HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Module – 4: Earth dams

Spillways
Energy Dissipaters and Stilling Basins
EARTH DAMS
Embankment dams are built of soil or rockfill or both. As the soil and rockfill are no-rigid
materials, the embankment dams are also called non-rigid dams. The embankments are
broadly classified as follows:

 Earth dams: These are constructed mainly from earth or soil [fig (a)].
 Rockfill dams: These dams are constructed mainly from rockfill or pieces of rocks
[fig (b)].
 Composite earth and rockfill dam: These dams are constructed from both earth and
rockfill [fig (c)].

Earthen dams and earthen levees are the most ancient type of embankments, as they can be
built with the natural materials with a minimum of processing and primitive equipment. They
can be constructed on almost all type of foundations provided suitable measures are taken.
But in ancient days, the cost of-carriage and dumping of the dam materials was quite high.
How- ever, the modern developments in earth moving equipment have considerably reduced
the cost of carriage and laying of the dam materials. The cost of gravity dams on the other
hand, has gone up because of an increase in the cost of concrete, masonry, etc. Earthen
dams are still

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 1

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

cheaper as they can utilize the locally available materials, and less skilled labour is required
for them.

4.1 TYPES OF EARTHEN DAMS

The earthen dam can· be of the following types:

 Based on method of construction

o Rolled-fill earth dam
o Hydraulic-fill earth dam
o Semi-hydraulic earth dam
 Based on mechanical characteristics of earth materials used in making the section of da
o Homogeneous Earthen Dam
o Zoned Earthen Dam
o Diaphragm Earthen Dam

Rolled-fill earth dam: rolled-fill dams are most commonly used in practice. These dams are
constructed by placing material in thin layers, about 15 to 45 cm thick, and compacting each
layer to the required dry density with heavy rollers. Each layer should be properly bonded to
the preceding layer.

Hydraulic-fill earth dam: in a hydraulic –fill dam, water is used for transporting and placing
the materials. No roller is required for compaction. The material at the borrow pits is mixed
with a large quantity of water to form slush or mud. This slush is transported through flumes
or pipes and discharged along the outside edges of the fill of the earth dam. As soon as the
slush comes out of the pipe, the coarser materials are deposited near the exit. However, the

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 2

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

finer materials are carried into the central pool at the location of the core. Thus a zoned
section is formed with a relatively impervious core at the centre and a pervious shell at the
shoulders. With proper control, a satisfactory zoned sections can be achieved.

Semi-hydraulic earth dam: in semi-hydraulic-fill dams, the coarse material is dumped from
trucks into required position to form shells. The core is, however, constructed by hydraulic
fill method. The fines are sluiced into a core. This method of constructions requires careful
control to achieve a satisfactory embankment section. If the soil is not properly sluiced but it
is dumped into a pool of water, some fines in the soil will be washed out and the core
obtained will be pervious. As in the case of a hydraulic-fill dam, no compaction is required.

Homogeneous Earthen Dam: A homogeneous earth dam is composed of only one material.
Generally, the material used is either semi-impervious or impervious soil TOE to limit the
seepage through the dam. However, sometimes earth dams are built of relatively pervious soil
such as sand and sand gravel mixture. Of course, the seepage through such dams is quite
high. A homogeneous earth dam is usually constructed where only one type of material is
economi- cally available near the dam site and the height of the dam is low.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 3

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Modified homogeneous section: Modified homogeneous section A purely homogeneous sec-

tion poses the problem of sliding and piping if it is not quite wide at base. A large section
with flatter slopes is required to make it safe against piping and sliding.

It is the usual practice to use a modified homogeneous section in which an internal drainage
system is provided in the homogeneous section. The internal drainage system may be in the
form of a horizontal drainage blanket [Fig. (a)] or a rock toe [Fig. (b)] or a combination of the
two. The internal drainage system keeps the phreatic line (or the saturation line) well within
the body of the dam and also reduces the pore water pressures. Thus steeper side slopes, as
compared to those in a homogeneous section, can be provided, resulting in a smaller section.

Zoned Earthen Dam: A zoned earth dam is composed of more than one type of soil. A
zoned earth dam usually consists of a central impervious core flanked by shells of pervious
materials on the upstream and downstream sides [Fig. (a)]. A transition filter is usually
required between the core and the shell to prevent piping.

The central core checks seepage through the dam It is constructed of clay, silt, silty clay or
clayey silt. The pervious shell gives stability to the dam and it consists of sand, gravel or a
mixture of these materials. The upstream pervious zone provides free drainage during sudden
drawdown. The downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to control the phreatic line. The
pervious zones give stability to the core and also distribute the load over a large area of foun-
dation. The transition filters prevent the migration of the core material into the pores of the
shell material. The downstream transition filter is useful during the steady seepage conditions
and the upstream filter is useful during the sudden drawdown conditions.

However, the transition filters are omitted if the difference in particle sizes of the core
material and the shell material is not much or when the seepage gradient line through the dam
is flat.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 4

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Sometimes, a sloping core is provided instead of the vertical core [Fig. (b)]. The main ad-
vantage of the sloping core is that the downstream portion of the dam can be constructed first
and the core can be constructed later. However, a central core has a number of advantages
and is commonly used in practice, as explained later. Zoned earth dams are commonly con-
structed in practice.

Diaphragm Earthen Dam: a diaphragm-type earth dam consists of a thin impervious core,
called diaphragm, surrounded by pervious shells. The diaphragm-type earth dam is also
called the thin core earth dam [Fig. (a)]

It may be noted that the difference between a zoned earth dam and a diaphragm-type earth
dam is only in the thickness of the core. If the thickness of the core at any elevation is less
than the height of the embankment above that elevation or 10 m, the dam is generally
considered to be of the diaphragm type. On the other hand, if the thickness of the core equals
or exceeds these limits, the dam is considered to be of the zoned type.

The position of the diaphragm may be anywhere from a central vertical position to an
inclined position directly on the upstream face. The inclined diaphragm on the upstream face
is also called a buried blanket, because a thin layer of pervious material is usually provided
over it. The slope protection is provided over this pervious material [Fig. (b)].

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 5

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.2 CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAM

Earth dams are less rigid and hence more susceptible to failure. Every past failure of such a
dam has contributed to an increase in the knowledge of the earth dam designers. Earthen
dams may fail, like other engineering structures, due to improper designs, faulty
constructions, lack of maintenance, etc. The various causes leading to the failure of earth
dams can be grouped into the following three classes:

 Hydraulic failure.
 Seepage failure.
 Structural failure.

4.2.1 HYDRAULIC FAILURE

About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these causes. The failure under this
category, may occur due to the following reasons:

 By over topping: The water may overtop the dam, if the design flood is
underestimated or if the spillway is of insufficient capacity or if the spillway gates are
not properly operated. Sufficient freeboard should, therefore, be provided as an
additional safety measure.
 Erosion of upstream face: The waves developed near the top water surface due to
the winds, try to notch-out the soil from the upstream face and may even, sometimes,
cause the slip of the upstream slope. Upstream stone pitching or riprap should,
therefore, be provided to avoid such failures.
 Cracking due to frost action: Frost in the upper portion of the dam may cause
heaving and cracking of the soil with dangerous seepage and· consequent' failure. An
additional freeboard allowance upto a maximum of say 1.5 m should, therefore, be
provided for dams in areas of low temperatures.
 Erosion of downstream face by gully formation: Heavy rains falling directly over
the downstream face and the erosive action of the moving water, may lead to the
formation of gullies on the downstream face, ultimately leading to the dam failure.
This can be avoided by proper maintenance, filling the cuts from time to time
especially during rainy season, by grassing the slopes and by providing proper berms
at suitable heights (Fig.), so that the water has not to flow for considerable distances.
The proper drainage

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 6

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

arrangements are made for the removal of the rain water collected on the horizontal
berms. Since the provision of berms ensures the collection and removal of water
before it acquires high downward velocities, the consequent erosion caused by the
moving water (run off) is considerably reduced.

 Erosion of the dis toe: The dis toe of the earth dam may get eroded due to two reasons,
i.e. (i) the erosion .due to cross currents that may come from the spillway buckets; and
(ii) the erosion due-to tail water. This erosion of the toe can be avoided by providing a
downstream slope pitching or a riprap up to a height slightly above the normal tail
water depth. Side walls of the spillway (called diaphragm walls) must be of sufficient
height and length, as so to prevent the possibility of the cross flow towards the earthen
em- bankment.

4.2.2 SEEPAGE FAILURE

Controlled seepage or limited uniform seepage is inevitable in all earth dams, and ordinarily it
does not produce any harm. However, uncontrolled or concentrated seepage through the dam
body or through its foundation may lead to piping or sloughing and the subsequent failure of
the dam. Piping is the progressive erosion and subsequent removal of the soil grains from
within the body of the dam or the foundation of the dam. Sloughing is the progressive
removal of soil from the wet downstream face. More than 1/3rd of the earth dams have failed
because of these reasons.

 Piping through foundations: Sometimes, when highly permeable cavities or fissures

or strata of coarse sand or gravel are present in the foundation of the dam, water may
start seeping at a huge rate through them (Fig.). This concentrated flow at a high
gradi- ent, may erode the soil. This leads to increased flow of water and soil,
ultimately re- sulting in a rush of water and soil, thereby creating hollows below the
foundation. The dam may sink down into the hollow so formed, causing its failure.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 7

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Piping through the dam body: When the concentrated flow channels get developed
in the body of the dam, (Fig.) soil may be removed in the same manner as was
explained in foundation piping, leading to the formation of hollows in the dam body,
and subse- quent subsidence of the dam. These flow channels may develop due to
faulty construc- tion, insufficient compaction, cracks developed in embankment due
to foundation set- tlement, shrinkage cracks, animal burrows, etc. All these causes can
be removed by better construction and better· maintenance of the dam embankments.
Piping through the dam body, generally get developed near the pipe conduits passing
through the dam body. Contact seepage along the outer side of conduits may either
develop into piping, or seepage through leaks in the conduits may develop into piping.
This can be avoided by thoroughly and properly compacting the soils near the outlet
conduits and by preventing the possibilities of leakage through conduits, but
preventing the formation of cracks in the conduits. These cracks in the conduits are
caused by differential settlement and by overloading from the embankment. When
these factors are controlled, automatically, the possibility of piping due to leakage
through the con- duits is reduced.

 Sloughing of DIS Toe: The process behind the sloughing of the toe is somewhat
similar to that of piping. The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the
downstream toe becomes saturated and get eroded, producing a small slump or a
miniature slide.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 8

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

The miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face which becomes saturated by the seep-
age from the reservoir and slumps again, forming a more unstable surface. The
process continues till the remaining portion of the dam is too thin to withstand the
horizontal. water pressure, leading to the sudden failure of the dam.

4.2.3 STRUCTURAL FAILURE

About 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural failures. Structural failures are
generally caused by shear failures, causing slides.

 Foundation slide: (i.e. overall stability of the dam). When the foundation of the earth
dams are made of soft soils, such as fine silt, soft clay, etc., the entire dam may slide
over the foundation. Sometimes, seams of fissured rocks, shales or soft clay, etc. may
exits under the foundation, and the dam may slide over some of them, causing its fail-
ure. In this type-of-failure;-the top of embankment gets cracked and subsides, the
lower slope moves outward forming large mud waves near the heel, as shown in Fig.
Excessive pore water pressure in confined seams of sand and silt, artesian pressure in
abutments, or hydrostatic excess developed due to consideration of clay seams
embed- ded between sands or silts, etc. may reduce the shear strength of the soil, until
it be- comes incapable of resisting 'the induced shear stresses, leading to the failure of
the dam foundation whithout warning. Loose sand foundations may fail by the
liquefaction or flow slides.

 Slide in. Embankments: When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength
of the soil, they may slide causing dam failure. The most critical condition of the slide
of the u/s slope is the sudden drawdown of the reservoir (Fig.); and the d/s slope is
most likely to slide, when the reservoir is full (Fig.). The u/s slope failures seldom
lead to catastrophic failures, but the d/s slope failures are very serious. These failures,
generally occur due to development of excessive unaccounted pore pressures which

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 9

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

may reduce

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 10

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

the shearing strength of the soils as explained in the previous article. Many embank-
ments may fail during the process of consolidation, at' the time of construction or after
the construction

4.3 CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTHEN DAMS

Various causes of failure of an earth dam have been discussed in the preceding section. The earth
dam should be designed such that the failure of the dam or its foundation does not occur. The
dam should be safe and stable during construction and throughout it life. For the safe de- sign
of an earth dam, the following basic criteria should be satisfied:

 No overtopping
o The dam should be safe against overtopping during occurrence of the worst
o An adequate free board should be provided so that the dam is not overtopped
due to the wave action.
o A suitable allowance in the height of the dam should be made to account for
settlements.
 No seepage failure
o The phreatic line (or the seepage line) should remain well within the down-
stream face of the dam so that no sloughing of the downstream face occurs.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 11

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

o Seepage through the body of the dam, foundations and abutments should be
controlled by adopting suitable measures.
o The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
o There should be no opportunity for the free passage of water from the
upstream to the downstream either through the dam or through the foundation.
 No structural failure
o The upstream and downstream slopes should be safe during and immediately
after construction.
o The upstream slope should be safe during sudden-drawdown conditions.
o The downstream slope should be safe during steady-seepage conditions.
o The foundation shear stresses should be within the safe limits.
o The dam as a whole should be earthquake-resistant
 Proper slope protection
o The upstream slope should be protected against erosion by waves.
o The downstream slope and the crest(i.e. top) should be protected against
erosion due to rain and wind.
 Proper drainage
o The portion of the dam downstream of the impervious core should be properly
drained.
 Economic section
o The dam should have an economic section. As far as possible, the materials
available near the dam site should be used to reduce the cost.

4.4 PRELIMINARY SECTION OF EARTHEN DAM

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 12

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.5 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS

Seepage analysis is required to determine the quantity of water passing through the body of
the earth dam and the foundation. It can be determined by theory of flow of fluids through
porous media. Distribution of pore water pressure can also be obtained by the seepage
analysis.

Assumptions made in seepage analysis:

 The soil in the embankment and foundation is incompressible and isotropic

 Water is incompressible
 Darcy’s law is valid
 The flow is steady
 The soil is fully saturated
 The hydraulic boundary conditions at the entry and at the exit of the seepage flow are
known.

+ =0
2
∅ 𝜕2∅
Laplace equation --- 𝜕
𝜕x2 𝜕y2

Solution of the Laplace equation can be obtained by

 Graphical Method
 Experimental Method
 Analytical Method

4.5.1 GRAPHICAL METHOD

The graphical method makes use of the properties of the flow net. The net is drawn by trial
and error. First a rough flow net is drawn and then it is modifies successively till a good flow
net is obtained.

Flow net: Network of equipotential lines and flow

lines Properties of flow net are listed below:

 The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
 Because the phreatic line is also a flow line, the equipotential lines intersect it at right
angles.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 13

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Since the pressure at the phreatic line is zero, the successive equipotential lines make
equal vertical intercepts on the phreatic line.
 The flow fields obtained by the intersections of the equipotential lines and the flow
lines are approximately squares in shape. A circle can be approximately drawn in each
square field touching all the sides of the square.
 The discharge between any two adjacent flow lines is constant.
 The potential drop between any two adjacent equipotential lines is also constant.
 The smaller the dimensions of the flow field, the greater is the hydraulic gradient and
the velocity of flow through it.
 In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the flow lines and equipotential lines is
smooth and gradual.

Flow net is used to determine the discharge through dam:

Figure shows a portion of the flow net. As already mentioned, the channel between the two
successive flow lines is called the flow channel. The portion between two successive flow
lines and two successive equipotential lines is called the flow field. It is approximately a
square.

Let us consider flow through one field (shown hatched). Let b and I be, respectively, the width
and length of the flow field. For the unit length of the earth dam, the distance perpendicular
to the plane of the field is unity. From Darcy's law, the discharge through the field is given by

∆q = k i A

∆q = k (∆h/l) (bx1) = k (∆h) (b/l) = k (h/Nd) (b/l)

∆h – Head drop through the field h –

Total head causing flow
Nd – Number of equipotential drops

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 14

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

q = ∑∆q = k (h/Nd) (b/l) Nf

Nf – Total number of flow channels.

4.6 SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES

The water seeping through the body of the dam and foundation has the following adverse ef-
fects:

 Loss of water
 Pore water pressure
 Sloughing
 Piping

4.6.1 MEASURES TO CONTROL SEEPAGE THROUGH THE DAM

 Vertical core
 Inclined core

The minimum thickness of the core depends upon the following factors

 Permissible seepage through the dam

 Type of the material available for the core
 Design of the proposed filter
 Minimum practical thickness required for construction (b = 0.3 h to 0.5 h)

4.6.2 MEASURES TO CONTROL SEEPAGE THROUGH FOUNDATIONS

 Positive cutoff trench

 Concrete diaphragm
 Grout curtains
 Slurry trench cutoff
 Steel sheet piles
 U/S impervious blanket and relief walls
 Downstream loading berm

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 15

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

SPILLWAYS

4.7 SPILLWAYS

A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of surplus water from the
reservoir to the channel downstream. Spillways are provided for all dams as a safety
measures against overtopping and the consequent damages and failure. Spillway is thus
safety valve for a dam.

Requirements of a Spillway are as listed below:

 The spillway must have sufficient capacity.

 It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate.
 It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water.
 The bounding surfaces of spillway must be erosion resistant.
 Energy dissipater should be located in downstream side of the spillway for dissipation
of energy.

Location of Spillway:

 Within the body of the dam.

 At one end of dam.
 Entirely away from it, independently in a saddle.

Required spillway capacity:

 Required spillway capacity is determined by flood routing.

 Spillway capacity should be equal to the maximum outflow rate determined by flood
routing.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 16

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

It requires the following data:

 Inflow hydrograph( plot of rate of inflow Vs time)

 Reservoir capacity curve( reservoir storage Vs reservoir water surface elevation)
 Discharge curve( rate of outflow through spillway Vs reservoir water surface

elevation) Factors affecting the required Spillway Capacity:

 Inflow flood hydrograph

 Available storage capacity
 Capacity of outlets
 Gates of spillways
 Possible damage, if the capacity is exceeded

4.8 COMPONENTS / PARTS OF SPILLWAY

 Approach channel
 Control structure
 Discharge carrier and discharge channel
 Terminal structure or Energy dissipator
 Exit channel

4.8.1 APPROACH CHANNEL

 Entrance structure or the path to draw water from reservoir and convey it to the
control structure.
 It may be straight or curved in plan.
 Its banks may be parallel, convergent, divergent or combination of these and may be
vertical or sloping.
 It may insure minimum head loss through the channel and to obtain uniformity of
flow over the control structure.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 17

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.8.2 CONTROL STRUCTURE

 Major component of spillway provided with bridge and gates.

 Regulates and controls the surplus water from the reservoir.
 It does not allow discharge of water below the fixed reservoir level.

4.8.3 DISCHARGE CARRIER AND DISCHARGE CHANNEL

 Discharge carrier is the waterway provided to convey the flows released from the con-
trol structure to the downstream side of spillway.
 The cross section may be rectangular, trapezoidal or of other shape.
 Waterway may be wide or narrow, long or short.
 Discharge channels are provided to convey the water from bottom of the discharge
car- rier to the downstream flowing river.
 It may be the downstream face of spillway itself.
 The width of discharge channel depends on amount of water to be conveyed.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 18

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.8.4 TERMINAL STRUCTURE OR ENERGY DISSIPATOR

 Provided on downstream for dissipating the high energy of the flow, before the flow
is returned to the river.

4.9 CLASSIFICATION OF SPILLWAYS

 Classification based on purpose

o Main or service spillway
o Auxillary spillway
o Emergency spillway
 Classification based on control
o Controlled or gated spillway
o Uncontrolled or ungated spillway
 Classification based on prominent feature
o Free overfall (or straight drop)
o Overfall (or ogee spillway)
o Chute (or open channel or trough)
o Side channel spillway
o Shaftwhich (or morning glory)
o Siphon
o Conduit (or tunnel)
o Cascade spillway

4.9.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PURPOSE

Main spillway

A main (or service) spillway is the spillway designed to pass a prefixed or the design flood.
This spillway is necessary for all dams and in most of the dams, it is the only spillway.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 19

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Auxiliary spillway

It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located that it comes
into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed are exceeded.

Total spillway capacity (Q) = Qm + Qa ,

Where, Q is the designed flood,

Qm is the capacity of main spillway,
Qa is the capacity of the auxiliary spillway

Emergency spillway

It is provided in addition to the main spillway but it comes into operation only during emer-
gency which may arise at any time.

4.9.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONTROL

Controlled spillway

A controlled spillway is one which is provided with the gates over the crest to control the
outflow from the reservoir. In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level (F.R.L) of the
reservoir is usually kept at the top level of the gates. Thus the water can be stored up to the
top level of the gates.

Uncontrolled spillway

In an uncontrolled spillway the gates are not provided over the crest to control the outflow
from the reservoir. The full reservoir level(F.R.L) is at the crest level of the spillway. The
water escapes automatically when the water level rises above the crest level.

4.9.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PROMINENT FEATURE

Free overfall (or straight drop)

 In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest. It is a low weir
and simple vertical fall type structures.
 The water falls freely from the crest under the action of gravity.
 To prevent scouring at the downstream, an auxiliary dam of artificial pool is to be
con- structed at the place of fall of water.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 20

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 This type of spillway is not recommended for high head since the vibrations of
falling- mjet might damage the structure.
 To direct the small discharge away frommthe face of the overfall section the crest is
extended to form a overhanging clip.

Overfall (or ogee spillway)

 It represents the S-shape curve so, it is called ogee spillway.

 It is an improved form of straight drop spillway.
 It is mainly used in gravity dams.
 It has got the advantage over other spillways for its high discharging efficiency.
 The overflow water is guided smoothly over the crest so that water do not break the
contact with the spillway surface.

Chute (or open channel or trough)

 It is often called as trough or open channel spillway.

 For earthen and rockfill dams, spillway is to be constructed separately away from the
main valley.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 21

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Chute Spillway is the simplest type of a spillway which can be easily provided inde-
pendently and at low costs.
 It is lighter and adaptable to any type of foundations.

Side channel spillway

 The flow in this spillway is turned 90 ̊ after passing the crest such that the flow is par-
allel to the weir crest.
 Best suitable for non rigid dams like earthen dams.
 It is preferred where space is not available for providing sufficient crest width for
chute spillway.
 The discharge carrier may be an open channel type or a conduit type.

Shaftwhich (or morning glory)

 The water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft which conveys this water into
a horizontal tunnel which finally discharges the water into the river downstream.
 This type of spillway is preferred where the space is not available for providing the
above type of spillways
 If the inlet leg is provided in shape of a funnel, it is called Morning Glory Spillway.
 It has maximum discharge even at low heads.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 22

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Siphon

 It works on the principle of syphonic action.

 It consists of a syphon pipe whose inlet leg is kept just below the normal pool level
and an air vent kept at normal pool level is connected to the crown of syphon.
 When the water raises the pool level, syphonic action starts automatically and the
water discharges to downstream side.
 When the water level falls below the pool level, air is entered through air vent and the
discharging of water stops.

Conduit (or tunnel)

 A conduit Spill-way consist of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to the
downstream channel . It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam.
 The closed conduit may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal
tunnel, or a conduit constructed in an open cut and then covered.
 To ensure the free flow in the tunnel, the ratio of flow area to total tunnel area is often
limited to 75%of air vents are provided.
 Such a spill-way is suitable for dam sites in narrow canyons with steep abutments.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 23

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Cascade spillway

 A spillway consists of a cascade of falls, with a stilling basin at each fall.

 It is ideally suited for very high dams in which the energy cannot be dissipated by a
hydraulic jump or a bucket. In the case of a high rockfill dams, already excavated
quarry benches on d/s may be utilised for the formation of cascades.

4.10 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF OGEE SPILLWAY

Ogee profile is acceptable as it provide

 Maximum possible hydraulic efficiency.

 Structural stability and economy.
 Avoid the formation of objectionable sub atmospheric pressures at surface.

For this shape, no negative pressure will develop on the spillway surface at the design head.
Shape of the crest of the Ogee (overflow) spillway depends on:

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 24

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Head over the crest.

 Height of the spillway above the stream bed or the bed of the entrance channel.
 The inclination of the upstream face of the spillway.

Overflow or ogee spillways are classified as high & low depending on ratio value of 1.33

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑑 (𝐻)

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻𝑑)

where,

Head (H): The distance between water surface to the crest axis.
Design head (Hd): It is the value of head for which ogee profile is designed.
Head due to velocity approach (Ha): It is the velocity head given by Ha=Va2/2g
Total energy head (He): It is equal to the actual head plus the head due to velocity
approach.

He = H + Ha, if H=Hd,

He = Hd + Ha

Design criteria of downstream profile

Xn = K Hdn-1 Y

Where,
X and Y are the coordinates of the point on the spillway surface, with the origin at the
highest point of the crest,
Hd is the design head, excluding the head due to the velocity of approach,
K and n are constants, depends upon the inclination of the upstream face of the
spillway.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 25

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Design criteria of upstream profile

0.724 (𝑥 + 0.27
𝑌= 𝐻)1.85 + 0.126 𝐻 − 0.4315 𝐻0.375 (𝑥 + 0.27
𝐻)0.625
𝐻0.85

It should be noted that u/s curve at crest should neither be made too sharp nor too broad.

 Broad crest supports the lower nappe, produces positive hydrostatic pressure &
reduces discharge.
 If the curve is sharp the nappe leave the ogee profile, causing negative pressure &
cav- itation and increases discharge.

Discharge computation for an ogee spillway

e
Q = Cd Le H 3/2

where,

Q is discharge(cumecs),
Cd is the coefficient of discharge,
Le is the effective length
He is the actual effective head including the head due to the velocity of approach, i.e.
He = Hd + Ha.

Effective length of crest

Le = L’ – 2(NKp + Ka) He

where,

Le is the effective length of crest,

L’ is the net length of crest,
He is the actual total head of flow on crest,
N is the number of piers,
Kp is the pier contraction coefficient,
Ka is the abutment contraction coefficient

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 26

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.11 SPILLWAY GATES

Gates are placed to control the flow of water from the crest. This gives the spillway a
controlled spillway. Types of spillway gates:

 Flash boards, stop logs and needles

 Radial gates
 Drum gates
 Vertical lift gates
 Bear trap gates
 Rolling gates

4.11.1 FLASH BOARDS, STOP LOGS AND NEEDLES

Flash Boards

 Flash boards are wooden boards or panels, placed side by side, on the crest of the
spill- ways to form a continuous shutter.
 These are simplest and oldest types of gates.
 These are quite efficient and economical for small heights where they can be readily
handled by the lifting arrangements.
 The flash boards can be temporary or permanent.

Stop Logs

 Stop logs are horizontal wooden timber beams which span the space between grooved
piers constructed on the crest of the spillway.
 Stoplogs are pushed down into the grooves from top, one over the other.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 27

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 The logs may be raised by hands or with a hoist.

 Stoplogs are generally used for small spillways.

Needles

 Needles are wooden logs placed in an inclined position, with their lower ends resting
in a keyway on the spillway crest and their upper ends supported on a bridge.
 These are placed and removed by hands.
 Needles are somewhat easier to remove than stop logs, but are more difficult to place
in flowing water.
 Needles are also used for small spillways and weirs.

4.11.2 RADIAL GATES

 A tainter gate(or radial gate) has the upstream face cylindrical. The axis of the
segment of the cylinder forming the u/s face is horizontal.
 The face is formed of a steel skin plate shaped to a segment of a hollow cylinder sup-
ported on a steel framework.
 Radial gates have a number of advantages over the vertical gates and are quite
popular. The friction in the radial gates is concentrated at the pins and is usually much
less than that in the vertical gates.
 Because of the face of radial gates is cylinder, the water pressure acts normal to the
face and the resultant water pressure passes through its centre.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 28

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 These gates have been used up to 15m height and 20m span.
 These are usually more economical than the vertical gates of the same size.

4.11.3 DRUM GATES

 A drum gate consists of a segment of cylinder of such a shape that when the gate is in
the lowered position, it fits in a recess made in the top portion of the spillway, and the
flood water passes over it.
 The drum gates is formed by fixing skin plates to an internal bracing systems. It is
hinged on its upstream edge at the centre of curvature to the spillway crest.
 This type of gate can also be designed for automatic operation. Drum gates are
suitable for long spans with moderate heights.

4.11.4 VERTICAL LIFT GATES

 Vertical rectangular gates are commonly used for spillways.

 A vertical lift gate consists of a vertical framework fabricated of steel members.
 A steel skin plate is fixed on the upstream side of the steel framework. The vertical
gate can move vertically on its own plane in the grooves provided in piers.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 29

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 The vertical gates are raised or lowered by a hoisting arrangement through cables at-
tached to them. These gates are usually provided with counterweights to reduce the
lifting force.

The vertical gates are mainly of the following types:

 Sliding gates
 Stoney gates
 Fixed- wheel gates

4.11.5 BEAR TRAP GATES

 Bear trap gates are also known as movable drum gates.

 A bear trap gate consists of two leaves of steel, with one leaf hinged on the upstream
side and the other on the downstream side over the crest.
 The bear trap gates are suitable for low navigation dams.
 These gates have a wide base but a deep recess is not required.
 These gates may be designed to operate automatically.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 30

HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.11.6 ROLLING GATES

 A rolling gate consists of a hollow steel cylinder or drum which spans between the
piers constructed on the crest of the spillway.
 At each end of the hallow cylinder, there is a heavy annular rim having gear teeth on
its periphery.
 Each pier has an inclined rack with teeth, which engages gear teeth encircling the
ends of the cylinder. Hoisting cables are attached to the ends of the gate; the other
ends of these cables are connected to a winch installed in the hoist room above the
gates. When a pull is exerted on the hoisting cable, the gate rolls up the rack.
 The lower portion of the gate is attached with a cylinder segment projecting out from
the cylindrical surface of the gate. When the gate is in the raised position, the
cylindrical segment makes contact with the spillway crest and thus the overall height
of the gate is increased.
 Rolling gates quite suitable for long spans of moderate heights. These gates have been
used upto spans of 45 m and the height of 7 m.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 31

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

ENERGY DISSIPATERS AND STILLING BASINS

4.12 ENERGY DISSIPATION BELOW SPILLWAYS

Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion of the
entire potential energy to the kinetic energy. If the water flowing with such a high velocity is
discharged directly into the channel downstream, serious scour of the channel bed may occur.
If the scour is not properly controlled, it may extend backward and may endanger the
spillway and the dam. In order to protect the channel bed, it is discharged into the d/s
channel. The energy-dissipating devices can be broadly classified into two types.

 Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy.

 Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy.

The choice of the energy-dissipating device at a particular spillway is governed by the tail water
depth and the characteristics of the hydraulic jump, if formed, at the toe. If the tail water
depth at the site is not approximately equal to that required for a perfect hydraulic jump, a
bucket- type energy dissipating device is usually provided.

Jump Height Curve (JHC): A plot between discharge against depth of water after hydraulic
jump.

Tail Water Rating Curve (TWRC): A plot between discharge against actual depth of tail water
(depth of water in the river in downstream).

The location of hydraulic jump will depend upon JHC and TWRC. There are five cases, de-
pending upon the relative positions of JHC and TWRC as shown below.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 32

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 33

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Case 4

4.13 STILLING BASIN

A stilling basin is a basin-like structure in which all or a part of the energy is dissipated. In a
stilling basin, the kinetic energy causes turbulence and it is ultimately lost as heat energy. The
stilling basing commonly used for spillways are of the hydraulic jump type, in which dissipa-
tion of energy is accomplished by a hydraulic jump.

A hydraulic jump can be stabilised in the stilling basin by using appurtenances (or
accessories) such as chute blocks, basin blocks and end sill.

 Chute blocks: These are triangular blocks with their top surfaces horizontal. These
are installed at the toe of the spillway just at upstream end of the stilling basin. They
act as a serrated device at the entrance to the stilling basin. They furrow the incoming
jet and lift a portion of it above the floor. These blocks stabilise the jump and thus
improve its performance. These also decrease the length of the hydraulic jump.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 34

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Basin blocks (or baffle blocks or baffle piers): These are installed on the stilling
basin floor between chute blocks and the end sill. These blocks also stabilise the
formation of the jump. Moreover, they increase the turbulence and assist in the
dissipation of en- ergy. For low flows, baffle blocks also help compensate a slight
deficiency of the tail water depth, and for high flows, they help deflect the flow away
from the river bed. However, baffle blocks are prone to cavitation on the downstream
face, and are not recommended when the velocity is greater than 15 m/s.
 End sill It is constructed at the downstream end of the stilling basin. It may be solid of
dentated. Its function is to reduce the length date and to control scour. For large bar
diffusing for high incoming velocities, the sill is usually dentated to perform an addi-
tional function of dil thing the residual portion of the high velocity jet that may reach
the end of the basin. In a dentated sill, there are teeth with small gaps which diffuse
the jet. (These gaps and the projections between them look like human teeth).

4.14 TYPES OF STILLING BASINS

There are various types of stilling basins. The type of stilling basin most suitable at a particular
location mainly depends upon the initial Froude number (F₁) and the velocity V of the
incoming flow. The stilling basins are usually rectangular in plan. However, sometimes these
are flared. These are made of concrete. The length of the basin, measured in the direction of
flow, depends upon the sequent depth y₂ and the initial Froude No. F₁. It is different for
different type of basins.

The following types of basins are commonly used in practice.

 U.S.B.R. Stilling basins

o Type I basin
o Type II basin
o Type III basin

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 35

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

 Indian Standards basins

o Horizontal floor - Type I
o Horizontal floor - Type II
o Sloping apron - Type III
o Sloping apron - Type IV

4.14.1 U.S.B.R. STILLING BASINS

No special stilling basin is required to still flow if F₁ is less than 1.70. However, the channel
length beyond the point from where the water depth starts increasing, should not be less than
4.00 y2, where y2 is the sequent depth.

For F1 between 1.7 to 2.5, there is not much turbulence, only a horizontal apron is provided.
However, the apron should be sufficiently long to contain the jump. A length of 5.0 y2 is
usually provided. No accessories such as baffles or sills are provided.

Type I: Fe b/w 2.5 to 4.5

Type II: Fe > 4.5 and Velocity of flow < 15 m/s

Type III: Fe > 4.5 and Velocity of flow > 15 m/s

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 36

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

4.14.2 INDIAN STANDARDS BASINS

IS: 4997 – 1968 recommends 4 types of stilling basins, Type I & II are with horizontal apron,
and Type III & IV are with sloping apron.

Type I: Fe < 4.5 and Velocity of flow < 15 m/s

Weirs, barrages and low dam

Type II: Fe >= 4.5 and Velocity of flow > 15 m/s

Medium and high dam

Type III and Type IV: Provided when actual tail water depth is greater than depth of water
after hydraulic jump.

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 37

 HYDROLOGY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING, MODULE – 4

Recommended Questions

1. With a neat sketch explain the different types of earthen dams

2. Discuss in brief the causes of failure of earthen dam
3. What are the criteria for safe design of earth dam?
4. Explain the method of plotting flownet for seepage by graphical analysis
5. Write a note on seepage control measures
6. What is a spillway? What are its functions? Enumerate the various types of spillways
7. Write a note on ogee shaped spillway with its design principle
8. Explain components / parts of spillway
9. Enumerate the various classification of spillway gates
10. Write a note on energy dissipaters
11. Explain the different types of USBR stilling basins
12. Explain the different types of Indian standard stilling basins

AKHILA C G ., ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG., ATMECE, Mysuru 38