Evolution Notes
Theories of origin of life
[Link] Of Spontaneous Generation(Abiogenesis)
[Link] Of Biogenesis - Francisco Redi, Spallazani and Louis
Pasteur( does not explain origin of life)
[Link] theory - Panspermia
[Link] Of Special Creation
[Link] Of Chemical Evolution
- Oparin and Haldane
First form of life was originated from non-living inorganic and organic
molecules such as CH4, NH3, Sugars, Proteins, Nucleic acids, etc..
Abiogenesis first but biogenesis ever since
-Urey-Miller Experiment :Harold Urey and Stanley Miller
They created a condition like that of primitive earth (high temperatures,
volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere with Ch4,NH3,H2O,H2etc.
They created an electrical discharge in a closed flask containing with
NH3,CH4,H2 and water vapour at 800C.
They produced Amino Acids.
In similar experiments sugars, nitrogenous bases, pigments and fats were
formed
Fist non cellular forms of earth were found 3 billion years ago
They are self replicating metabolic capsule with macromolecules like
RNA, proteins, polysaccharides,etc..
Evidences for Evolution
-Palaeontogolical evidences
Palaeontology is study of Fossils (remnants of life forms found in rocks or
earth’s crust). Fossils are written documents of evolution
To study the phylogeny(evolutionary history or race history). eg. Horse
evolution.
To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms.
[Link]
To study about extinct animals. [Link]
To know about the geological period by analysing fossils in sedementary
rocks. It is said that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are
restricted to certain geological life spans.
-Morphological and Anatomical evidences
Homologous Organs: They are similar in anatomical structure and origin
but have different functions (Homology). eg,
Human’s hands, Bat’s wings, Whale’s flippers and Cheetah’s foot have the same
structure of forelimbs(Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges)
Vertebrates hearts or brains
In Plants: Thorn and tendrills of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita
The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent Evolution(the same
structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to
different needs)
Analogous Organs: They are similar in functions but have different
anatomical structure and origin (Analogy). eg,
Wings of Insects(butterfly)- formed of thin flap of chitin,
Wings of Birds - modified forelimbs
Eyes of Octopus (retina from eye)
Eyes of Mammals (retina from embryonic brain)
Flippers in Penguins and Dolphins
Sweet Potato(modified root) and potato (modified stem)
Trachea of Insects (ectoderm) and lungs of vetebrates (endoderm)
The origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent Evolution(Different
structures evolving for the same function and hence having similarity).
-Biogeographical evidences
Organisms show similarity in proteins, genes, other biomolecules and metabolism.
Indicates common ancestry
Adaptive Radiation(Evolution by adaptation):Evolution of different species in a
geographical area starting from a point.
eg. Darwin’s finches in Galapagos islands
Australian Marsupials (marsupial radiation)
Placental Mammals in Australia
Convergent evolution: When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in a
geographical area.
eg. Australian Marsupials and Placental Mammals
Embryological evidences - Ernst Haeckel
All vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in the adults.
eg. all vertebrate embryos have vestigial gill slits in the back of their head but is only
function in fishes and absent in all adults.
Karl Ernst Baer rejected - embryos can never pass through the adult stages of
animals.
Evidences by Natural Selection
Process by which organisms best suited for the environment survive and reproduce.
eg. Industrial melanism, Development of resistant varieties of organisms against
herbicides, pesticides, drugs or antibiotics, etc.., natural selection by anthropogenic
action (evolution due to human activities)
In England 1950's: Pre industrialization the trees had more white winged moths
(biston betularia) than dark winged or melanised moths(biston carbonaria).
Post industrialization 1920s it had more dark winged than white winged cs the trees
were more polluted and dark due to soots. Same way white lichens used to cover the
trees before industrialization but the opposite after.
Theories of biological evolution
Theory of Lamarck(Lamarckism)
States that evolution of life forms are occured by inheritance of characters.
Acquired Characters are developed by use and disuse of organs:
-Evolution of use of organs - Long neck of giraffe due to continuous elongation of
neck to forage the leaves in the trees. Inherited to successive generations.
-Evolution of diuse of organs - Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
Eliminated because characters are attained only through genes.
Darwinism - Theory of Natural Selection
Observations during a sea voyage in the sail ship H.M.S Beagle.
Alfred Wallace (worked in Malay Archepelago) had come to similar conclusions.
Work of Thomas Malthus influenced Darwin
Based on 2 key concepts
-Branching Descent: All organisms are modified descents of previous life forms.
-Natural Selection: Bacterial component A is put in medium, when the medium
changes only few A remains and B forms. The variant population B outgrows and
forms new species because it is better than A in new condition. Nature select for the
fitness.
Natural Selection is based on
-Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organism.
-Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum
reproduction.
-Limited natural resource: Resources are not increased according to the population
size.
-Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so the
population size is limited.
-Survival of the fittest: In struggle for resources, organisms with beneficial variations
can utilize resources better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called the
survival of the fittest. It leads to change in population characteristics and new forms
appear.
Mechanism of Evolution
Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation theory of evolution.
Did some experiments on primrose (Oenothera Lamarckiana) and believed that
evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
Darwinian variation is slow, minor and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
Mutation Variation is sudden, random and directionless. Here speciation is by
saltation(single step, large mutation).
Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.
Hardy-weinberg principle
Allele frequencies in a population and constant from generation to generation
without disturbing factors.
The Gene Pool( total genes and their alleles in the population) remain constant. This
is genetic equilibrium(Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
Sum of total frequencies is 1.
Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
-Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Frequencies change in
both populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens frequently.
-Gene drift: Gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Some times the
change is so different that the new sample becomes a new species.
Founder’s effect- The original drifted population becomes founders and it is called
founder’s effect.
-Mutation: Formation of phenotypes. Leads to speciation.
-Genetic Recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing leading
to variation.
-Natural selection:
i) Stabilizing - individuals acquire mean character value and variation is induced.
ii) Directional - individuals of one extreme are more favoured.
iii) Disruptive - individuals of both extremes are favoured (peripheral values at both
ends of distribution curve)
[Link] colour of rat, Body size, etc..
A brief account of evolution
Geological time scale has 4 eras - Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
-Proterozoic(2500-541mya)
first cellular forms appeared 2000mya.
Cells had the ability to release O2 like photosynthesis.
Single celled became multi celled
500mya - invertebrates
450mya- first land organisms plants
400mya-arthropods
350mya-jawless fish
Lobefins(strong n stout fins) could swim back in land and go back to water. Evolved
to ancestors of modern day frogs n salamanders. 1938 coelacanth fish lobefin caught
in south africa though to be extinct.
-Paleozoic(540-252mya)
320mya-seaweeds n few plants
Amphibians evolved to become reptiles(thick shelled eggs that dont dry in sun
easily(
Giant ferns(pteridophytes) present but later became coal deposits.
-Mesozoic era(252-66mya)
Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.
Three periods: i)Triassic-230mya, ii)Jurassic-208mya and iii)Cretaceous-144mya
200mya- some land reptiles went back to water to evolve like fish like reptiles (eg.
Ichthyosaurs)
Land reptiles were dinosaurs. eg. Tyrannosaurus rex (largest-20 feet-huge fearsome
dagger like teeth), Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Branchiosaurus, etc.
Toothbirds were emerged
-Coenozoic Era(66-0mya)
Age of Mammals and Amphibians
2 periods
i) Tertiary - 66mya
ii) Quaternary - 2mya- Age of man
DInosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some said due to climate change others said they
evolved into birds.
First mammals were shrew like their fossils were small in size.
In South American there were mammals representing horse, hippopotamus, bear,
rabit,etc..
Due to continental drift of south america and north america they r overiden by north
american fauna but Autralian marusupials survived due to lack of competition in
mammals.
origin and evolution of man
Dryopithecus (ape) and Ramapithecus (man)
15mya
Hairy
Walked like gorillas and chimpanzees
3-4mya man like primates eastern africa
4feet walked up right
Belief based on fossils of man like bones in ethiopia and tanzania.
Autralopithecus
2mya
Lived in east african grasslands
Hunted with stoned weapons
Ate fruits
Homo Habilis
2mya
First human like being (hominid)
Brain capacity: 650-800cc
Did not eat meat
Homo Erectus
1.5mya
900cc
Ate meat
Homo Neanderthalnesis (Neanderthal Men)
1lakh-40k years ago
1400cc
East and Central Asia
Used Hides to protect their bodies
Buried their dead.
Homo Sapiens
75k-10k years ago-Ice Age
Pre-historic Cave art developed - 18000 years ago
Agriculture and Human Settlements - 10000 years ago
