Chapter 4: New Beginnings – Cities and States
(Tapestry of the Past – 4)
🏙️ 1. Second Urbanisation
● Around the first millennium BCE, a new phase of urban growth began in the Gangetic
plains, parts of the Indus basin, and other regions.
● This period is called the "Second Urbanisation," marked by the rise of new cities,
trade, iron tools, and the use of coins.
2. Janapadas & Mahājanapadas
● Janapadas were early political territories ruled by rājās and supported by assemblies
like sabhā and samiti.
● Later, Mahājanapadas emerged as larger and more powerful states (around the 6th
century BCE).
● There were 16 major mahājanapadas, including Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
● Capitals of these states became major urban centres, such as Rajagriha, Shravasti,
Kauśāmbī, and Ujjayinī.
3. Forms of Governance
● Most mahājanapadas were monarchies ruled by kings with armies and ministers.
● A few were republican states like Vajji and Malla, governed by a group of elders or
clan leaders in a council (gana-sangha).
4. Political and Administrative Life
● Rulers collected taxes, built fortifications, maintained armies, and enforced law and
order.
● Administrative centres developed around capitals and fortified towns.
5. Innovations Driving Urbanisation
● The use of iron tools improved agriculture and warfare, leading to surplus
production and stronger armies.
● Punch-marked coins were introduced, which encouraged trade and a market
economy.
● Various occupational groups such as farmers, artisans, traders, and administrators
contributed to the economy.
6. Trade and Connectivity
● Major trade routes connected towns, cities, and rural areas.
● The Uttarapatha connected the north-west with the eastern Gangetic plains.
● The Dakṣiṇapatha connected northern cities to the south.
● Coastal trade also flourished, with ports connecting India to other parts of Asia.
7. Urban Centres in Eastern and Southern India
● In eastern India, cities like Śiśupālagarh were developed with planned layouts and
strong fortifications.
● In southern India, kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pāṇḍyas emerged with
thriving trade in spices, metals, and textiles.
8. Social Structure – Varṇa and Jāti
● Society was divided into varṇas: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas
(traders), and Shudras (labourers).
● Over time, this system became more rigid, and jātis (sub-castes) based on
occupation emerged.
● This structure influenced social roles and responsibilities.
9. Summary of Key Developments
Feature Description
Second Urbanisation Growth of new cities, trade, and use of iron
and coins.
Mahājanapadas Sixteen powerful states with structured
governments.
Monarchy & Republican States Monarchies ruled by kings; republics
governed by councils.
Urban Planning Fortified towns with administrative buildings,
markets, and public spaces.
