iodine
Apparatus/Materials: Test tube,Water,leaf,spirit lamp,alcohol,iodine solution,petri dish,Tripod
stand,beaker,Matches,Forceps,syringe
Method:
[Link] the apparatus/materials were gathered.
[Link] milliliters of water was placed in a beaker.
3.A green leaf was removed from a plant that was exposed to the sunlight.
[Link] beaker was placed on the tripod stand.
[Link] leaf was then placed in the test tube containing alcohol.
[Link] test tube containing the leaf and the alcohol was placed in a beaker with boiling water for
4 minutes.
[Link] leaf was then placed in a petri dish and the iodine solution was poured over it.
[Link] observations were recorded.
Results:
Title: TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENT CHANGES THAT OCCURRED IN THE
DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS

Discussion:
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose by using sunlight energy absorbed by chlorophyll in chloroplasts. Plants store their
food in the form of starch therefore we test for starch and not glucose.
First, the leaf must be placed in boiling water because this procedure kills a leaf, disrupts the
cell membranes, and softens the cuticle and cell walls. This makes it possible to extract the
chlorophyll with hot alcohol and also allows the iodine solution to penetrate the cells and react
with any starch present. Secondly, it must be placed in alcohol and then boiled. The boiling
alcohol dissolves the chlorophyll and removes the green color from the leaf, the alcohol that was
once colorless became green as the green pigment of the leaf dissolved in it, which then causes
the leaf to turn white so it is easy to see the change in color. All of this was done in order for the
leaf to be placed in the iodine solution. Iodine is an indicator that turns blue, dark green, or black
in the presence of starch. The leaf that was in the light turns dark green, which demonstrates that
the leaf has been performing photosynthesis and producing starch.
Limitation: The apparatus/ materials were carefully used while conducting this experiment to
avoid the spilling of liquids and breaking of glass.
Conclusion: By using boiling water, alcohol, and iodine solution, the presence of starch in a leaf
can be tested.
Reflection: After doing this experiment, we learned a lot. We can now use the knowledge gained
to assist us with other subjects like chemistry. We realized the importance of testing for starch, it
proves that photosynthesis has occurred. We do these experiments to test if photosynthesis has
occurred because photosynthesis helps control the makeup of our atmosphere. Getting to
understand photosynthesis is crucial to understanding how carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse
gasses" affect the global climate. We plan to carry out more experiments similar to this one to
help us uncover and understand the different ways in which we can prove if plants around us are
undergoing this amazing process.
Title: Photosynthesis
Lab#:9
Names: Shanoya McLeod, Sharona Waugh, Najzwua Clare, and Yulanda Williamson
Date: March 22, 2021
Aim: To demonstrate that light is essential for photosynthesis.
Material: Potted plants(white leafed), Water, a large test tube, Ethanol, aqueous iodine
solution,petri dish, forceps, a piece of black paper, scissors, sticky tape, cotton, hotplate, beaker,
and paper clips.
Method:
Method:
[Link] the apparatus/material were gathered.
[Link] potted plant was left in the dark for two days to be destarched. [Link] two days the potted
plant was removed from the dark.
4.A black paper was cut and secured with a piece of tape. The black paper was then placed on
one of the leaves from the potted plant leaving some uncovered parts and secured using some
paper clips.
[Link] potted plant was left in sunlight for eight hours then the leaf that was covered with the
black paper was taken from the plant.
[Link] black paper was removed from the leaf and the leaf was placed in the test tube containing
ethanol solution and covered using a cotton.
7. The test tube was then placed in a beaker of boiling water that was on a hot plate for 15
minutes.
[Link] 15 minutes, a pair of forceps was used to remove the leaf from the test tube, which was
then placed in the beaker of hot water for five seconds.
[Link] leaf was then transferred to a petri-dish containing iodine solution.
[Link] observations were recorded.
Results:

DRAWING SHOWING AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EXPERIMENT

At the beginning of the experiment, all parts of the leaf were green.
After

DRAWING SHOWING THE LEAF AT THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT

At the end of the experiment, the parts of the leaf that were not covered with the black paper had
a blueish-black color and the parts of the leaf that were covered had a yellowish-brown color.

Discussion: Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants convert carbon dioxide and
water into glucose using sunlight which is absorbed by the chlorophyll that can be found in the
chloroplast. For photosynthesis to occur in green plants the factors required are Sunlight,
Chlorophyll, and Carbon dioxide. There are different processes that are carried out to make sure
that Photosynthesis is done properly. De-starching is a process in which the starch present in the
leaves will be eliminated by keeping the plant in a dark room for about 48 hours. This step was
done to ensure that previously manufactured food in the leaves got consumed when the plant was
kept in a dark place since photosynthesis didn’t occur at that time.
Next, a strip of black paper was arranged on a portion of the selected leaf of the
destarched plant with the help of clips. Now the whole plant was kept in bright sunlight for about
3-4 hours. The strip of black paper was removed from the experimental leaf in order to carry out
a starch test or iodine test for the experimental leaf. After this is done the leaf undergoes the
boiling process, the chlorophyll pigments in the leaf are decolorized by the hot alcohol solution
resulting in a bleached, brittle leaf with pale white color. This step is necessary for a better
visualization of the iodine starches reaction on the leaf surface.
Iodine is a purple-colored reagent used to test the presence or absence of starch in the leaf
conducted for the photosynthesis process. The iodine test must be conducted on the experimental
leaf. The leaf where the black paper was covered turned into brown color and the part of the leaf
which was not covered with black paper turned into blue-ish-black color. This happened because
the black paper didn't allow the entry of sunlight into the leaf cells. Because the leaf could not
photosynthesize hence there was no present of starch that is why there wasn't any blueish-black
part in that area. In the absence of light, the leaf could not photosynthesis hence the negative
starch test. This result clearly indicates starch was formed in the leaf where sunlight was
available and starch wasn’t formed where the leaf didn’t get the sunlight as it is covered by black
paper.

Limitation/Precaution:
[Link] had to watch a youtube video because of the Covid-19 protocols.
[Link]
2.A potted plant that was exposed to sunlight was used to carry out this experiment

Conclusion: Only the area that was exposed to sunlight (not covered with the black paper) had
starch, this was confirmed when that area had a blackish-blue color, the area that was covered
with the black paper had a yellowish-brown color which indicates that no starch was present.
This, therefore, concludes that light is essential for photosynthesis.

Reflection: After doing this experiment, we learned a lot. The most valuable lesson we learned
throughout conducting this experiment is that light is essential in the process of photosynthesis.
With this “newfound” knowledge of photosynthesis, we can co-relate it to the other science
subjects and even in real scenarios that we come across daily. For example, green plants and
trees use photosynthesis to make food from sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water in the
atmosphere. We plan to carry out more experiments similar to this one to help us uncover and
understand the different ways in which we can prove if plants around us are undergoing this
amazing process.
Title: Photosynthesis
Lab#: 10
Names: Shanoya McLeod, Sharona Waugh, Najzwua Clare, and Yulanda Williamson
Date: March 22, 2021
Aim: To investigate the role of chlorophyll in the Photosynthesis process.
Material: A potted plant with variegated leaves, water bath, test tube, ethanol, Aqueous iodine
solution, hot plate, petri-dish, and forceps

Method:
1. All the apparatus/material were gathered.
2. The potted plant was placed in the dark for three days
3. The potted plant was removed from the dark and then placed in sunlight for a few hours.
4. A leaf was plucked from the plant and placed in a test tube that contained ethanol.
5. The boiling water bath was set up using a hot plate.
6. The test tube was placed in the boiling water bath for three minutes.
7. The test tube was removed from the boiling water bath and forceps was used to remove the
leaf from the test tube.
8. The leaf was briefly placed in the hot water bath.
9. The leaf was transferred to a petri-dish which contained iodine solution and left for one
minute.
10. The results and observations were recorded.

Observation/Results:
Title: TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENT STATES THE LEAF WAS IN THE DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS
Conditions States
Before Shamrock Green and Celery green on the
edges
Alcohol and boiling water bath Chlorophyll pigments in the leaf are
decolourized by the hot alcohol resulting in a
bleached leaf with pale white color. As a
result, the alcohol became green as the green
pigment left the leaf.
Boiling water bath The cuticle and cell walls of the leaf became
soft.
Aqueous iodine solution The part of the leaf that originally contained
the shamrock green spots now has a
blue-blackish color and the edges that were
once celery green have a brownish iodine
color.
Discussion:
Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose using sunlight which is absorbed by the chlorophyll that can be found in the chloroplast.
For photosynthesis to occur in green plants the factors required are Sunlight, Chlorophyll, and
Carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis takes place in cellular organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplast
contains abundant Chlorophyll pigments. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, the light stage and
the dark stage which both occur in the chloroplast. Chlorophyll's job in a plant is to absorb light,
usually sunlight and it is the primary pigment used in photosynthesis, to test this theory an
experiment must be done.
A variegated leaf is a leaf that contains irregular patches of different colors in addition to
green. The leaf must be left in dark in order to get rid of the plant of any starch that was formed
in the leaves prior to the start of the experiment. Then the plant must be then again introduced to
sunlight. A single leaf plucked from this plant must then undergo different conditions. being
placed in alcohol then boiling water bathes because during this process chlorophyll pigments in
the leaf are decolourized by the hot alcohol resulting in a bleached leaf with pale white color.
This step is necessary for a better visualization of the iodine to react on the leaf surface. In
order to soften the cuticle and cell walls of the leaf, it must be briefly placed in boiling water. All
of this was done in order for the leaf to be placed in the iodine solution. This must be left for a
couple of minutes to see the changes. The part of the leaf that originally contained the green
spots tested positive for iodine by becoming blue-blackish in color. Nonetheless, the variegated
spots on the leaf do not show any significant changes in color except for having a faint brown
iodine color. This is a negative test for starch and therefore photosynthesis.

Limitation: We had to watch a youtube video because of the Covid-19 protocols.

[Link]
Precaution: Make sure the plant has variegated leaves.
Conclusion: This experiment clearly demonstrates that chlorophyll is an absolute essential for
photosynthesis to take place in a plant

Reflection: After this experiment, we learned a lot. We can now use the knowledge gained to assist us
with other subjects and other topics relating to photosynthesis. We realized the importance of chlorophyll
to the photosynthesis process. The role of chlorophyll in the photosynthesis process is vital. Chlorophyll,
which resides in the chloroplasts of plants, is the green pigment that is necessary in order for plants to
convert carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight, into oxygen and glucose. Acquiring this knowledge is
crucial in understanding how the plants around us work. As students who love the thrill of learning how
things around us work we plan to carry out more experiments similar to this one to help us uncover and
understand the different ways in which we can prove if plants around us are undergoing this amazing
process or any other theories surrounding the Kingdom of Plantae.
Observation/ Problem: Gabby notices that there are more earthworms in areas of the garden
with shade and moisture than other areas.
Hypothesis: Earthworms prefer a more moisture environment.
Aim: To investigate if earthworms prefer a moisture environment.
Materials and Apparatus: 50 lbs Dry Loamy Soil, 5 cm3 water, 1 large container, 40
earthworms, paper, pen, scissors, ruler, beaker, scale and clear tape.
Method:
1. Gather apparatus.
2. Cut a paper into two and label A and B.
3. Secure each paper to the sides of the container using clear tape.
4. Use a scale to measure 50 lbs of loamy and spare out at the bottom of the container
evenly using your hands.
5. Measure 5 cm3 of water and damp half of the soil in the container and label it A.
6. Place 20 earthworms on one half of the container that is damped and another 20 on the
dry side.
7. Leave container for 24 hours
8. Take out earthworms and observe their physical characteristics such as length, texture of
body, color of skin and amount of earthworms found on each side.
9. Make a table showing comparison.
Controlled Variable:
Same soil type, same amount of loam soil and even amount of earthworms.
Expected Results:
Earthworms breathe through their skin; soil must be kept moist in order to work. Dry skin stops
the diffusion process, effectively preventing earthworms from getting oxygen. Damp soil allows
the worms to live below ground and receive the air they need to survive, therefore earthworms
found on the moist side of the container after the experiment should be more in number than the
side that will be dry.
TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON BETWEEN EARTHWORMS IN THE CONTAINER

Characteristics of earthworms Moist area labeled A Dry are labeled B

Length:

Color:

Amount:

Skin Texture:

Limitation:
Loamy soil may not have the enough nutrients to keep all the earthworms alive so be sure to
provide food throughout the experiment.
Observation/ Problems: Why do people wrap fruits in newspaper and put it into a cardboard
box to speed up the ripening process?
Hypothesis: The newspaper and cardboard box is used to trap heat by trapping the ethylene gas
in place.
Aim: To investigate if nessberries ripe faster in newspapers and cardboard boxes than in open
temperature.
Materials and Apparatus: 2 cardboard boxes, one sheet of newspaper, scissors, paper tape,
marker and eight nessberries.
Method:
1. Gather all apparatus
2. Use paper tape and marker to label one box A and the other B.
3. Use scissors to cut the sheet of newspaper in half.
4. Wrap four of the nessberries with each piece of the newspaper.
5. Place all four (two wrapped and two not wrapped) nessberries in the cardboard box
labeled A and B.
6. Close and leave cardboard boxes for four days.
7. Reopen the cardboard box A then unwrapped the wrapped nessberries.
8. Record results and observations such as color, texture, smell and make comparisons of
nessberries in box A and B.
Controlled Variable: The duration of the experiment temperature will falcate but there should
be no interruptions before the four days are completed.
Expected Results:
Ripening fruit gives off ethylene gas, and putting the fruit in newspaper traps the gas near the
fruit, causing it to ripen faster, therefore wrapped nessberries from box A should ripe before
nessberries in box B. Ethylene is a gas and is known as the “fruit-ripening hormone.”
TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON BETWEEN NESSBERRIES FROM BOX A AND B
Nessberries Texture Smell Color Taste
Wrapped nessberries
from box A
Not wrapped
nessberries from box
B

Limitation:
In some fruits, ethylene levels shoot up when the fruit starts ripening so the unwrapped
nessberries could have started to ripe before being placed in the box and therefore ripe faster than
the wrapped nessberries.
Name: Yulanda Williamson and Ishmeal Smythe
Observation/ Problems: Yulanda observed that the lettuce on her farm grows faster and larger
with natural manure than artificial fertilizer.
Hypothesis: Natural Fertilizers enhance soil nutrients and allow plants to grow faster.
Aim: To investigate the efficiency of Organic Fertilizers on plant growth.
Materials and Apparatus: 3 germination trays, 75 lettuce seedlings, 14 lb of cow manure, 15 lb
of Blood meal fertilizer (Artificial fertilizer), scale, 90 lb of sandy soil beaker and 15 cm 3 of
water.
1. Use a scale to measure 90 lbs of sandy soil equally into 30 lbs.
2. Evenly mix the first 30lbs with natural manure, the second with artificial manure and
leave the third the same.
3. Use a beaker to measure and add 5 cm3 of water to each mixture of soil (don’t not wet
the soil and damp it).
4. Label germination trays A, B and C.
5. Add natural manure soil to germination, try labeled A, artificial manure soil to try B and
soil with no added nutrients to try labeled C.
6. Add 25 seedlings to each try.
7. Leave and observe germination for the next 6 weeks.
8. Record size, pigmentation and height of lettuce for the first 3 weeks and again after the6
weeks is up.
Controlled Variable: Type of Soil, both of the soil in the germination tray will be moist sandy
soil which is well-drained.
Expected Results:
Organic fertilizers are made from animal or plant sources, like manure, cottonseed meal, feather
meal and crab meal. Soil microbes break down organic fertilizers to allow plants to easily access
them. With a low salt content, these products also encourage beneficial organisms that grow in
the soil. Organic fertilizers increase a growth in nutrients in soils, a growth in nutrients means the
soil will produce a faster and larger production of plants (lettuce) than the soil with artificial
fertilizer, therefore germination try labeled A will have lettuce that will produced faster and
larger than ones in artificial manure in try B and try labeled C.
Pictures portraying Lettuce from Organic Fertilizers, Artificial fertilizers and no added nutrients
soil, compare observation and characteristics.
1. Observation:
Lettuce in Organic fertilizer

2. Observation:
Lettuce in Artificial fertilizer

3. Observation:
Lettuce in soil with no added nutrients

Limitation:
Soil in germination tray labeled C where there were no added nutrients could have high hums
and organic matter from previous decomposed organisms which in return cause this set of lettuce
to grow to the same size or even larger than the set that was fertilized and grow larger.
Title Nutrition
Dates: May 24-25, 2021

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OF FOOD TESTS.

AIM APP/MAT METHOD OBSERVATION CONCLUSION

[Link] test for starch Fruit juice, egg [Link], all the The sample If iodine is mixed
whites, starch, apparatus was containing starch with a content
cooking oil and gathered. turned dark blue containing starch
water, five test tubes, [Link] sample was whilst the others it will turn a
iodine and a syringe. then placed in a took on the natural bluish black
test tube. orange color of the color.
[Link] a syringe iodine solution.
was used to drop
drops of iodine
solution in each
sample.
[Link] and
results were then
recorded.

2. To test for Fruit juice, egg [Link] apparatus Each sample Egg whites
Proteins whites, starch, were gathered. colour changed contain proteins.
cooking oil and [Link] sample was due to the bio red
water, five test tubes, then placed in a solution being
bio red solution and test tube. added to them but
syringe the one containing
[Link] a syringe protein turned a
was used to add the violet colour.
bio red solution to
each sample.
[Link] solutions
were left for a
minute to let the
reaction take place

[Link] and
results were then
recorded.
3. To test for Fruit juice, egg [Link] apparatus Each solution Fats or Emulsion
Fats/Emulsion whites, starch, were gathered. changed but a is present in oil.
cooking oil and 2.2cm3 of ethanol white cloudiness
water, ethanol, two was measured. formed in the oil.
measuring cylinder, [Link] was then
five test tubes poured into each
test tube containing
each sample.
[Link] tube was
shaken vigorously.
5.2cm3 of water
was measured and
poured into each
test tube.
[Link] and
results were then
recorded.

4. To test for Apple, glass rod, [Link] apparatus After Benedict's Large amounts
Reducing Sugars beaker, knife, were gathered. solution was added of Reducing
distilled water, filter [Link] apple were the contents of the sugars are
paper, filter funnel, sliced into pieces test tube turned a present in
Benedict's solution, [Link] apple pieces shade of red which apples.
water bath, were then placed in almost looks
thermometer, test a beaker with brown.
tubes, test tube holder distilled water.
4. It was then
stirred with a glass
rod.
5.A filter paper
was folded and
inserted in a filter
funnel.
[Link] solution was
filtered into a test
tube which became
the sample.
7. 2cm3 of
Benedict's solution
was added to 2cm3
of the sample in a
test tube.
8. This was then
shaken gently
9. Heat a water
bath at 75 degrees
celsius
 10. The contents
were then added in
the boiling water
bath for 3 minutes.
11. All
observations and
results were then
recorded

5. To test for Peach, glass rod, [Link] apparatus After the Non- Reducing
Non-Reducing beaker, knife, were gathered. Benedict’s solution Sugars are
Sugars distilled water, filter 2.A peach was was added to the present in
paper, filter funnel, sliced into pieces sample it turned a peaches.
Benedict's solution, [Link] peach pieces reddish orange
water bath, were then placed in colour
thermometer, test a beaker with
tubes, test tube distilled water.
holder, dilute [Link] was then
hydrochloric acid, stirred with a glass
dilute sodium rod.
hydroxide, 5.A filter paper
was folded and
inserted in a filter
funnel.
[Link] solution was
filtered into a test
tube which became
the sample.
7.1cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid
was added to 1cm3
of the sample in a
test tube.
[Link] test tube was
then shaken gently.
[Link] a water bath
at 75 degrees
celsius
[Link] contents
were then added in
the boiling water
bath for 3 minutes.
11.1cm3 of dilute
sodium hydroxide
was added to the
sample followed
by the addition of
Benedict’s
solution.
 [Link] was again
shaken gently.
[Link] contents
were then added in
the boiling water
bath for 2 minutes.
[Link] observations
and results were
recorded.

6. To test for Grease Water, A piece of [Link] apparatus At first, both areas Fat is present in
Spot paper, oil were gathered. look wet and oils.
2.A paper was translucent but
folded in half after a while the
[Link] the right side water evaporates
a drop of water and the spot dries
was added . whereas the fat
[Link] the left side a spot remains
drop of oil was visible.
added.
[Link] observations
and results were
recorded
Title: Nutrition/Enzyme
Date: Thursday, 7 October 2021
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature on catalase activity
Apparatus/Materials: Cooked liver, raw liver, HYDROGEN Peroxide, test-tube, test tube
holder, wooden splint, measuring cylinder, petri dish, forcep, match stick

Method:
1. Two test tubes were labeled, one with A and the other with B.
2. A forcep was used to add cooked animal tissue (liver) to the labeled test tube A.
3. A measuring cylinder was used to measure and add 2cm3 of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) to the test tube, then the mouth of the test tube was covered immediately by
using the thumb, which prevented gas from escaping.
4. The thumb was removed and a glowing wooden splint was placed at the mouth of the test
tube.
5. Steps 1-4 were repeated using raw animal tissue (liver) in the test tube labeled B.
6. All observations were recorded in a table.

Results:
TABLE SHOWING THE OBSERVATION FOR BOTH RAW AND COOKED ANIMAL
TISSUES

Animal Tissues Observation Observation with Glowing Splint

Raw When the hydrogen peroxide was When the wooden splint was lit
added there was a lot of foaming and placed at the mouth of the test tube. It
or effervescences. The test-tube glowed again and a popping sound was
also began to feel warm. heard.

Cooked When the hydrogen peroxide was When the wooden splint was lit
added there was not a lot of and placed in the test tube. It did not
effervescence reglow.

Discussion: All organisms rely on enzymes to catalyze chemical reactions. An enzyme is a

biological catalyst that increases the rate of chemical reactions occurring in living organisms by
lowering the level of activation energy necessary to start the reaction. They do this without
being changed themselves. Without enzymes, many of the chemical reactions that occur within
living things would proceed too slowly to be useful. Enzymes speed up these reactions by
bringing the reactants into close proximity and facilitating their interaction. Enzymes are very
specific, each type of enzyme catalyse has only one type of reaction. Enzymes work best
At a particular temperature known as the optimum temperature. Each enzyme has an optimum
temperature. They do not work well in too high or too low temperatures. In high temperatures the
shape of the enzyme molecules changes so that they are inactivated. They become denatured. In
low temperatures the enzyme is dormant until the temperature increases which would increase
the enzyme activity. Enzymes work best at a particular pH known as the optimum pH. This is pH
7 for most enzymes. They also have preferences whether they work in acidity or alkalinity. But
extreme levels of these two will denature the enzymes.

Liver contains a specific enzyme called catalase. When hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is
added to the liver, a chemical reaction occurs which results in the products of oxygen gas (O2)
and liquid water (H2O). That is the reason for using the liver in this experiment. There was
reaction in the raw tissue (raw liver) whilst there was none in the cooked tissue (cooked liver).
The reason for this is because during the process of cooking the liver the temperature became
too high for the enzyme to withstand and easily become denatured, losing its shape, which made
the substrate no longer fit. Thus, the enzyme activity in the liver rapidly decreased. Hence the
lack of a reaction in the cooked tissue. There was no way for the breakdown of the hydrogen
peroxide to occur with such enzymes. Whilst in the raw tissue the enzyme catalase was breaking
down the hydrogen peroxide. This could be seen during the experiment as a lot of foaming and
effervescence occurred. This is because hydrogen peroxide was being broken down into oxygen
and water in the raw liver and in a result of that reaction the effervescence appears when the
oxygen gas bubbles escape. But the test tube in which the cooked tissue (cooked liver) was in,
produced little effervescence. The process that occured in the raw liver did not occur within the
cooked liver because the cooked tissue had to endure high temperature leaving the catalase
enzyme denatured, so the amount of effervescence decreased.

It is further proven that the catalase enzyme broke down the hydrogen
peroxide when the splint reglowed after being placed over the mouth of the test-tube
that contained the raw tissue (raw liver), the splint reglowed because oxygen was present which
made the heat source more [Link] reason for this is because the enzymes in the raw liver
had already broken down the hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This did not happen
when a splint was placed over the mouth of the test tube which consisted of the cooked tissue
(cooked liver). Because the catalase enzyme that would have broken down the hydrogen
peroxide was already denatured, and could no longer fit into its substrate in order for the reaction
or process to be carried out.
Conclusion: Temperature does in fact affect catalase activity. For instance, the temperature
becomes too high then the catalysts enzyme will start to denature and will no longer be able to to
break down hydrogen peroxide.

Precaution: Vigilance had to be exerted when dealing with the matches and wooden splint to
prevent any form of accidents from occuring due to the use of fire.

Sources of Errors: - Incorrect measurements.

Reflection: This experiment has helped me alot. Having a visual representation of how enzymes
would react helped make me understand them better. I can also use the knowledge gained from
this experiment to help me in some aspects of chemistry.
Title: Variation
Date: Tuesday, 12 October 2021
Aim: To investigate variation in length of fifty-one leaves on a branch
Apparatus/Materials: : meter ruler, fifty-one mango leaves, pencil and rubber
Method:
1. A branch of mango leaves was acquired.
2. The leaves on the branch were removed, counted and the amount was recorded.
3. A ruler was used to measure the length of each of the leaves.
4. The information was then recorded.
5. Two tables were created using the information. One with the length of each leaf and
another with the tally of the leaf lengths.
6. This information was then used to create a histogram.

Results:
Table 1: TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF LEAVES AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS

Number of leaves Measurement of length (cm)

1 20
2 29.8
3 22
4 27.1
5 19.5
6 13.5
7 14.5
8 10.5
9 26.6
10 13.3
11 10.8
12 14.8
13 15.5
14 14.3
15 11.9
16 14.2
17 12.6
18 9.2
19 15
20 24.5
21 14.8
22 15.3
23 24
24 24.2
25 10.5
26 24.3
27 12.1
28 10.2
29 17.5
30 9.4
31 27
32 22
33 10.6
34 17.6
35 8
36 16.5
37 17
38 19.2
39 17.4
40 12.4
41 22
42 21.5
43 15,6
44 17.1
45 24.3
46 24
47 15
48 19
49 13.8
50 19.11
51 29.5

Range= 30cm – 8cm = 22 cm

Table 2: TABLE SHOWING LENGTH, TALLY AND FREQUENCY OF MANGO
LEAVES
Discussion: Variation refers to the differences that occur in the characteristics of organisms
which belong in the same species or same population. This is important to the species since
differences in adaptations will increase their chances of survival under different or changing
environmental conditions. Survival is much more important than survival of any single
[Link] variations are simple, like the colour of flowers, one’s eye colour of the length
of a leaf. Variation can be continuous or discontinuous. Continuous variations refer to the
gradations between two extremes that may be found while discontinuous variation is where
discrete are found with no stages in [Link] arises from a combination of genetic and
environmental [Link] variations are caused by mutations, the changes in the sequences
of genes in DNA. Another source is meiosis, every gamete produced by meiosis has a different
combination of genes as a result of chromosomes arrange themselves around the equators of the
spindles in totally random ways or chromatids of homologous chromosomes crossing over and
exchanging genes. Finally sexual reproduction, during the fertilisation stage the male and female
gametes fuse together in completely random ways to create different combinations of genes in
each zygote. Different factors in the environment often affect different living organisms. Foods,.
drugs, physical forces, temperatures and light can affect the animals. Temperature, light intensity,
availability of mineral salts and water all affect plants. This variation is not caused by genes and
cannot be passed onto offspring.

In this experiment, mango leaves were used to portray variations. By using the length of the
leaves the reason for variation could be concluded. This difference in length is based on the tree
species(discontinuous variation). Environmental factors have to be evaluated too, like which
leaves got enough sunlight due to the place in which it was planted(continuous variation).
The leaves on the mango branch ranged from 8cm to 30cm, there were 24 leaves ranging from
8cm to 15cm, 8 leaves ranging from 16cm to 19cm, 16 leaves ranging from 20cm to 27cm and 2
leaves ranging from 28cm to 30cm. This is a result of a change in the amount of chromosomes
in each mango leaf which resulted in a change of length in each leaf. The random separation of
homologous chromosomes during meiosis which gave different combination of chromosomes in
the gametes, made sure that during fertilization the male and female gametes produced a zygote
with different combinations of DNA as well as chromosomes in the leaves crossing over and
exchanging genes.

Precaution: Make sure to start measuring at 0 cm.

Sources of Errors: - Incorrect measurements.
Limitation: All of the leaves were different sizes so measuring took awhile.
Conclusion: . All the mango leaves differ based on the length0 proving that continuous variation
is present. Which can be affected by Genetic factors and Environmental factors.

Reflection: I learned a lot during this experiment. Understanding not only how the mango
leaves differ or vary but how everything is different, made in its own unique way. I am prepared
to use the knowledge gained in this experiment to complete further assignments regarding the
topic Variations and to assist me in other subject areas in which the term variation may arise.
Problem Statement: Peas Germinate at different times and rates.
Hypothesis: The rate of germination is affected by the amount of water the peas obtain.
Aim: To test if the rate of germination is affected by the water they are subjected to.
Apparatus: 2 beakers, 12 kidney peas, water, measuring cylinder, ruler, 2 napkins, marker, paper tape
Method:
1. Label each beaker A and B using the paper tape and markers
2. Fold one of the napkins into two equal parts.
3. Use the measuring cylinder to measure three cm3 of water and use it to damp the napkin.
4. Proceed to carefully add the damp napkin into the beaker labeled A
5. Repeat step two then add the dry napkin to the beaker labeled B
6. Place six kidney peas into each breaker.
7. Place both beakers side by side on a window sill to make sure both have access to the same
amount of light.
8. Observe changes in the peas such as swelling, bursting of the testa in each beaker and record all
observations with two days intervals.

Manipulated Variable: Consistency of light and Presence of water.

Expected results:

Day # Changes in Beaker A Changes in Beaker B

10

12

14

It is expected that the kidney peas in beaker A will start the germination process over a period of time
because they are subjected to water. With water present the enzymes in the peas should start to activate
and cause chemical reactions to occur. Whilst it is also expected that the peas in the beaker labeled B will
start to wilt because it is receiving the same amount of light as beaker A, but it does not have any water to
sustain it. Just like any living thing, especially humans, with the absence of water they become
dehydrated and eventually die.

Precaution: Make sure that the napkin in beaker B stays dry.

Source of Error: Insects like ants getting into the beakers.
Name: Yulanda Williamson
Date: November 18, 2021
Title: Growth
Aim: To measure the growth of a seedling over a two week period.
Apparatus: newspaper, 4 red peas, water
Method:
1. Four red peas were soaked in water.
2. The peas were put to germinate in moist newspaper.
3. The length of the shoot was observed and measured every other day
4. Step 3 was reaped for 2 weeks.
5. A table was constructed to show the measurements and a graph was plotted.

Observation:

Title: TABLE SHOWING THE LENGTH OF THE SHOOT AS IT GERMINATED

OVER A 2 WEEKS PERIOD.

Days Length of the shoot (cm)

1 1.5

2 3

4 6

6 10

8 13

10 18

12 26

14 34
Discussion: The increase in the size or mass of an organism is classified as Growth. During
photosynthesis, plants take the water from the soil, and the carbon dioxide from the air, and they
make sugars out of it if or when plants have the right balance of water, air, sunlight and
nutrients, their cells then grow and divide. This combination causes growth in plants. Cell
growth the size of the cell, cell division (mitosis) increases the number of cells. As plant cells
grow, they also become specialized into different cell types through cellular differentiation. Once
cells differentiate, they can no longer divide. Growth in plants occurs in two distinct phases; the
initial period of growth which occurs after fertilization and forms the embryo within the seed.
The seed may then remain dormant for a long period of time. And the growth which occurs from
the time the seed needs to germinate.
Yes, cell division is needed for the growth of living things because organisms grow as
their cells divide to produce more and more cells. Growth starts behind the root cap which is the
protector of the meristem, which is a type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells that
can continue to divide and differentiate . This is where cell division takes place through the
process of mitosis. These same cells then absorb water, elongate, and become bigger, after this
the cells then gain specific functions or roles known as cell differentiation. Cell differentiation is
the process of cells beginning their assigned specific functions like the xylem which transports
water and phloem transports food to the leaves and other parts of the plant . During the beginning
stage of the germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and this results in swelling and
softening of the seed coat at an optimum temperature. This stage is referred to as an Imbibition.
It starts the growth process by activation of enzymes. starts to respire and produce proteins and
metabolizes the stored food. By rupturing the seed coat, the radicle emerges to form a primary
root. The seed starts absorbing the water present.
After the emergence of the radicle and the plumule, shoot starts growing upwards. In the
final stage of seed germination, the cell of the seeds become metabolically active, elongate and
divide to give rise to the seedling. The method used to acquire the measurement in the
experiment was the length. The reason for using this method is because it is easy to measure,
quick measure and it doesn’t harm the plant. Although using this method has so many
advantages it also has limitations. The measurements are not accurate because only certain areas
of the can be measured, like the shoot of the peas. And even so it can only be measured in one
dimension and this measurement does not truly represent its growth.
The table and the graph created proves that growth happens over time and continues to
happen. This growth can even be measured by length. The measurement shows that the cells
have been elongating and dividing, the numbers on the table and curve on the graph represents
the consistent increase in length over the two week’s period which very much represents growth.
Conclusion: Based on the observations and results recorded, it can be said that the growth of a
seedling progresses as the days go by, with cells dividing and growing an organism also tends to
grow.

Sources of Errors: Insects might eat the peas before they have a chance to properly germinate.

Reflection: After doing this experiment, a lot of key terms such as Mitosis and Meristem were
made clear to me. I will carry out more experiments like this one to test my hypothesis about
how sustainable growth will be in different conditions. Learning about germination has helped
me to understand how to properly grow certain plants and under which conditions and
environments they will thrive.
 P&D - IMPLEMENTATION LAB - PART A
MEMBERS: SHANOYA MCLEOD, SHARONA WAUGH, ISHMEAL
SMYTHE & YULANDA WILLIAMSON.
Observation/ Problem: Mrs. Black observed that her food grows molds at a faster rate,
based on the temperature it is exposed to.
Hypothesis: The rate at which bread grows mold is based on the temperature it is
exposed to.
Aim: To investigate the temperature at which bread grows mold faster.
Materials/Apparatus: Two slices of stale white bread, two covered dishes, refrigerator,
thermometer, marker, paper tape, incubator
Methods:
1. Label two plastics covered dish A and B, using the marker and the paper tape.
2. Use a knife to cut two slices of fresh bread and place one slice in each container.
3. Then seal the containers carefully.
4. Use a thermometer to test the temperature of the refrigerator and incubator then
record both temperatures.
5. Place container A in the refrigerator and container B in the incubator.
6. Record the observations of mold growth every other day for two weeks.
7. Tabulate the observations and compare results.

Expected Results:

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS FOR CONTAINER A

Days Color/ Texture Temperature of Mold

Refrigerator in growth(yes/no)
degrees Celsius

10

12

14
 TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS FOR CONTAINER B
Days Color/ Texture Temperature of the Mold
incubator in growth(yes/no)
degrees Celsius.

10

12

14

It is expected that container B would grow molds at a faster rate than Contain A
because temperature plays a big role in mold forming on bread. Molds thrive in
temperatures above sixteen degrees Celsius (16⁰C), so as the temperature gets higher,
signs of mold should appear faster. Hence, the bread in container A should barely show
any sign of mold growth over the course of two weeks due to the low temperature whilst
the bread in container B in the incubator in which heat is present should show signs of
mold growth.

Controlled Variables: Temperature: The temperature in which each container is

exposed to. The temperature in the refrigerator remains below 16 degrees Celsius
whilst the temperature in the incubator is above 16 degrees Celsius.
Space: Where each sample will be placed. Container A in the refrigerator and container
B in the incubator.

Precaution: While recording the observations every other day make sure container A
isn’t exposed to room temperature for too long.

Limitation: A power outage could affect the observation of container A which is in the
refrigerator.

Source of Error: Container A could be exposed to room temperature for a long period
of time.
PART B:
Introduction:
In this experiment we will be investigating our Hypothesis that “The rate at which
bread grows mold is based on the temperature it is exposed to.” Molds are a large
number of fungal species in which the growth results in discoloration and a fuzzy
appearance, especially on food. Molds require certain conditions to grow, such as
temperatures higher than 16 degrees Celsius and moisture. With being a part of the
fungi kingdom, they do not require the presence of light.

Methods:
1. Two plastic cover dishes were labeled A and B, using the marker and the paper
tape.
2. A knife was used to cut two slices of fresh bread and one slice was placed in
each container.
3. Then seal the container carefully. Both containers were sealed carefully
4. A thermometer was used to test the temperature of the refrigerator and the
cupboard and the temperatures were recorded.
5. Container A was placed in the refrigerator whilst container B was placed in the
cupboard.
6. All the observations of mold growth and changes were recorded every other day
for two weeks.
7. All the observations were tabulated and the results were compared.

Observation/Results:
TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS FOR CONTAINER A

Days Colour/ Texture / Temperature of Mold

Smell Refrigerator in growth(yes/no)
degrees Celsius

2 No color change 12 No
was observed.

4 Became moist 12 No

6 Remains moist 13 No

8 Remains moist 13 No

10 No color change 13 No
 12 Has a very pungent 12
scent No

14 Very moist, has a 12 No

very pungent scent
and is soft

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS FOR CONTAINER B

Days Color/ Texture Temperature of the Mold
Incubator in growth(yes/no)
degrees Celsius.

2 No colour change 20 No

4 Lost moisture, no 20 No
colour change and
felt coarse.

6 Rough texture 20 No

8 Slight color change 20 No

10 Yellow- grey mold 20 Yes

found along the
corners and a very
strong smelly scent.

12 Yellow- grey with 20 Yes

specks of white

14 Rough, dry with 20 Yes

yellow- grey colors
with specks of
white
Figure 1: The bread used

Figure 2: The containers used

Figure 3: The bread being cut into slices

Figure 4: Slices placed in containers

Figure 5: Day four in incubator

Figure 6: Day four in the refrigerator

Figure 7: Day eight in the incubator

Figure 8: Day eight in the refrigerator

Figure 9: Day twelve in the incubator

Figure 10: Day twelve in the refrigerator

Figure 11 and 12: Day fourteen in the incubator

Figure 13: Day fourteen in the refrigerator

Discussion:

Mold is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae.
This means they are fungi that adopt a single-celled growth habitat called yeasts. These
molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungi species in which the
growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance especially on food.
They require certain conditions to grow such as temperatures higher than 16 degrees
Celsius. They tend to thrive in these high temperatures because the cold is unfavorable
for them. As it is a living organism, it will require moisture and oxygen to grow. Due to
being a part of the fungi family and not a plant, mold does not require light for its growth.
Molds cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted when food
spoilage or damage to property. Along with biodegradation, molds are also beneficial
when they aid to perform important roles in biotechnology and food science in the
production of various pigments, foods, beverages, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals and
even enzymes, olds can also cause diseases to occur in the body of animals and
humans due to an allergic reaction or sensitivity to mold spores, from growth of
pathogenic molds within the body, or from the effects of ingested (molds on foods like
bread) or inhaled toxic compounds called mycotoxins produced by molds.
In this experiment, the main focus was mold growth on foods, more specific
bread. Mold growth occurs on bread because spores land on it and begin to multiply.
This can grow very quickly and start a colony. The mold simply takes food and nutrients
from the bread and damages the bread surface. In order to test the hypothesis that
"The rate at which bread grows mold is based on the temperature it is exposed to," two
slices of bread were placed in places in which their temperatures varied, one being
under 16 degrees Celsius and the other being over 16 degrees Celsius. This
experiment was carried out over a period of two weeks in which a lot of observations
were seen. The container labeled A which was placed in the refrigerator with an initial
temperature of 12 degrees Celsius showed no signs of mold growth. This is due to the
fact that the cold temperature effectively killed any mold spores that were present. At
the starting of the experiment the moisture content gradually rose as well as the texture
slowly became softer and softer each day. After a while it also started to have a
sickly-sweet scent. Though the temperature of a refrigerator can never be constant
each time the temperature was taken it was either 12 or 13 degrees Celsius.
The second container labeled B which was placed in an incubator with a constant
temperature of 20 degrees Celsius showed signs of mold growth over the two weeks
period. This is because with a set temperature that is above 16 degrees Celsius the
spores were able to surface and multiply. At first there was no colour change but,
eventually the bread lost its moisture as the spore took it away along with its nutrients
and it started to feel rough. And a slight colour change occurred. By day 10 yellow grey
mold was seen around the edges and after that it gradually started to spread all over the
bread along with white specks.

Precaution: Make sure to check temperatures twice for accurate readings.

Limitation: Was not able to check for observations and temperatures on weekends.

Source of Error: One of the slices of bread was cut too thick

Conclusion: In conclusion, temperature does increase the rate of mold growth. Molds
grow at temperatures 16 degrees Celsius and higher.

Reflection:
Molds grow faster at a higher temperature compared to a lower temperature as proven in
the lab experiment above. This information is useful and can be implemented in everyday life by
bakers, chefs, or even in your own home. Yulanda bought two loaves of bread and notices she
only eats half of the bread by Wednesday and the other half started growing mold, with the
information acquired from the experiment she knows she should place the second loaf of bread
in the refrigerator for the upcoming week so it doesn't grow mold as fast compared to the first
loaf of bread that was left on the counter.