9

Collisions

9.1 INTRODUCTION
A collision between two particles is a process in which one is thrown against the other,
being able to exchange energy and momentum as a result of their interaction. The 'particles'
they can be macroscopic bodies or belong to the atomic or subatomic scale. The result
the collision can be extremely varied. The same two particles may emerge, if
in which the process is called spreading. On the other hand, a system may emerge
very different: a single particle (as in the example of experiment 3, Sec. 4.5), two par-
different particles from the initial ones (chemical reactions, nuclear reactions) or more than two
particles (fragmentation, high-energy collisions between "elementary particles").
Studying the parameters that characterize the collision products and their dependence
characteristic parameters (such as energy and momentum) of the incident particles
teeth, important information about the nature of interactions between the
particles, interactions that are responsible for the very process of collision. Almost everything
what we know about the interactions between subatomic particles resulted from the study of
collision processes between them. Experimentally, a beam of particles is prepared.
with an accelerator, and they bombard a 'target' that contains the other partner in
collision, studying the products of the collision with the help of detectors. Recently-
you, new techniques were also developed that allow launching a beam of particles
accelerated beams against another beam. The study of collisions has become one of today's
central fields of activity throughout physics.
m1
Besides being practically the only available method
p1i level of experimental investigation of interactions
Region among subatomic particles, the theoretical treatment
of from these interactions it is also formulated currently,
interaction largely, in terms of collisions.
m2 What characterizes a collision process?
p2I
Initial setup The starting point is an initial configuration.
(Figure 9.1), that is, 'before the collision', in which the
Figure 9.1 Initial configuration of
a collision. two particles have not yet collided,
 Chapter 9 Collisions 211

the way the interaction between them is negligible. Consequently, they move as a pair.
free particles (assuming there are no external forces to the system), with rectilinear motion
neo uniform, being characterized by their masses.1em2and initial moments1i
ep2i, respectively (or speedsv1i=p1i/m1iev2i=p2i/m2i) It is implicit in this
description of the idea that the interaction forces in-
the particles decay rapidly enough
when the distance between them increases for the
interaction is negligible in the initial configuration,
even if for this this configuration has to
to be extrapolated to very large distances ("infi-
(nitas). The collision process takes place at a stage
Collision process
intermediate, when the particles penetrate into the
Figure 9.2 Intermediate stage.
interaction region (Figure 9.2).
In the final configuration (Figure 9.3), that is, m3
after the collision, the resultant particles already p3f
they moved far enough away from the collision area
so that your interaction is undervalued again
well, moving like free particles, charac- m4
caught by their masses and final moments. The pro- p4f
the fundamental problem of collision theory consists Final configuration
in obtaining the final configuration from the configu- Figure 9.3 Final configuration of
collision.
initial feed. For this, it is necessary, in principle,
to know the forces of interaction between the particles
In practice, if these forces are not well known, there is often the problem
reverse, to obtain information about the interactions from the results of the collision.
Historically, the study of collision processes was proposed by the Royal Society.
from London in 1668, a few years after its founding. Important results, both
Experimental as well as theoretical, were obtained shortly after by John Wallis, Sir Christopher
Wren and Christian Huygens.
To fix ideas, we can think of collision processes in which the interactions are
due to contact forces (like in the examples from Sec. 4.5), but this is not in any way
any necessary (deflections can be produced by electric or gravitational forces
nationals, for example). As we will see, many results can be obtained by excluding
silently from the principles of conservation of momentum and energy, regardless of
mind of the knowledge of the forces of interaction. It is also for this reason that such
results remain valid for atomic or subatomic particles, to which the
conservation principles also apply.

9.2 IMPULSE OF A FORCE

We have seen that the contact forces acting during a collision (of two discs or
billiard balls, from a tennis racket with the ball, from a pile driver with the stake
they are extremely intense forces that act over an extreme period of time
212 Basic Physics Course

short mind, the 'collision time'. The effect of a

1 2
such impulsive force can be measured through the
impulse that it produces. To define it, let us consider
p1I F1(2) F2(1) p2I the example of a head-on collision between two balls of
bilhar (Figure 9.4). The equations of motion are
dp1 dp2
= F=
1(2 −F
) 2 1 = (−) (9.2.1)
p1f p2f dt dt
1 2
where the contact forces F1(2)eF2(1)that obeys
Figure 9.4 Frontal collision.
five to threeaNewton's law acts during the interval
of extremely short time (tifi= initial moment; tf=final moment).
Integrating both members of (9.2.1) with respect to time dt.iatétf, we obtain
tf p1f tf tf
dp 1
∫ dt= ∫ dp1= p1f− p1i= ⌬p1= Fdt=∫− F ∫ 2( )
1(2 )1dt= −⌬p (9.2.2)
ti
dt p1i ti ti

In general, for any force F, the integral

tf tf pf
dp
∫ Fdt= ∫ dt ∫ pf− p i= ⌬p
dt= dp= (9.2.3)
ti ti p i

it is called the impulse of the force F during the time interval (ti,tf). We see by (9.2.3)
what is the impulse of a force applied to a particle during (tif)is equal to
variation of the particle's momentum during this interval. We can compare this
result with the (7.2.8), where the work (spatial integral of the force) appears in place
of impulse (temporal integral), and the change in kinetic energy instead of the change in
moment (see the observation in Sec. 6.2 about the di-
F(t) different measures of a force.
The temporal variation of the characteristic magnitude
The dynamics of an impulsive force is illustrated in the figure-
ra 9.5. SeF(t) has constant direction and sense, the
area under this curve (shaded area) represents
t feel the impulse of the force. As we have already seen in (4.5.1),
O t It f
a (9.2.2) corresponds to the conservation of momentum
Figure 9.5 Impulsive force. tone of collision

⌬p1= p1f− p= Δp=

1i 2 p 2i⇒ 2f
− p− P= p+ p= p+ pI 2f= P1if ( ) 2i 1f (9.2.4)

wherePiIt's the total initial moment.ffinal total moment. In the case considered, it
it derives immediately from the fact that it is an isolated system: the forces responsible
the forces from the collision are internal forces. However, the result would still be valid in good
approach in this case, even if we take into account external forces such as the gr
life and friction, simply because such forces usually have negligible magnitude
or in confrontation with the extremely intense contact forces developed du-
during the collision of two billiard balls.
 Chapter 9 Collisions 213

Example: Suppose that the pile driver in Figure 6.7 has a mass m = 1 ton
(103kg) and its initial height be0= 5 m. What is the impulse transmitted to the stake by its
does it remain?
The speed with which the stake is hit is given by Torricelli's formula:

⎪⎧ v= 2gz 0 ⎪⎫
⎨ 2
⎬ v≈ 2× 10× 5 m/s = 10 m/s
⎩⎪ g≈ 10m/s ⎭⎪
Logo, in (9.2.3), timestampi=mv,pf= 0 (the collision with the stake stops the block), what
it gives to the impulse transmitted to the stake (equal and opposite to what is lost by the block)

Δp= 103kg× 10m / s = 104kg⋅ m / s

We can estimate the duration of the collision asΔt=tf–t i~10-2s. What is the strength of
average contact exerted by the block on the stake during the collision? We have

⎧ Δp104
Δp= FΔt ⎨F= = N= 106N
⎩ Δt 10−2

Like 1 kgf≈ 10 N, we see that F≈ 105kgf, that is, the contact force is equivalent
to the weight of a mass of 100 tons!

9.3 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS

The total energy of the system is always conserved in a collision, as in any process.
physical, although part of the mechanical energy can be converted into other forms of energy
already, like the heat. However, even in collisions where mechanical energy is conserved
(conservative interaction forces), part of the kinetic energy can convert into energy-
already potential, or vice versa.
In the example of two billiard balls that collide head-on with velocity...
opposite data (experience 1, Sec. 4.5), what happens? During the collision time, what
It is a fraction of a second, the kinetic energy of the particles converts into energy.
elastic potential associated with the deformation of the contact surface, as in a spring
compressed. After this period, the accumulated elastic potential energy returns to
convert into kinetic energy – like a compressed spring that returns to its extended state
the - separating the two bodies. In the ideal limit case of Sec. 4.5, the particles return to
move away with opposite velocities, of the same magnitude as the initial ones. Therefore, aener-
the final kinetic energy is equal to the initial kinetic energy. A collision in which this occurs
The collision is called elastic collision. Any other collision is an inelastic collision. Note
that, in an inelastic collision, the final kinetic energy can be less than or greater than the
initial. An example where it is greater is the explosion of a grenade upon colliding with the ground.
In this case, chemical energy stored in the explosive is converted into kinetic energy.
two fragments.
The collision between two billiard balls is not perfectly elastic. When they come together
we hear a sound: soon, part of the energy is converted into vibrations, which give
origin to sound waves. There is also a (slight) heating of the contact surface,
214 Basic Physics Course

that is, partial conversion of mechanical energy into heat. However, the total loss of
kinetic energy is small - typically around 3% or 4%, and we can ignore it
with good approximation, treating the collision as if it were elastic.

9.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTIC COLLISIONS

Let's consider two particles that move along a line and collide elastically.
mind (for example, head-on collisions between two disks or billiard balls). Let them be1e
m2the masses, ev1iev2ithe initial speeds before the collision. The relative speed
must satisfy the condition
v−
1i v2i> 0 (9.4.1)

to have a collision; we suppose that this condition is satisfied.

We assume still in all the collision problems that we will address that the particles...
they are subject only to the internal interaction forces that act during the collision,
so that the total momentum of the system is conserved:

P=
i p+ 1i
p2i= p1f+ p2f= Pf (9.4.2)

As the collision is elastic, the total kinetic energy is also conserved.

It is advisable to express it in terms of the moments of the particles. To do this, we note that,
not only in the one-dimensional case, but in general, we have, for a particle,

p= move {v= p/m ⎫

⎪ 1 p2
1 ⎬ T= m 2
T= 2 ⎪ 2
2 ⎭
that is,

p2
T= 9.4.3
2m
It is the expression of the kinetic energy of a particle as a function of its momentum and mass.
The conservation of kinetic energy in a collision then gives

p12I p2 p12f p22f

T=
i + 2I = + = Tf (9.4.4)
2m12m22m12m2

Given the initial configuration (p1i,p2i), as (9.4.2) and (9.4.4) are two equations in
two unknowns (plf,p2f) that determine the final configuration.
To solve them, we rewrite (9.4.2) in the form
p2f− p2i= p2i− p2f 9.4.5
and a (9.4.4) in the form of

(
p2f −2 p2i= λ2 p− p 1i
2
1f
2
) (9.4.6)
 Chapter 9 Collisions 215

where we introduce the dimensionless parameter

m2
λ= (9.4.7)
m1

Dividing member by member (9.4.6) by (9.4.5), we obtain

p2f + p= 2iλ p+ p ( 1i 1f ) (9.4.8)

As (9.4.5) and (9.4.8) constitute a system of two linear equations in the two...
cognitas (p2i,p2fBefore solving them, let us note that (9.4.8), expressed in terms of the
speeds of the particles, gives

(
m 2 v+2f v2i ) = mm m v+
( v
2
1 1f 1i )
1

that is

v2f − v=1f− v− v( 2i 1i ) (9.4.9)

This means that the relative speed between the two particles is inverted.
consequence of the collision, which is characteristic of an elastic collision in one dimension.
Solving the system of equations (9.4.5) – (9.4.8), we obtain

⎛ 1− λ ⎞ 2
p1f = ⎜ p+ p2i
⎝ 1 + λ ⎟⎠ 1i 1+ λ (9.4.10)
2λ ⎛ 1− λ ⎞
p2f = p− ⎜⎝ 1 + λ ⎟⎠ p2i
1 + λ 1i

We see that the final configuration, in this case, is entirely determined by the con-
initial configuration and by the conservation of momentum and kinetic energy, not depending
of the nature of interaction forces (as long as they correspond to an elastic process).
We can also write (9.4.10) in terms of velocities (just by using
p=mv):
⎧ ⎛ m1− m2 ⎞ 2m2
⎪ v=
1f ⎜⎝ m + m ⎟⎠ v+
1i v2i
⎪ 1 2 m 1+ m2 9.4.11
⎨
⎪ v = 2m1 v − ⎛ m1− m2 ⎞ v
⎪ 2f
⎩ m1+ m2 1i ⎜⎝ m+1 m 2⎠
⎟ 2i

Particular cases:
(i)Equal masses – In this case, according to (9.4.7),λ =1,and(9.4.10)and(9.4.11)give:

⎧⎪ p1f = p2iv=⎧⎪ v 1f 2i
⎨ ⎨ (9.4.12)
⎪⎩ p 2f = p1I ⎪⎩ v2f1i = v

that is, the particles exchange moments and velocities with each other.
Experiences 1 and 2 of Section 4.5 are particular cases of this situation.
216 Basic Physics Course

(ii) Target at rest – As already mentioned, this is a common situation, corres-

pondering about

v2i= 0= p2i (9.4.13)

what eliminates the last terms of the 2nd member in (9.4.11). Let's see what
it happens, in this situation, in two extreme cases.
(a)m1<<m2As (9.4.11) state, in this case,

⎧ v1f≈ −v 1i
⎪ (9.4.14)
⎨ 1 m
⎪ v2f ≈ 2 vm v 1i 1i
⎩ 2

So, when a very light particle collides with another very heavy one at rest, the
A light particle is practically reflected back with a speed equal and opposite to the incident one.
tooth, while the heavy particle recedes with a very small velocity
(the smaller the ratio of the masses, the smaller it is). An example is the elastic collision of a
a ball in free fall with the surface of the Earth: the recoil experienced by the Earth is negligible.
A 2athe (9.4.14) also gives
p2f≈ 2p 1i
(9.4.15)

That is, the momentum transferred to the recoil of the target particle is approximately double.
of incident momentum. This arises from the conservation of momentum and serp1f≈ 1i, or
be,Δp1≈ -2p1i.
(b)m1>>m2In this case, the (9.4.11) give

⎧⎪ v≈1f v 1i
⎨ (9.4.16)
⎩⎪ v2f ≈ 2v1i
Logo, in the elastic collision of a very heavy particle with another very light one in
, the heavy particle is hardly slowed down ("ignores" the presence of the other particle),
but the light one is launched forward at approximately double the speed of the par-
incident title. An example is what happens when a ball hits one of the pins in
bowling game.
Application to neutron moderation: In a nuclear reactor, U nuclei235soffrèm
a process of fission (fragmentation into lighter nuclei), with the release of energy
already, when they capture neutrons, and some neutrons are also emitted by themselves
fission process, which allows, in principle, to produce a chain reaction. The pro-
The problem is that the neutrons produced in fission are fast, with an average energy of ~ 1.
MeV, while the neutrons are more effective in producing new fissions (capture by
(uranium) are slow. The thermal agitation speeds of the neutrons correspond to
energies of ~ 10-2a10-1eV
L
.ogo,forareacotrotfuncoitnts,inecesary
to "thermalize" the neutrons, reducing them to thermal equilibrium velocities,
through collisions with some type of target particles, which we can treat as practi-
strictly at rest. What are the ideal targets for this purpose?
 Chapter 9 Collisions 217

According to (9.4.16), collisions of fast neutrons with much lighter particles, such as
electrons do not moderate neutrons: they only accelerate electrons. On the other hand, by (9.4.14),
collisions with much heavier targets, such as uranium nuclei, also do not moderate
The neutrons: they 'reflect' themselves, without practically altering the magnitude of their speed.
The most efficient situation from a moderation perspective corresponds to a coli-
is frontal to the fast neutron with a particle of approximately equal mass,
like the proton, at rest. In this case, according to (9.4.12), the neutron would transfer almost all
its speed for the proton. From this point of view, the ideal moderator would seem to be the
hydrogen. Unfortunately, this is not true, because hydrogen also captures
great effectiveness in slow neutrons, removing them from the fission cycle. The moderators in-
stuck in practice are then cores of light elements that do not capture neutrons
excessively slow: deuterium (contained in heavy water), beryllium and carbon (under
form of graphite or in paraffin.

Average force (pressure) exerted by a jet of sand:

Let's consider a horizontal jet of sand, with
He is blowing
grains per second, all at the same speed v v v
that affects a heavy vertical block (Fig-
weigh the mass of each grain.
v v
Let's suppose that the collision between each grain –v
of sand and the block is elastic. We then have the Block
situation of (9.4.14), that is, each grain is total- Figure 9.6 Pressure of a sand jet.
reflected mind back with speed -v.
As we saw in (9.4.15), each collision transfers a momentum to the block.
Δp= 2mv (9.4.17)
Calculate the average number of collisions per second, the average force F exerted by the
sand jet over the block is the rate of momentum transfer per unit time,
that is,

F= nΔp= 2mnv (9.4.18)

Note that this is the average temporal value of
force. The instantaneous force as a function of time F
suffers small fluctuations around the average value –
F
at each collision, as illustrated in Figure 9.7.
We will see later (Vol. 2), when studying kinetic theory-
the two gases, that the pressure exerted by a gas
t
about the walls of the container can be interpreted O
in a manner analogous to that discussed in this example. Figure 9.7 Fluctuations of force.
218 Basic Physics Course

9.5 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TOTALLY INELASTIC COLLISIONS

As an example of inelastic collision in one dimension, we will consider only one
totally inelastic collision. This does not mean that the final kinetic energy is null.
What would be impossible, but that she assumes the smallest possible value, which is the value of
kinetic energy associated with the movement of the center of mass. In effect, the forces
that act in the collision being internal forces, the CM must remain in motion
rectilinear and uniform, and the minimum value of kinetic energy is that corresponding to
this movement.
We see that in a completely inelastic collision, there can be no movements.
terms (that is, related to the CM) after the collision: the particles must move together, their
movement coinciding with that of the CM. Thus, the prototype of the totally inelastic collision is
experience 3 of Sec. 4.4: two particles with masses (m1,m2) and initial speeds (v1i,
v2iThey begin to move together after the collision, forming a single particle of mass m.1+
m2final velocityf.
The conservation of momentum now

P=
i m v+ 2 2i m ( v=1 P
m v= m+
1 1i 2 ) f f (9.5.1)

what determinedf
m1v1i+ m2 v2I
vf = = vCM (9.5.2)
m1+ m2

where the last equality comes from (8.1.15). Therefore, the conservation of momentum is sufficient.
to determine the final configuration of a completely inelastic collision, and the result-
Does agree with the above considerations.

Application to the ballistic pendulum:

This device, used to measure speed

of firearm bullets, consists of a block of
madeira (massam2suspended by wires, in the form of
that can oscillate like a pendulum. The bullet (mass
m1) is fired at the block with velocity v1I
m1+m2
m1 horizontal to be determined. It is housed in it and the block
m2 h
v1i climb to a maximum oscillation height, which is
measure. The problem consists of determining1ia
Figure 9.8 Ballistic pendulum.
based on this data.
The totally inelastic collision of the bullet with the block lasts such a short time that
there is not enough time for the pendulum to rise appreciably in this interval, so that
we can treat it as a unidimensional process. A (9.5.2), with2i= 0, then gives the
block speed + bullet immediately after the collision:
m1
v f= v (9.5.3)
m1+ m2 1i
 Chapter 9 Collisions 219

The maximum height that the block rises as a result of the acquired velocity is
given by the "Torricelli's formula"

v f= 2gh (9.5.4)

As (9.5.3) and (9.5.4) allow to determine v1i :

m1+ m2
v=
1i 2gh (9.5.5)
m1

Example: For a dough ball1= 10 g and a block of wood weighing 4 kg, the height
The measurement is 5 cm. What is the speed of the bullet?

4.010
v≈
1i ⋅ 2× 10× 5× 10−2m/s≈ 400m / s
10

9.6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTIC COLLISIONS

In the treatment of collisions in more than one dimension, we will restrict ourselves to the case where
the target is at rest. We have already seen that this is the most common case in practice, in the experiments
savings with accelerators. In addition, sev2iit is the speed of the target before the collision, just
pass to a reference frame in motion with this speed (which is also inertial)
to reduce the situation to the previous one, in a way that it does not involve restriction of generality.
To clarify the ideas, let's illustrate the situation through the collision of two balls.
lhar, with the target (massam)2)
initially at rest and the incident particle (mass1)
having an initial speed v1iThe moment of the system in the initial configuration is then
P=
i p1I= m1v 1i (9.6.1)

Meanwhile, to characterize the initial configuration, the data above is no longer

sufficient. It is also necessary to specify what dis-
the incident particle would pass from the other if
there was no collision. This distance is called the y m1 v1f
shock parameter (or impact parameter)
In Figure 9.9, it is the distance between the line of
m1
initial movement of the center of the incident particle v1i
and the center O of the target. The result of the collision is very θ1
b
different according to the debit value. For example, for x
O
m2 θ2
b = 0, we have a frontal collision, which is essential-
one-dimensional mind; in the example above, sebé
greater than the sum of the radii of the two balls, there is not
v2f
collision. m2
Sep1fep2f these are the final moments of the two Figure 9.9 Two-dimensional collision.

particles, the momentum of the system in the configuration

final is
P f = p1f+ p 2f (9.6.2)
220 Basic Physics Course

the conservation of momentum, Pi=Pftogether with (9.6.1) and (9.6.2) leads to

P=
1i p1f+ p 2f (9.6.3)

This relationship shows that the three vectors per-

they hold to the same plane, which is called plane of
p1f p2f collision. We will adopt a system in this plan of
Cartesian coordinates Oxy with origin in posi-
θ1 θ2 initial action of the target and axis Ox//p1i(Figure 9.9). A
p1i final configuration is then characterized by the
Figure 9.10 Initial and final moments. magnitudes1f, p2fdep1fep2fand by the anglesθ1e
θ2that the directions of these vectors, respectively
you, do with Ox (Figures 9.9 and 9.10).
Note that, although in the example of bi- balls
p1f whether the interaction is contact, this absolutely
it is not necessary, and all the concepts and definitions
m1
The above actions apply equally well to collisions.
p1i b m2 θ1
in which interaction forces act at a distance
O
θ2 (Figure 9.11), such as electromagnetic forces.
m2 In this case,θ1eθ2they are the directions of movement
p2f asymptotic that tend to the curvature trajectories
Figure 9.11 Distance Collisions. as the two particles in the final configuration.
A (9.6.3) is equivalent to two scalar equations.
for the components x and y of the vectors:

⎪⎧ PCOS
1f (Polycystic
1 2fOvary 1i θ
Syndrome)
2 + PCOSθ = p
(9.6.4)
⎨
⎪⎩ psenθ
1f − 1psenθ2f = 0 2

The initial and final kinetic energies are given by

p1i 2
T=
i (9.6.5)
2m1

2 2
p1f p 2f
T f= + (9.6.6)
2m12m2

Since we are assuming elastic collision, we have Ti=Tf, that is,

2 2
p1I 2 p1f p2f
= + 9.6.7
2m12m12m2

As (9.6.4) and (9.6.7) are three scalar equations in the four unknowns p1f,p2f, θ1e
θ2This confirms what we said above: it is generally not possible to determine the configu-
final action without providing more data (this was possible in the unidimensional case because
θ1= 0 orπ eθ2= 0 in this case). The extra data can be the shock parameter b, if the
Interaction forces are known, as this allows, in principle, to calculate the trajectories.
 Chapter 9 Collisions 221

We can also define the final configuration considered by giving the value of one of the
unknowns, for exampleθ1, which allows determining the others.
Let's first consider the particular case of an elastic collision between particles.
the same mass.

Equal masses
Be1=m2=m. A (9.6.7) gives then
p1i 2 = p1f 2+ p2f 2
(9.6.8)

On the other hand, squaring both sides of (9.6.3) (that is, taking)
the scalar product of the vectors with themselves comes

( )( )
p1i=2 p+ p1f2f ⋅ p+ p 2f= p21f+ p2f 2+ 2p1f⋅ 1f
p 2f (9.6.9)

what, by (7.1.4), is nothing more than the law of cosines applied to the triangle in the second figure
9.10. Comparing (9.6.8) and (9.6.9), we conclude that (Figure 9.9)

⎧ π 9.6.10
p1f⋅ p 2f = 0θ +⎨ θ 1 = 2
⎩ 2

(a (9.6.8) is the Pythagorean theorem applied to the triangle in Figure 9.10, which is rectangular.
Logo, the movement directions of two particles of equal masses, after
an elastic collision with one of them initially at rest, are perpendicular
It's easy to verify this in stroboscopic photos of collisions between billiard balls or
on the trails left by protons in photographic emulsions in proton-proton collisions.
This result can be understood quite simply through analysis.
collides in the reference of the center of mass. As the CM moves with motion
Rectilinear and uniform, this is an inertial reference frame, and we will see that a collision of two
particles (not necessarily of equal masses) are described in a particularly
simple in it. The reference used so far, in which the target is at rest before the collision.
are, is called the laboratory reference. We will indicate by lines (′) the large-
regarding the reference of the CM.
As the CM is also the center of moment, we have (cf. (8.1.19))
p1i′ + p 2i′= p1f+′ p 2f= 0′ (9.6.11)

Logo, in the initial configuration, view from the CM, the

particles approach each other along the
p′1f
eixox, like equal and opposite moments,′1i= –p′. 2i
In the final configuration, viewed from the CM, they move away. p′1I θ′1 p′2i
x
one another, also with equal moments and
p′2f – θ′1
opposite, p′1f= –p′. Logo,
2f
ifθ1it is the angle between θ′2 =
p′1fand the x-axis (Figure 9.12), the angle θbetween2
p'2fand this axis is worthπ – θ,1 that is, Figure 9.12 Referential of the CM.
222 Basic physics course

θ1′+ θ2=
′ π 9.6.12

Consequently, the description of the collision in the CM reference frame is much simpler.
whatever they may be1em2.
Let's return now to the case of them.1= m2let's see how to move from the CM reference
to the laboratory reference. To simplify, let's call it v1idev1A (9.5.2) shows in-
so that
v1
v CM = (9.6.13)
2

The velocities v' relative to the CM are related to the velocities v

correspondents in the laboratory by
v1 ⎧ 1
(CM) (Lab.) v′= v − v CM= v− ⎨ v= v' + v1 (9.6.14)
2 ⎩ 2
m m m m
1
–v1 – 1
– v1 v1 Figure 9.13 illustrates the effect of this transfor-
2 2
formation about the initial configuration.
Figure 9.13 Initial speeds in
two references. Figure 9.14 shows the effect of the same trans-
training on the final configuration.
1
2 v1
– 1
v′1f vCM ′ = v 2f′ = v
How v 1f 1, the triangle formed by
θ1 2
1 v′1f,vCMev1fit is isosceles. Therefore, its base angles
2 v1
–
θ1 v1f are the same, and Figure 9.14 shows that the co-value
θ′1
θ1 one of these angles isθ1Similarly, in the tri-
isosceles triangle formed by v', vCMev the angles
θ2 2f 2f,
1
–v1
2
θ′2 from the base has the common valueθ2The figure shows in-
θ2 v2f
so that
θ2
v′2f vCM
1
2v1
– 1 ′ 1 ′
θ1= θ1θ 2= θ2 (9.6.15)
Figure 9.14 Final speeds in 2 2
two references. it is the relationship between the deflection angles in the laboratory
and in the CM reference. The (9.6.15) and (9.6.12) give
p1f p2f soθ1+ θ2= π/2, which coincides with (9.6.10).
θ2 For a collision with a deflection angleθ1, as
θ1
p1I the magnitudes of the final moments are obtained imedia-
Figure 9.15 Moment for masses the right triangle formed by1i, p1f
equal. ep2f (Figure 9.15):

⎪⎧ p1f = PCOSθ
1i 1
(9.6.16)
⎨
⎪⎩ p 2f = p1iyouθ1
 Chapter 9 Collisions 223

(b) General case

In general, in whom1em2they can be unequal, the (9.6.7) is written

(
p2f=2 λ p− p 1i 2 1f
2
) (9.6.17)

whereλ is again defined by (9.4.7).

On the other hand, the (9.6.3) gives

(
p2f=2 p− p 1i 1f )
2 2
= p1i 2+ p1f− pp cosθ
1i1f1 (9.6.18)

which also corresponds to the law of cosines in the triangle in Figure 9.10. By equating the
(9.6.17) and (9.6.18), we obtain

(1 + λ )p−1f2pcosθ
2
p= 0(
1ip+ 1−1λ 1f ) 1i
2
(9.6.19)

If we define the collision by giving the value ofθ1(see discussion after (9.6.7)), the (9.6.19)
it is a second-degree equation for the determination of the unknown p1f .Comop1f= |p1f a solu-
it is only acceptable if it is real and≥ 0. For the roots of (9.6.19) to be real, we must have

(
b2− 4ac= 4 p 1I 2cos2θ − 14 1− λ 2p= 4 p 1i 2 ) 1i
2 ⎡ cosθ2 −1 1− λ
⎣ ( 2
)⎤⎦ ≥ 0 9.6.20

that is,

cos2θ1− 1 + λ 2= λ 2− you2θ1≥ 0 (9.6.21)

The roots of (9.6.19) are

p1i
p=
1f
1+ λ
⎡ cosθ
⎢⎣ 1 cos2θ 1− 1− λ 2⎤ ( ) ⎥⎦ September 6, 2022

but only corresponds to an acceptable solution a root such that p1f≥ 0.

(i) Sem2>m1, that is,λ 1, the (9.6.21) is always satisfied, whatever it may beθ1,
0≤ θ1≤ π. On the other hand, the radical of (9.6.22) is always > cosθ1, forλ 1, so that
only the solution with the sign + is acceptable.

(ii) Sem2<m1, that is,λ < 1, a (9.6.21) leads to

youθ1≤ youθ1 maxis= λ = m2/m<
1 1 September 6, 2023

that is, there is a maximum value of the angleθ1: θ1≤ θ1max. In particular, ifλ 1, it is also
θ1max1, that is, a heavy particle that collides elastically with a particle
A leve at rest suffers almost no deflection.
Forλ < λ1 max< 1, both roots in (9.6.22) are acceptable (dãop1f≥ 0); one can
check that they correspond to different values fromθ2(collisions with parameters of
different shock)
Param1= m2(λ = 1), a (9.6.15) shows that any collision leads both particles to
the ones only to the front hemisphere (0≤ θ1≤ π/2;0≤ θ2≤ π/2).
224 Basic Physics Course

9.7 BI-DIMENSIONAL INELASTIC COLLISIONS

Now let's consider an inelastic collision between a particle of mass m.1the moment
to initial1it's a mass target2at rest. Let's assume that the final configuration
it also contains two particles, but which may be different from the initial ones, which
frequently, for example in many nuclear reactions. Let it be3em4the masses
the final particles, ep3ep4the respective final moments.
Instead of (9.6.3), the conservation of momentum now gives

p1= p3+ p4 9.7.1

The reasoning of Sec. 9.6 remains valid: te-

y
p3 but still a collision plan, and the problem is
m3 bidimensional Let them beθ3andθ4the angles between the di-
corresponding movement reactions ap3ep4and the
m1 θ3
p1 m2 x axis of x, taken in the direction of p1(Figure 9.16).
θ2 As the collision is inelastic, the magnitude
m4 Q= T f− T=i T+ T− (9.7.2)
3 T4 1
p4
Figure 9.16 Inelastic collision. é ≠ 0. This magnitude is called the 'Q factor' associated-
from the collision. If Q < 0, part of the kinetic energy
initial lost, converting into another form of energy, and the process is said to be
If Q > 0, there is a gain in kinetic energy, and the process is exothermic.
The measure of the "Q" of a nuclear reaction is important information about it.
compared to the situation of Sec. 9.6, we now have an additional unknown (Q), in such a way
what is needed to give two magnitudes associated with the final configuration so that the laws of
conservation of momentum and energy define them. It is common to measure the kinetic energy of a
of the reaction products, for example, T3, and the angle of deviationθ3correspondent, useful-
using this data to determineQ.
The analogue of (9.6.18) is now

( p1
p24= p− 3 )2 = p21+ p32− 2p 1 p3cosθ3 (9.7.3)

where (9.6.7) is replaced by (9.7.2). Let's express the results in terms of

some kinetic energies, using (9.4.3), which gives

p= 2mT (9.7.4)

Note that we have to make the assumption that the reaction products have velocities
non-relativistic for the treatment to be valid; in nuclear reactions, this hypo-
it is violated in many cases, but can be applied to several reactions.
Substituting (9.7.4) into (9.7.3), we obtain

p42 m m m1m3T1T3
T=
4 = 1T+1 3T− 2 3 cosθ3 (9.7.5)
2m4m4 m4 m4
 Chapter 9 Collisions 225

and equation (9.7.2) then gives

⎛ m3 ⎞ ⎛ m1 ⎞ m1m3T1T3
Q = 1⎜ + ⎟ T−
3 1−
⎜⎝ T−
1 2 cosθ3 (9.7.6)
⎝ 4 ⎠ m4 ⎟⎠ m4

that gives the value of Q in function of the data obtained in the measurement (T3, θ3).

Example: Let's consider the nuclear reaction.

d+ d→ p+ t (9.7.7)

deuteron (nucleus of heavy hydrogen, H)2, of the mass1≈ 2 u.m.a.. (united-

from atomic mass), foot the proton (mass3≈ 1 u.m.a.) summer or triton (nucleus of tritium,
H3unstable isotope of hydrogen with mass4≈ 3 u.m.a.).
Bombarding a deuterium target (at rest) with a beam of deuterons of energy
At GiaT = 4 MeV, it is verified that the protons emerging at 90° to the direction of the incident beam
1
They have an energy of 4 MeV. What is the Q of reaction (9.7.7)?
To obtain it, just replace the data in (9.7.6)

⎧ ⎫
⎪ θ = 90° ⇒ cosθ = 0 ⎪
⎪⎪ 3 3
⎪⎪ ⎛ 4 1⎞
⎨ T=
1 T=3 4 MeV Q=⎬ ⎜⎝ 3 − 3 ⎟⎠ × 4 MeV = 4 MeV
⎪m 1 m1 2 ⎪
⎪ 3 ≈; ≈ ... ⎪
⎪⎩ m 4 3 m4 3 ⎪⎭

Let's also consider a capture reaction, which is a completely inelastic collision.

tica, such as in Sec. 9.5, where the particles emerge "stuck together" (for example, n+
p→ d). For a stationary target, the conservation of momentum gives

⎧ m1
1 i m+( mv
mv= 1 2 ) f ⎨ vf= vi (9.7.8)
⎩ m1+ m2

as in (9.5.3). The final kinetic energy is therefore

1 1 m12 m1
T f= m+(mv1 2= 2 ) f v i2= T 9.7.9
2 2m1+ m2 m1+ m2 i
1
whereT=
i m1v i
2it is the initial kinetic energy.
2
Logo, the reaction is given by

⎛ m1 ⎞
Q= T f− T=i ⎜⎝ m+ m − 1T
⎟⎠ i
1 2

that is to say,

m2 ⎛ m
1m ⎞2 (9.7.10)
Q= − T= − ⎜ 1 2 − 1v
⎟⎠ I
m1+ m2 i ⎝ m
2m+ 1 2
226 Basic Physics Course

We see that a reaction of this type is always endergonic (there is a loss of kinetic energy.
(tica), as one would expect.
As mentioned in Section 9.5, (9.7.10) represents the maximum possible loss of
kinetic energy, in a collision between two particles, consistent with the conservation of
kinetic energy of the center of mass of the system, that is, it must represent the kinetic energy
internal (of the movement relative to the CM). We see in (9.7.10) that it is the kinetic energy
what would have a particle of velocity v1and the mass is equal to am1m2/(m1+m2) called the
reduced mass system.

PROBLEMS
9.1 Calculate the magnitude (in kgf) of the impulsive force acting on each of the examples.
In a tennis game serve, the ball, with a mass of 60 g, is
launched with a speed of 40 m/s; the contact time with the racket is
an order of 0.005 s. (b) A football player takes a penalty kick, kicking the ball.
at a speed of 20 m/s. The mass of the ball is 450 g and the duration of the kick
of the order of 0.01 s. (c) A person weighing 80 kg jumps from the top of a wall of 2.5 m high
height, falling standing (without bending the knees). The duration of the impact is 0.01 s. It is
better to kneel down! (d) A 1.5-ton car, at 60 km/h, crashes into a
wall. The duration of the shock is 0.1 s.

A H
A F
H F
B E
C B E
I
G D
D

9.2 In the particle theory of light, in the 17th century, a beam of light was imagined as
consisting of very small particles, moving at very high speed
elevated. The figure above, reproduced from the famous 'Discourse on the Method' of
René Descartes shows the corpuscular explanation of reflection and refraction of
light. The reflection would be analogous to the elastic collision of a tennis ball with a pa-
impenetrable network. When crossing the boundary surface between two media
different transparent materials (air and water, for example), a luminous corpuscle would have
its speed altered by the effect of an impulsive force normal to the surface of
separation, continuing afterwards in its free movement from the action of forces, like
a tennis ball that penetrates into the water. Let it beθ1,
θ'eθ
1 2the angles of incidence,
reflection and refraction respectively. Show that this model would explain the laws.
of reflection and refraction: reflected and refracted rays are in the plane of incidence,
withθ′=θ
1 1, youθ1/senθ212and calculate the relativistic refractive index12go to
half the angle in relation to the first based on the speeds1ev2two corpses
particles in media 1 and 2. Would the speed of the particles be greater in air or in water?
 Chapter 9 Collisions 227

9.3 Consider the elastic collision between two particles of mass m1in2what is mo-
comes in a dimension. (a) Verify, from (9.4.11), that the speed of
CM is conserved in the collision. (b) Calculate the initial velocities.1i′ the two 2i
particles in relation to the CM of the system, expressing them as a function of the velocity
initial relativefrom particle 2 in relation to particle 1 and the total mass M=m1
+m2What is the relationship between′rievri? (c) Do the same for the final velocities
v′1fRegarding
2f
the CM, with the help of (9.4.11). What is the relationship between′rfevrf
(the final relative speed)? And between′rf ev′ri? (d) Interpret the results of (a)
a (c), describing how the collision occurs from the reference frame of the CM.
9.4 Consider any system of two particles, of masses m.1em2and the speed-
desv1ev2Be with you2the 1
kinetic energies of the two particles, evra velocida-
of particle 2 relative to particle 1. (a) Show that the moments
the two particles in relation to the CM are given by: p1' = -μvr= –p′, where 2
μ=m1m2 /M(comM=m1+m2it is called reduced mass in a system of two
particles. Note that 1/μ = (1/m1) + (1/m2). (b) Show that the total kinetic energy
1
1′ M2′v
2
is given by T+ 1 T=2 T+ T+ CMwhereTThese
1 are
2
the relative kinetic energies
2
to the CM evCMis the speed of the CM. (c) Show that the kinetic energy relative to the CM
1 2
(internal kinetic energy) is given by T+1′ T+2′ μv r Combining the results
2
From (b) and (c), we see that the total kinetic energy is the sum of the kinetic energy
associated with the movement of the CM, with a mass equal to the total mass, plus the
kinetic energy of relative motion, equivalent to that of a particle of
mass equal to reduced mass and velocity equal to relative velocity.
Show that, for an isolated system of two particles, the inter-kinetic energy
It is conserved in an elastic collision between them. Show that the factor Q of a co-
Inelastic collision (Sec. 9.7) is equal to the variation of internal kinetic energy.
9.5 A particle of mass m moves with
speed comes in the direction of two others
v
identical, of mass, aligned with it,
initially separated and at rest (see m' m′
Figure). The collisions between the particles m

they are all elastic. (a) Show that, param≤ there will be two collisions, and calculate them
final speeds of the three particles. (b) Show that, for param>m′, there will be three
collisions, and calculate the final velocities of the three particles. (c) Verify that, in the
In case (a), the result for the first and the third particle is the same as if the
the intermediate particle did not exist.
9.6 What fraction of kinetic energy is transferred by a particle of mass m,
that moves with velocity v, in an elastic head-on collision with a particle
of the mass initially at rest? Express the result in terms of the ratio
λ =m′/m. For what value ofλ the transfer is maximum, and what is its value? (b) Colo-
a third particle of mass m" is at rest, aligned between the two particles.
with m and m′. Show that the transfer of kinetic energy from m to m′ is
228 Basic Physics Course

maximum quandom"=mm′ Show that, param≠ m', the presence of the particle
intermediary allows to transfer more kinetic energy than in
case (a).
9.7 In a well-known toy,
a series of metallic balls
identical, suspended by wires
identical stuck to a support,
they are initially all in con-
Dad. If a certain number
the ball is displaced together
mind from the equilibrium position and
loose (Figure), the effect of the collision with the others is to transfer the velocity.
that collide a certain number of balls on the other end, suspending them.
(a) Assuming that the effect of the collision was to transfer a velocity v′an′bolas
adjacent situated at the other end, the collisions being all elastic, mos-
three that are necessarily, n' = nev' = v. (b) Taking n = 2, and assuming that
the effect of the collision is to transfer velocities1ev2to the two balls situated more to the
right (Figure), show that, necessarily1=v2=
9.8 A 5 g bullet strikes a ballistic pendulum with a mass of 2 kg.
speed of 400 m/s, crosses it and emerges on the other side with a speed of
100 m/s. Calculate the height of elevation of the pendulum, disregarding the elevation during
the time it takes for the bullet to cross it. Check the validity of this approximation.
9.9 During the night, a luxury car, with a total mass of 2,400 kg, crashes into
rear of a car with a total mass of 1,200 kg, which was stopped at a red light
The driver of the luxury car claims that the other one had its lights off,
and that he was downshifting as he approached the signal, being less than
10 km/h when the accident occurred. The investigation finds that the luxury car demolished
you or the other at a distance of 10.5 m, and estimate the coefficient of kinetic friction
had the road at the accident site at 0.6. Calculate at what speed the car
luxury actually came.
9.10 The clerk of a grocery store, to serve a customer who asked for 200 g of cre-
give me fresh milk, place the empty container on a spring scale, adjust the
zero and pours the cream over the container from a height of 75 cm. After 2
With the scale reading 200 g, the clerk quickly removes the container.
the top of the scale. How much cream does the customer actually take?
A loaded truck, with a total mass of 3 tons, traveling north at
60 km/h, collides with a car weighing 1 ton, traveling east.
90 km/h, at the intersection. Calculate in which direction and how far the car is.
dragged by the truck, knowing that the coefficient of kinetic friction at the site of
the accident is 0.5.
9.12 A particle with velocity v0collides elastically with another identical one in re-
landing. In the CM reference, the direction of movement is deflected by 60º due to
 Chapter 9 Collisions 229

from the collision. Calculate the deflection angles in relation to the direction of motion of
incident particle, and the magnitudes of the velocities of the two particles after the
collision, in the laboratory reference frame.
A hydrogen atom, moving with velocity v, collides elastically
with a hydrogen molecule at rest, undergoing a deflection of 45º. Cal-
(a) the magnitude of the atom's velocity after the collision; (b) the direction of
molecule movement (with respect to the initial direction of the atom's movement)
and the magnitude of its speed.
9.14 A particle of mass and initial velocity collides elastically with another.
of mass M, initially at rest in the laboratory reference frame. After the collision
is, the particle with mass was deflected at an angle of 90º, and the magnitude of the
its speed was reduced to / 3, where u = |u|. The particle of mass M
emerges from the collision with a speed of magnitude v, in a direction that makes an angle
guloθ How. (a) Determineθ (b) Calculate the ratioλ =M/me the value dev. (c)
Determine the anglesθ′eθbetween
m M the final motion directions demeM,
respectively, and the direction gave, in the reference of the CM.
The discovery of the neutron by the English physicist James Chadwick in 1932 was based on the
Following observation: beryllium, when bombarded by alpha particles, produced
neutral particles, with unknown mass and velocity. When these particles
we collided elastically with protons, the maximum recoil speed of the protons was
of 3.3× 107m/s. When they collided elastically with nitrogen nuclei (of
mass≈ 14 times that of the proton), the maximum recoil speed of the nitro nuclei
the genius was 4.7× 106m/s 10%. What can we conclude from this data about: (a) the
reason for the mass of unknown neutral particles to the mass of a proton? (b)
the speed of the unknown particles?
9.16 What is the maximum angle of elastic scattering of an alpha particle by a
neutron at rest? (mass of alpha≈ 4× mass of the neutron). At this angle, which
fraction of the incident kinetic energy goes to the recoil neutron, and what is the angle-
the direction of the recoil and that of incidence?
9.17 in the reaction d + d→
p+t, whose factor Q is 4 MeV (Sec. 9.7), has a beam of
3 MeV incident on a target at rest. Take the masses
like sendingp= 1 a.m.u. (atomic mass unit), md= 2 u.m.a. emt = 3
u.m.a. (a) What is the energy (in MeV) of the emergent particles at 45º from the in- direction?
Incidence? (b) What is the energy associated with them? (c) In what direction
emergency is relative to the direction of incidence?
9.18 The elastic scattering of a proton by an unknown target nucleus in re-
Landing is observed in a bubble chamber, where there is a magnetic field.
perpendicular to the plane of motion of the proton. It is verified that the proton is dis-
a 60° angle and that the radius of curvature of its trajectory is reduced by a factor
from 0.946 due to the collision. Identify the target nucleus.
230 Basic Physics Course

9.19 A circular disc with radius, that moves

about an air mattress with speed
O v
despicable friction, collides with a disk
identical at rest. The shock parameter- a
b
what is b(cf. Figure and Sec. 9.6). (a) Consider-
O′
to the collision in the CM reference. Taking
it is taken into account that the contact force between the a
discs at the moment of the collision are directed
according to the line that connects the two centers
eO′, determine the angle by which the moments of the two disks deviate in this
referential. (b) Determine the directions and magnitudes of the velocities of the two
discs after the collision, in the laboratory reference frame.
9.20To explain air resistance (more generally, that of any fluid) to movement-
the movement of a body through it, Newton proposed the following model. The fluid is
imagined as being composed of a large number (n per unit of volume
me) of particles at rest, with mass m (very small) each one. When the
a body, with mass M>>m, moves with velocity v through the fluid, it will
colliding with the particles and transferring momentum to them in this way. The force
The resistance of the resulting fluid is proportional to the square of the velocity.
Calculate this force, if the body is a plate of area A that moves perpendicular
largely to the plan of the plate, as a function of A, the densityρ n mdo fluid.