CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Current carriers
The charged particles whose flow in a particular direction, constitute electric current is called current carriers.
Following are the current carriers,
1. In solids---- free electrons,
2. In liquids--- positive and negative ions,
3. In semiconductors--- electrons and holes,
4. In insulators--- no charge carriers,
5. In gases--- electrons and positive ions.

Definition of electric current

It is defined as the flow of charges in a definite direction. It is measured as the charge flowing per unit time
through a given cross- section of the medium. I = ∆q/∆t
The instantaneous current is given by i = lim ∆𝑞/∆𝑡
∆𝑡→0
⇒ i = dq/dt.

** SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).

** It is a scalar quantity since it does not follow the triangle law of vector addition.

Definition of one ampere

If one coulomb of charge passes through a given cross- section of a conductor in one second then the current
in the conductor is one ampere. 1 A = 1 Cs-1.

** Direction of conventional current

-- from positive to negative.
– from higher potential to lower potential.
** Direction of electronic current
-- from negative to positive
-- from lower potential to higher potential.

Drift velocity
The average velocity with which the free electrons inside a conductor drift in a direction opposite to the
applied electric field is called drift velocity.

Expression for drift velocity

Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u1, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ be the initial velocities of the free electrons inside a conductor i.e. at time t =0. Let ⃗E be the
u2, … , un
applied electric field. Let t1, t2, … ,tn be the time taken between two successive collisions of free electrons
with ions or atoms. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗
v1, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
v2, … , vn
⃗⃗⃗⃗ be the velocities of free electrons after time t1, t2, … , tn respectively.
⃗.
Force on a free electron = -e. E
⃗ /m where m is the mass of an electron.
So acceleration of the free electron is 𝑎 = -e. E
We have ⃗⃗⃗⃗
v1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u1 + 𝑎.t1 ------ (1)

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
v2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
u2 + 𝑎.t2 ------ (2)
…………………………………….
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = un
vn ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑎.tn ------ (n)
Adding the equations from (1) to (n) we get
⃗⃗⃗⃗
v1+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
v2+ … + vn ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = u1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + u2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + … + un
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑎.(t1 + t2 + … + tn)
⇒ Σv ⃗ = Σ u ⃗ + 𝑎. Σt
Dividing both sides by n we have Σ v ⃗ /n = Σ u
⃗ /n + 𝑎. Σt/n
⃗ /n is the drift velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Here Σ v vd .
Due to random velocities of free electrons before applying electric field Σ u
⃗ /n = 0 and we have the average
relaxation time as τ = Σt/n
Thus we have ⃗⃗⃗⃗
vd = 0 + 𝑎.τ
⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . τ)/m
𝐯𝐝 = - (e. 𝐄

Mobility
Mobility of a charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity per unit applied electric field. It is denoted by μ.
μ = vd/E

** SI unit of mobility is m2s-1V-1

** The order of drift velocity in conductors is 10-4 ms-1.

Current density
Current density at a point inside a conductor is defined as the charge flowing per unit time per unit area taken
around the point when the area is held perpendicular to the flowing current.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
J = I/A. Current density is a vector quantity. In vector form it is written as I = ∫ 𝐣 . 𝐝𝐬
** SI unit is Am-2.

Resistance
It is defined as the property of a conductor due to which it offers a hindrance in the path of flowing current. It
is denoted by R.
R = V/I.
** SI unit is ohm ( Ω )

Resistivity/ Specific resistance

The resistivity of a substance is defined as the resistance of a cylinder of side 1m and cross sectional area 1 m2
when current flows parallel to its axis. It is denoted by ρ.
ρ = RA/l
** SI unit is ohm-meter ( Ω-m)

Factors affecting resistance of conductor

Following are the factors---
1. Length of the conductor → R ∝ l . 2. Area of cross section → R ∝ 1/A
3. Temperature → R ∝ T. 4. Nature of material → R ∝ ρ.

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Factors affecting resistivity
Following are the factors---
1. Free electron density → ρ ∝ 1/n.
[Link] relaxation time → ρ ∝ 1/τ
3. Temperature → ρ ∝ T.

Ohm’s law
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across the
conductor provided the other physical factors like temperature, pressure, strain etc. remain fixed. i.e. V∝ I ⇒
V = IR where R is the resistance of the conductor.

Expression for resistance and resistivity

We know that in a given conductor I = neAvd.
⇒ I = neA.(eEτ/m) { since vd = eEτ/m}
⇒ 2
I = ne AτE/m
If the potential difference be V across the length l the conductor then E = V/l
Thus we have I = ne2AτV/ml
𝑚𝑙
⇒ V=( ).I -----------(1)
𝑛.e2 .Aτ
since m,l, n ,e, A and τ are fixed at a given temperature so we can say that V ∝ I This is Ohm’s law.
From Ohm’s law we know that V=IR ------(2)
𝑚𝑙
Comparing (1) and (2) we get R = ---------- (3) This is the expression for resistance.
𝑛.e2 .Aτ
We further know that R = ρl/A
comparing this with (3) we have ρ = m/(ne2τ) This is the expression for resistivity.

Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors

1. Ohmic conductors--- Those conductors which follow Ohm,s law for a wide range of voltage and current are
called Ohmic conductors or Ohmic resistance, e.g. metals.
2. Non Ohmic conductors—Those conductors which do not follow Ohm’s law arre called non Ohmic
conductors. They may follow the law for a small range of voltage and currents, e.g. semiconductors,
electrolytes etc.
The current voltage variation is given below.

I I

O V O V

Ohmic conductors Non Ohmic conductors

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Limitations of Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is not valid in case the temperature keeps changing and in case of substances like semiconductors
and electrolytes. The deviations are one or more of the following type.

1.V ceases to be proportional to I. 2. The relation between V and I 3. The relation between V and I
to I depends on the sign of V is not unique

I I I

O V -V O +V O V

Variation of resistance with temperature

The resistance of different substances behave differently with the variation of temperature.
1. Metals—The resistance of metals vary with temperature according to the relation Rt = Ro( 1 + αt) where Rt is
the resistance at t degree celcius, Ro is resistance at 0 degree celcius and α is the temperature coefficient of
resistance.
2. Alloys--- The resistance of alloys increase very little with increase in temperature and vice-versa. The
variation is directly proportional. The relation is Rt = Ro( 1 + αt).The value of α is very small.
3. Semiconductors--- The resistance of semiconductors including carbon decrease with an increase in
temperature. The variation is not proportional.

R R R

O metals t O alloys t O semi conductor t

Alloys for standard resistance coils

The temperature co efficient of resistance for alloys are very small. So the increase in resistance of alloys is not
too much with increase in temperature. The resistance remains same for practical purposes. So alloys are used
for making standard resistance wires.

Internal resistance of a cell

Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolytes and electrodes of a cell
when electric current is flowing through it.
Internal resistance depends upon the following factors.
1. Distance between electrodes,
2. Nature of electrolyte,
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3. Nature of electrode,
4. Area of electrode immersed in electrolyte.

Electromotive force (EMF) of a cell

EMF is defined as the potential difference between the electrodes of a cell when it is not connected to any
external circuit. It is the work done by the electrolytes and electrodes to transfer one coulomb charge
between its electrodes.
EMF depends upon—
1. The nature of electrolyte,
2. The nature of electrode.
EMF does not depend upon--
1. Amount of electrolyte,
2. Area of electrode.

Terminal potential difference (TPD)

TPD of a cell is defined as the potential difference between the terminals of a cell when it is connected to an
external circuit.
If E be the emf, r be the internal resistance and i be the current in the circuit then TPD = E – ir
** When r = 0, TPD = EMF. Thus we have TPD ≤ EMF.

Lost potential difference

It is defined as the difference between EMF and TPD. Lost potential difference = EMF – TPD.

Differences between EMF and TPD

EMF TPD
[Link] is the potential difference between the electrodes [Link] is the potential difference between the electrodes
of a cell in open circuit. of a cell in closed circuit.
[Link] does not depend on the resistance of the circuit. 2. It depends on the resistance of the circuit.
3. It is the cause of current. 3. It is the effect of current.

Relation between current density and drift velocity

Let us consider a conductor of length l and area of uniform cross section A. A potential difference V has been
applied across the conductor. The electric field inside the conductor is E. Let n be the number of free electrons
per unit volume of the conductor.
Volume of conductor = A.l
Total number of free electrons = Aln
Total charge on free electrons = Alne
If this charge flows through the conductor in time interval t then the current I is given by
I = Alne/t
⇒ I = neA(l/t)
⇒ I = neAvd where vd is the drift velocity and is equal to l/t.

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Dividing both sides by A we get
I/A = neAvd/A
⇒ J = nevd

Microscopic form of Ohm’s law ( J = σ.E )

According to this the current density inside conductor is directly proportional to the electric field applied
which produces the current.
This means J∝E
⇒ J = σ.E where σ is the conductivity of the conductor.

We know that J = nevd.

⇒ J = ne(e.E.τ/m) { since vd = eEτ/m }
⇒ 2
J = ne τE/m ----- (1)
We know that resistivity ρ = m/ne2τ and since conductivity σ = 1/ρ hence we have σ = ne2τ/m
Thus from (1) we have J = σE

ALITER
From Ohm’s law we have V = iR
⇒ V = i ( ρl/A)
V 1 i
⇒ . = ----(1)
𝑙 ρ A
We know that i/A = J, V/l = E and 1/ρ = σ
thus (1) becomes E.σ = J
or J = σE

Equivalent resistance
1. Series connection
Let three resistances R1, R2 and R3 be connected in series. The potential difference applied across the
combination is V. The current in the circuit is I.
Using Ohm’s law we have VAB = IR1, VBC = IR2 and VCD = IR3.
We have V = VAB + VBC + VCD R1 R2 R3
⇒ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 A B C D
⇒ V = I(R1 + R2 + R3 ) ------------ (1)
If the equivalent resistance be R then V = IR. + _
Hence from (1) we have IR = I(R1 + R2 + R3 ) (•)
⇒ R = R1 + R2 + R3 I V

2 . Parallel connection
Let three resistances R1, R2 and R3 be connected in parallel. The potential difference applied across the
combination is V. The current in the circuit is I which is divided among the resistors. The currents in the
resistances are I1, I2 and I3 respectively. The potential difference across each resistance is v due to parallel

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connection.
Using Ohm’s law we have V = I1R1, V = I2R2 and V = I3R3. I1 R1
We have the total current I = I1 + I2 + I3
⇒ I = V/R1 +V/R2 +V/R3 ------------ (1) I2 R2
⇒ I = V(1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3) R3
If the equivalent resistance be R then V = IR and thus I = V/R I3
Hence from (1) we have V/R = V(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ) I +V - (•)
⇒ 1/ R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Kirchhoff’s law
There are two laws 1) Current law and 2) Voltage law.
1. Current law/ Junction law / KCL
According to this the algebraic sum of all currents meeting i1 i3
at a junction in a closed circuit is zero. The current entering
the junction is to be taken as positive and the current i2 i5
leaving the junction is to be taken negative. i4
In the figure we have thus i1 + i2 + i3 + (-i4) + (-i5) = 0
i.e. i1 +i2 + i3 = i4 + i5

2. Loop rule/ Voltage law/ KVL

According to this the algebraic sum of all emf and potential
differences across resistances taken together along a closed B i1 E1 R1 A
loop is zero. i2
In the figure KVL is applied along the loop ABCDA then R3 R2
we have –i1R1 + E1 – i3R3 + E3 – i4R4 – E2 + i2R2 = 0

** KCL follows principle of conservation of charge. E3 E2

KVL follows principle of conservation of energy. i3

Expression for TPD

Let a resistance R be connected with a cell of emf E and C i4 D
internal resistance r. Let the current in the circuit be i. R4
Applying KVL along ABCDA we have – iR – ir + E = 0
⇒ iR = E – ir.
The potential difference across the external resistance is V = iR A I R B
and this is the TPD.
Hence we have V = E – ir.

** In the ideal case when r = 0 then V = E. D E r C

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Wheatstone’s bridge
It is an arrangement of four resistances P,Q,R and S
as shown in the figure. There is a galvanometer G
connected between the points B and D. The
arrangement is connected to a battery which
maintains a constant potential difference across
the combination. Current is allowed to flow through
the combination. When there is no current through
the galvanometer then the bridge is said to be balanced.
The current in various branches are shown in figure.

Applying KVL along loop ABDA we have

I1P + IgG – I2Q = 0. At balance Ig = 0 hence I1P – I2Q = 0
⇒ I2/I1 = P/Q -------------- (1)

Applying KVL along loop BCDB ( I1 – Ig )R – ( I2 + Ig )S – IgG = 0

At balance Ig = 0 hence I1R – I2S = 0
⇒ I2/ I1 = R/S ----------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have P/Q = R/S
This is the condition for balance in Wheatstone’s bridge.

** WSB is most sensitive when all the four resistances have equal
value.

Combination of cells
There are two basic type of combinations 1) Series combination,
2) Parallel combination.

[Link] combination
Let n cells of emf E1, E2, … , En with internal resistances
r1 , r2 , … , rn respectively are connected in series to an external
resistance R. The current supplied is I.

Applying KVL in loop ABCDA we get

IR + Ir1 + Ir2 + … + Irn – E1 – E2 - … - En = 0
⇒ IR + I (r1 +r2 + … + rn) = E1 + E2 + … + En ⇒ ∑ 𝐸𝑖 – I ∑ r = IR.
Comparing with the expression E – Ir = IR we have equivalent emf
E = ∑ Ei i.e. E = E1 + E2 +… + En.
Equivalent internal resistance, r = ∑ r𝑖 i.e. r = r1 + r2 + … + rn.

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2. Parallel combination
Let n cells of emf E1, E2, … , En with internal
resistances r1 , r2 , … , rn respectively are connected
in series to an external resistance R. The current
supplied by individual cells are I1 , I2 , … , In
respectively. The net current in the circuit is I = I1 +
I2+ …. + In. Applying KVL along the loop A1B1CD we
have IR + I1r1 – E1 = 0 ⇒
I1 = (E1 – IR)/r1 -------------------- (1)
⇒ I2 = (E2 – IR)/r2 -------------------- (2)
………………………………..
⇒ In = (En – IR)/rn -------------------- (n)
Adding the equations (1), (2), … , (n) we get
E1 E2 E𝑛 1 1 1
I1 + I2 + … + In = ( + +…+ ) – IR( + +…+ )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛
E𝑖 1
⇒I=∑ - IR ∑
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖
E
∑ 𝑖
𝑟𝑖 1
⇒ IR = 1 - 1
∑ ∑
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖

If the equivalent emf is E and equivalent internal resistance

of the system of cells be r then we have IR = E – Ir
Comparing the above expressions we get
𝐄
∑ 𝒊
𝒓𝒊 𝟏
E= 𝟏 and r = 𝟏
∑ ∑
𝒓𝒊 𝒓𝒊

Electrical power
It is defined as the rate of dissipation of electrical energy in a circuit or in an appliance. If ∆q amount of charge
flows under potential difference V then work done by the source of power is ∆W = V. ∆q = VI. ∆t
⇒ ∆W/∆t = VI ⇒ P = VI
Using Ohm’s law V = IR we have P = I2R or P = V2/R
** The energy comes from the source of current.

Reason for high voltage transmission

Let P power is to be transmitted through a transmission wire of resistance Rc. Let V be the voltage across Rc
and I be the current then P = VI.
Now power loss Pc = I2Rc
⇒ Pc = P2Rc/ V2
Thus power wasted is reduced if supply voltage V is increased. So, electrical transmission is made at high
voltage.

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