History

Lec - 1

From the beginning of time

Human Evolution
Meaning of Prehistory

●​ Prehistory refers to the period before the advent of writing systems.

●​ Divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic ages (and Chalcolithic in some
regions).
●​ Knowledge is reconstructed exclusively through archaeological evidence.

Major Sources of Prehistory

Types, examples, and significance.

1. Archaeological Sources

●​ These are the primary sources for prehistory.

Types Examples in India Relevance

Stone tools Attirampakkam (TN), Technology, subsistence

(hand-axes, Bhimbetka (MP),
cleavers, Hunsgi-Baichbal (KA)
microliths, celts)

Bone, antler Belan Valley (UP), Sarai Fishing, hunting

tools Nahar Rai (UP)​

Pottery Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan), Storage, sedentary life

Chirand (Bihar)

Metals Ganeshwar–Jodhpura Beginning of metallurgy

(Rajasthan)

Habitation sites Bhimbetka rock shelters, Settlement patterns

Adamgarh (MP)​

Fossils Narmada Man (Madhya Biological evolution

Pradesh), Siwalik Hills
 Rock paintings Bhimbetka, Kupgallu Social life, rituals
(Telangana)

a) Material Remains

●​ Stone tools: Hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers, microliths.

●​ Found at Attirampakkam (TN), Bhimbetka (MP), Hunsgi-Baichbal (KA).
●​ Bone & antler tools: Needles, harpoons.
●​ Pottery: Appears in Neolithic & Chalcolithic phases (e.g., Ahar–Banas culture).
●​ Metals: Copper artefacts (Chalcolithic sites like Ganeshwar–Jodhpura).

b) Habitation Sites

●​ Caves and rock shelters: e.g., Bhimbetka (MP) – UNESCO site.

●​ Open-air sites: Belan Valley (UP), Didwana (Rajasthan).
●​ Kitchen middens: Shell heaps in coastal sites, indicating diet.

c) Fossils and Human Remains

●​ Evidence of early hominins from Siwalik Hills, Narmada Valley (Narmada Man).
●​ Animal fossils for reconstructing the environment.

d) Rock Art & Cave Paintings

●​ Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Kupgallu.

●​ Depict hunting scenes, social life, rituals → source of cultural & aesthetic understanding.

2. Geological Sources

●​ Stratigraphy: Layer-by-layer study of soil deposits.

●​ Palaeontology: Fossils help reconstruct climate, flora, fauna.
●​ Palaeobotany: Plant remains indicate agriculture onset.
●​ Palaeoclimatology: Changes in ice sheets, river terraces, loess deposits.
3. Anthropological Sources

●​ Comparative studies of tools, weapons, ornaments with those used by modern tribal
societies.
●​ Helps in reconstructing social organisation, economy, and rituals.

4. Ethnographic Analogy
 ●​ Studying present-day hunter-gatherers (e.g., Andamanese, Santhal) to infer prehistoric
lifestyles.

●​ Caution: cannot be applied blindly due to cultural evolution.

5. Scientific Dating Methods

●​ Relative Dating: Stratigraphy, typology.

●​ Absolute Dating:

●​ Radiocarbon dating (C-14) – up to ~50,000 years.

●​ Potassium-Argon dating – for millions of years.

●​ Thermoluminescence – pottery & burnt stone.

●​ Dendrochronology – tree rings.

2017 Mains GS1: Highlight the importance of the rock-cut architecture in India and discuss the
socio-religious life revealed from them. (Bhimbetka fits in prehistoric context)

2. 2013 Mains GS1: Discuss the palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India and bring
out their salient features.

3. 2004 History Optional: Discuss the sources of prehistoric cultures in India.

Periodization of Indian Prehistory

Meaning

●​ Prehistory = human history before writing.

●​ Periodization in India is based on tool technology, subsistence patterns, and
archaeological evidence.

Period Time Range Key Features Sites and Examples

(approx.)

Palaeolithic c. 2 million – 10,000 Hunter-gatherers, no Lower: Attirampakkam

Age (Old BCE​ pottery, no agriculture, (TN), Isampur (KA), Soan
 Stone Age) crude stone tools Valley (Pak) <br> Middle:
(hand-axes, cleavers), Bhimbetka (MP), Nevasa
use of fire, cave shelters (MH) <br> Upper: Belan
Valley (UP), Patne (MH)

Mesolithic c. 10,000 – 8,000 Microlithic tools, Bagor (Rajasthan),

Age (Middle BCE (some regions domestication of Langhnaj (Gujarat),
Stone Age) up to 4,000 BCE) animals, semi-sedentary Adamgarh (MP)
life, rock art

Neolithic c. 8000 – 2000 BCE Polished tools, Mehrgarh (Baluchistan),

Age (New (regionally varied) agriculture, pottery, Chirand (Bihar),
Stone Age) ​ permanent settlements Burzahom (J&K)
​

Chalcolithic c. 3000 – 500 BCE Use of copper with stone Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan),
Age (overlaps Harappan tools, painted pottery, Malwa culture sites (MP),
(Copper-Ston & early Iron Age) village farming Jorwe (MH), Kayatha (MP)
e Age)

Iron Age After 1000 BCE Iron tools, urbanization, Painted Grey Ware sites
(Protohistoric Vedic period begins​ (Haryana, UP), Megalithic
– overlaps sites in South India
with written
records)

2004 History Optional:

Discuss the periodisation of Indian prehistory and its limitations.

Quick Visual Mnemonic

Palaeo → “Big stone” tools

Meso → “Mini” microliths

Neo → “New life” (agriculture, pottery)

Chalco → “Copper touch”

Iron Age → “Metal mastery”

Lec - 2

Stone Age

Meaning
 ●​ Stone Age = prehistoric period when stone was the primary raw material for tools.
●​ Divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic based on tool technology,
subsistence patterns, and lifestyle.

Classification of the Stone Age in India

Phase Time Range Tool Technology Subsistence Important Sites

(approx.) and Lifestyle

Lower c. 2 million – Large flake tools: Nomadic Attirampakkam

Palaeolithic 100,000 BCE​ hand-axes, hunter-gatherers (TN), Isampur
cleavers, (KA), Soan
choppers Valley (Pak),
Belan Valley
(UP)

Middle c. 100,000 – Flake tools, Hunting, some Bhimbetka (MP),

Palaeolithic 40,000 BCE​ Harpoons, Borers, fishing Nevasa (MH),
scrapers, points Kalpi (UP)

Upper c. 40,000 – Blade tools, Hunting - Patne (MH),

Palaeolithic 10,000 BCE burins, bone tools gathering, Belan Valley
seasonal (UP), Kurnool
 shelters Caves (AP)

Mesolithic c. 10,000 – Microliths (tiny Semi-sedentary, Bagor

8,000 BCE stone blades), domestication of (Rajasthan),
(some up to composite tools animals, fishing, Langhnaj
4,000 BCE) rock art (Gujarat),
Adamgarh (MP),
Bhimbetka
paintings

Neolithic c. 8000 – 2000 Polished stone Agriculture, Mehrgarh

BCE axes (celts), pottery, (Baluchistan),
ground stone tools permanent Chirand (Bihar),
settlements Burzahom (J&K),
Koldihwa (UP)

Key Features by Age

Palaeolithic Age

●​ Nomadic life, dependence on hunting & gathering.

●​ Use of fire (Upper phase).
●​ Cave shelters and open-air sites.
●​ Art: petroglyphs, early engravings.

Mesolithic Age

●​ Smaller tools → microliths, often hafted to wood/bone handles.

●​ Domestication of animals (dog, cattle).
●​ Fishing & seasonal farming in some areas.
●​ Rock art showing hunting, dancing, rituals.

Neolithic Age

●​ Agricultural revolution (wheat, barley, rice).

●​ Domestication of cattle, sheep, goats.
●​ Pottery making.
●​ Permanent settlements, pit dwellings (Burzahom).
●​ Social differentiation begins.

Palaeolithic (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)

Meaning & Timeframe

 ●​ Palaeolithic Age = “Old Stone Age” — earliest phase of human history.
●​ In India: c. 2 million years ago – 10,000 BCE.
●​ Based on tool typology, divided into:

Main Characteristics

1. Lower Palaeolithic

●​ Tools: Large flake-core tools — hand-axes, cleavers, choppers.

●​ Material: Quartzite, basalt.
●​ Lifestyle: Nomadic hunter-gatherers.
●​ Shelter: Open-air sites near rivers, sometimes caves.

Sites:

●​ Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) – oldest stone tools (~1.5–2 million years old).
●​ Isampur (Karnataka) – oldest quarry-cum-workshop site.
●​ Soan Valley (Pakistan) – classic site of early man.

2. Middle Palaeolithic

●​ Tools: Flake tools, scrapers, points — smaller and more refined.

 ●​ Material: Chert, jasper.
●​ Lifestyle: Hunting with improved efficiency; some seasonal settlements.

Sites:

●​ Bhimbetka (MP) – rock shelters with early paintings.

●​ Nevasa (Maharashtra) – stratified deposits.
●​ Kalpi (UP) – river terrace sites.

3. Upper Palaeolithic

●​ Tools: Blade tools, burins, backed blades, bone & antler tools.
●​ Lifestyle: Advanced hunting, fishing; probable beginnings of art & ornamentation.
●​ Shelter: Caves and rock shelters.
●​ Art: Earliest engravings and paintings.

Sites:

●​ Patne (Maharashtra) – blade tools, ostrich eggshell beads.

●​ Kurnool Caves (AP) – animal remains, evidence of fire.
●​ Belan Valley (UP) – blade tools and habitation sites.

Key Features of Palaeolithic Age

●​ No pottery, no agriculture.
●​ Use of fire (evident from Upper Palaeolithic onwards in some sites).
●​ Hunting & gathering economy.
●​ Development of cognitive skills → planning tool-making.
●​ Seasonal migration following animal herds.

Mesolithic (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)

Meaning & Timeframe

●​ Mesolithic Age = “Middle Stone Age” — transitional phase between Palaeolithic and
Neolithic.
●​ In India: c. 10,000 – 8,000 BCE (in some regions up to 4,000–2,000 BCE).
●​ Marked by microlithic tools and beginnings of domestication.

Main Characteristics

1. Tools
 ●​ Microliths: Small, retouched stone blades (1–5 cm), often made of chert, jasper,
chalcedony.
●​ Composite tools: Microliths fixed onto wood, bone, or antler handles → spears, arrows,
sickles.
●​ Shows improved hunting efficiency.

2. Economy
●​ Hunter-gatherers but with supplementary domestication (dog, cattle, goat).
●​ Fishing in riverine sites.
●​ Seasonal or semi-permanent settlements.

3. Lifestyle
●​ Beginnings of food production in some areas.
●​ Use of pottery in later Mesolithic phases.
●​ Continued rock art tradition from Upper Palaeolithic.

4. Rock Art

●​ Bhimbetka paintings depict hunting, dancing, rituals, domestication.

●​ Colours: red, ochre, white.
●​ Valuable for reconstructing social life.
Important Mesolithic Sites in India

Site State Significance

Bagor Rajasthan Largest Mesolithic site;

evidence of animal
domestication.

Langhnaj Gujarat Human & animal skeletons;

microliths; beads.

Adamgarh Madhya Rock shelters with

Pradesh paintings.

Bhimbetka Madhya UNESCO site; Mesolithic

Pradesh paintings.

Damdama Uttar Pradesh Skeletal remains; faunal

evidence.
 Sarai Nahar Rai Uttar Pradesh Fishing community
evidence.

Teri sites Tamil Nadu Microliths in sand dunes.

Chronology & Regional Spread

●​ Earliest microliths: c. 10,000 BCE in Central India.

●​ It continued up to the 2nd millennium BCE in parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Eastern India.
●​ Overlaps with Neolithic in some regions.

UPSC PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2018: With reference to the period of human history in India, the use of microliths was
prevalent in…
○​ Ans: Mesolithic period.
●​ 2013: Consider the following pairs – prehistoric sites and their characteristics…
○​ (Bhimbetka: rock paintings; Bagor: domestication evidence).
●​ 2006: Langhnaj in Gujarat is known for…
○​ (Mesolithic human remains and microliths).

Mains

●​ 2013 GS-1: Discuss the palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India and bring
out their salient features.
●​ 2008 History Optional: Give an account of the characteristic features of Mesolithic
culture in India with special reference to art.
●​ 2002 History Optional: Discuss the evidence for domestication of plants and animals in
Mesolithic India.

Neolithic (8000 BC – 4000 BC)

Meaning & Timeframe

●​ Neolithic Age = “New Stone Age” — last stage of the Stone Age, characterised by
agriculture, animal domestication, and polished stone tools.
●​ In India: ~8000 BCE – 2000 BCE (regionally varied; some areas as late as 1000 BCE).
●​ Marked by permanent settlements and a sedentary lifestyle.

Main Characteristics

1. Tools
 ●​ Polished stone axes (celts), ground stone tools.
●​ Tools for farming: sickles, querns, pestles.
●​ Stone blades hafted to wooden handles.

2. Economy
●​ Agriculture: rice (Koldihwa, Chirand), wheat & barley (Mehrgarh).
●​ Animal domestication: cattle, sheep, goats, dogs.
●​ Fishing in riverine areas.

3. Lifestyle
●​ Permanent houses (mud, stone).
●​ Storage pits and granaries.
●​ Pottery: handmade in the early stage; wheel-made later.
●​ Trade in stone, shells, beads.

4. Housing
●​ Rectangular mud houses in the plains.
●​ Pit dwellings in Burzahom (J&K) for insulation.

5. Art & Culture

●​ Pottery designs: geometric patterns, cord impressions.
●​ Bone tools, beads, ornaments.
●​ Possible early religious practices (burials with grave goods).

Important Neolithic Sites in India

Site State Significance

Mehrgarh Baluchistan (Pakistan) Early farming & herding;

wheat & barley cultivation.

Burzahom Jammu & Kashmir Pit dwellings; stone & bone

tools; dog burials.

Gufkral J&K Early agriculture; handmade

pottery.

Koldihwa & Mahagara Uttar Pradesh Rice cultivation evidence

(charred grains).

Chirand Bihar Neolithic to Chalcolithic

sequence; bone tools.

Daojali Hading Assam Edge-ground tools; jadeite

beads (trade links).

Hallur Karnataka Millets, pulses, cattle

 domestication.

Paiyampalli Tamil Nadu Neolithic-Chalcolithic overlap;

black-and-red ware.

Regional Neolithic Cultures

●​ North-West: Mehrgarh.
●​ Kashmir Valley: Burzahom, Gufkral.
●​ Vindhyan Region: Koldihwa, Mahagara.
●​ North-East: Daojali Hading.
●​ South India: Hallur, Paiyampalli.

UPSC PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2020: Consider the following statements about Koldihwa… (rice cultivation evidence).
●​ 2016: Consider the following pairs – prehistoric site and state… (Paiyampalli – Tamil
Nadu, Hallur – Karnataka).
●​ 2013: Which one of the following is most likely to have been the first cereal grain
cultivated by man? (Answer: Wheat / Barley depending on context, linked to Mehrgarh).

Mains
●​ 2013 GS-1: Discuss the palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India and bring
out their salient features.
●​ 2005 History Optional: Discuss the salient features of Neolithic culture in India.
●​ 2000 History Optional: Write short notes on Neolithic culture in North-East India.

Chalcolithic Age (4000 BC – 1500 BC)

Meaning & Timeframe

●​ Chalcolithic Age = Copper-Stone Age.
●​ Period when humans used copper tools alongside stone tools.
●​ In India: ~3000 BCE – 500 BCE (regionally varied; overlaps with Harappan in some
areas and Iron Age in others).
●​ Marked by agriculture, village settlements, pottery traditions, and metallurgy.

Main Characteristics

1. Tools & Technology

●​ Copper tools (axes, chisels, fish-hooks) + polished stone tools.
●​ Early metallurgy, mostly copper and some bronze.
 ●​ Grinding stones for processing grains.

2. Economy
●​ Agriculture: wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets.
●​ Animal domestication: cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.
●​ Hunting and fishing as supplementary activities.

3. Settlements
●​ Permanent villages.
●​ Mud-brick or wattle-and-daub houses. (earring types)
●​ Planned streets in some cultures.

Wattle and daub structure

4. Pottery
●​ Distinctive painted pottery traditions (geometric designs, animals, plants).
●​ Black-on-red ware was common.
●​ Storage jars, cooking pots.

5. Burial Practices
●​ Extended burials with grave goods.
 ●​ Sometimes children are buried in pots.

Major Chalcolithic Cultures in India

Culture Time period Area Key Sites Features

Ahar-Banas c. 3000–1500 Rajasthan Ahar, Gilund Black-and-red

BCE ware, white
painted designs;
copper
metallurgy

Malwa c. 1900–1400 MP, Navdatoli, Eran Wheel-made

BCE Maharashtra painted pottery;
large mud
houses

Jorwe c. 1500–900 Maharashtra Inamgaon, Ochre-coloured

BCE Daimabad pottery with
geometric
patterns

Kayatha c. 2000–1800 MP Kayatha Early copper

BCE artefacts

Savalda c. 2300–2000 Maharashtra Savalda Handmade

BCE coarse pottery

Ochre c. 2000–1500 Upper Atranjikhera Associated with

Coloured BCE Ganga-Yamuna copper hoards
Pottery (OCP) doab
Regional Spread
●​ Western India: Ahar-Banas culture.
●​ Central India: Malwa & Kayatha.
●​ Deccan: Jorwe & Savalda.
●​ North India: OCP and copper hoard culture.

UPSC PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2018: With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements: 1.
Black-and-red ware was common in Chalcolithic cultures…
○​ (Answer: True; seen in Ahar-Banas, Malwa, etc.)
 ●​ 2012: Which one of the following cultures is known for Ochre Coloured Pottery?
○​ (Answer: Upper Ganga-Yamuna doab)
●​ 2006: Gilund in Rajasthan is related to which prehistoric culture?
○​ (Answer: Ahar-Banas)

Mains
●​ 2013 GS-1: Trace the development of village communities in India from Neolithic to
Chalcolithic periods.
●​ 2009 History Optional: Discuss the characteristic features of Chalcolithic cultures of
India.
●​ 2003 History Optional: Describe the Ahar-Banas culture and its significance.

Iron Age (1500 BC-200 BC)

Meaning & Timeframe

●​ The Iron Age in India marks the transition from Chalcolithic to the use of iron tools and
weapons, leading to urban growth and early state formation.

Dates vary regionally:

●​ North India (Ganga Valley): ~1200 BCE – 600 BCE
●​ South India: ~1000 BCE – 300 BCE

Two major early iron-using cultural complexes:

●​ Painted Grey Ware (PGW) – associated with Mahajanapadas, early Vedic culture.
●​ Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) – associated with urbanisation and Mauryan era.
●​ South India: Megalithic culture.

Main Characteristics

1. Iron Technology
●​ Iron tools: sickles, ploughshares, hoes → agriculture expansion into forested areas.
●​ Iron weapons: swords, spears → better warfare efficiency.
●​ Iron axes for forest clearance → settlement growth.

2. Economy
●​ Advanced agriculture → surplus production.
●​ Trade growth with use of punch-marked coins (later phase).
●​ Craft specialisation: beads, terracotta figurines, ornaments.

3. Settlements
 ●​ Rise of urban centres in Gangetic plains (e.g., Kausambi, Rajgir).
●​ Fortifications in some sites.
●​ Planned towns during the later NBPW phase.

4. Pottery Traditions
●​ Ware​ Timeframe​ Significance
●​ PGW - c. 1200–600 BCE​ Associated with later Vedic settlements; fine, grey pottery
with painted designs.
●​ NBPW - c. 700–200 BCE​ Luxury tableware; highly polished black surface.

5. Regional Cultures
●​ North India: PGW → NBPW.
●​ South India: Megalithic burials (stone circles, dolmens), iron tools, black-and-red ware.

Important Sites

North India:
●​ PGW: Atranjikhera, Ahichhatra, Hastinapur, Noh.
●​ NBPW: Rajghat, Kausambi, Ujjain, Pataliputra.

South India (Megalithic):

●​ Brahmagiri, Maski, Hallur, Adichanallur.

Cultural Significance
●​ Agriculture: Expansion due to iron ploughs.
●​ Polity: Facilitated formation of Mahajanapadas.
●​ Urbanisation: Second Urbanisation in Ganga Valley.
●​ Literature: Correlates with later Vedic texts & early Buddhist/Jain literature.

UPSC PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2018: Consider the following pairs: 1. PGW – Mahajanapada period, 2. NBPW –
Mauryan period… Which are correctly matched?
○​ (Answer: Both correct)
●​ 2013: With reference to Painted Grey Ware, consider the following statements…
○​ Fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns – Correct.
●​ 2005: Atranjikhera is associated with which archaeological culture?
○​ (Answer: PGW)

Mains
●​ 2020 GS-1: The emergence of Mahajanapadas was a direct outcome of the use of iron
technology in the Ganga Valley. Discuss.
 ●​ 2014 History Optional: Discuss the role of iron technology in the expansion of agriculture
and state formation in the early historic period.
●​ 2008 History Optional: Describe the Megalithic culture of South India and its significance.

Mains Answer Framework

Q. Discuss the role of iron technology in transforming socio-economic life in early India.

Intro:
●​ The Iron Age in India began around 1200 BCE in the Ganga Valley and ~1000 BCE in
South India, revolutionising agriculture, warfare, and settlement patterns.

Body:

1. Technological advancements — iron ploughshares, axes, weapons.

2. Agriculture & surplus — forest clearance → settled agriculture → surplus.

3. Urbanisation — PGW → NBPW; fortified cities.

4. Trade & crafts — specialisation, coins, long-distance trade.

5. Polity — rise of Mahajanapadas; centralised states in NBPW phase.

6. Regional diversity — North Indian PGW/NBPW vs. South Indian Megalithic.

Conclusion:
●​ Iron technology acted as a catalyst for India's "Second Urbanisation" and the emergence
of complex societies.

Impact of Iron
Context
●​ Iron technology in the Indian subcontinent marks the transition from prehistory to
protohistory/early history.
●​ In the Ganga Valley: ~1200 BCE onward (Painted Grey Ware → NBPW).
●​ In South India: Megalithic phase (~1000–300 BCE).

Major Impacts of Iron

1. Agricultural Transformation
●​ Forest clearance: Iron axes, sickles → expansion into fertile Ganga plains & Deccan.
●​ Intensive agriculture: Iron ploughshare → deeper tilling, higher yields.
●​ Crop diversification: Expansion beyond barley & wheat to rice, pulses, millets.
 ●​ Led to surplus production → population growth.

2. Rise of Settlements & Urbanisation

●​ Permanent villages replaced nomadic patterns.
●​ Larger settlements (e.g., Hastinapur, Kausambi) with fortifications.
●​ Laid the base for the Second Urbanisation (~6th century BCE).

3. Political Developments
●​ Surplus food supported administrative structures & armies.
●​ Enabled formation of Mahajanapadas.
●​ Facilitated imperial expansion in Mauryan era.

4. Social Changes
●​ Growth of occupational specialisation (metal smiths, potters, traders).
●​ Stratification deepened (linked with later Vedic varna hierarchy).
●​ Rise of urban-based elites and ruling classes.

5. Economic & Trade Growth

●​ Surplus grain encouraged local & long-distance trade.
●​ Punch-marked coins (later phase) → monetisation.
●​ Iron tools for craft production enhanced efficiency.

6. Cultural & Technological Spread

●​ Pottery styles: PGW (early iron) → NBPW (urban luxury ware).
●​ In South India: Megalithic burials (dolmens, cairn circles) with iron objects show rituals,
beliefs.

Regional Dimensions

Region​ Culture​ Impact of Iron

●​ Ganga Valley​PGW, NBPW​ Agricultural boom → Mahajanapadas, early cities
●​ South India Megalithic Iron agriculture + trade networks with north & overseas
●​ Central India​ Iron-using tribal cultures Gradual integration into early historic trade
routes

Mains Answer Framework

Q. Examine the impact of iron technology on socio-economic and political developments

in early India.

Intro:
●​ Iron use from ~1200 BCE transformed the economy, polity, and culture, marking the
transition to early historical phases.
Body:
●​ 1. Economic changes — agriculture expansion, craft specialisation, trade.
●​ 2. Political changes — rise of Mahajanapadas, fortified cities.
●​ 3. Social changes — stratification, urban elite emergence.
●​ 4. Regional variation — Ganga Valley urbanism, South Indian Megalithic rituals.

Conclusion:
●​ Iron acted as a civilisational catalyst, enabling large-scale social organisation and the
flowering of early states.

Lec - 3

Pastoral & Farming Communities

1. Introduction
●​ Pastoralism and agriculture represent two major modes of subsistence in Indian history.
●​ These communities were crucial for the socio-economic, cultural, and political
development of India.
●​ Their interactions shaped settlements, trade, state formation, and cultural exchanges.

2. Pastoral Communities

Features
●​ Lived in diverse regions: Himalayas, deserts, plateaus, and plains.
●​ Nomadic or semi-nomadic; moved seasonally in search of pastures.
●​ Major groups: Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, Raikas, Banjaras, Dhangars, Kurumas,
Todas, Maldharis, etc.

Economic Role
 ●​ Provided livestock, milk, wool, hides, and transport.
●​ Acted as carriers of trade and communication in pre-modern times.
●​ Supplemented agrarian economy by exchanging products with settled farmers.

Colonial Period
●​ The British restricted grazing lands through Forest Acts.
●​ Imposed taxes on pastures and cattle.
●​ Reduced mobility → decline of traditional livelihood.

3. Farming Communities

Features
●​ Settled agriculture began with the Neolithic Revolution → cultivation of rice, wheat, and
barley.
●​ Permanent villages led to social differentiation, surplus, and craft specialization.

Different regions specialized:

●​ Indus Valley → wheat, barley.
●​ Ganga Valley → rice.
●​ Deccan → millets, cotton.

Colonial Impact
●​ Land revenue systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) disrupted the rural
economy.
●​ Commercialization of crops (indigo, opium, cotton) impacted food security.
●​ Famines became frequent due to exploitative policies.

4. Pastoral vs. Farming Communities

Aspect Pastoralists Farmers

Settlement Nomadic/semi-nomadic Sedentary

Economy Animal husbandry Agriculture

Mobility High Low

Role in polity Suppliers, carriers, auxiliary warriors Revenue base for states

British impact Loss of pastures, taxation Revenue exploitation, famine

5. Contribution to Indian History

 ●​ Formation of rural economy.
●​ Shaping caste-based occupations (pastoral → herders, farmers → cultivators).
●​ Cultural traditions, folk art, pastoral epics.
●​ Resistance to colonial policies (Indigo revolt, Deccan riots, pastoral migrations).
​ ​ ​ ​

PYQs – UPSC Prelims

1. 2020: Consider the following statements:

●​ In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was
known as Amil.
●​ The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.
●​ The office of Mir Bakshi was concerned with military administration.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? (Answer: 1 and 3)
(Shows link with agrarian revenue system).

2. 2018: Consider the following:

Deccan Riots Commission (1878)

Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900)
Indigo Revolt (1859-60)
●​ (Shows impact on farming communities under colonial rule).

3. 2017: With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term Araghatta refers to?

(Answer: Water-wheel used in irrigation).

Mains PYQs

1. 2019 (GS I): Highlight the importance of the new agricultural techniques in the Indian
subcontinent during the 18th century.

2. 2016 (GS I): Discuss the role of pastoralists and nomadic communities in the economic
history of India.

3. 2013 (GS I): Throw light on the nature of agrarian economy in India during the 17th century.

Mains Answer Writing Structure

Q. Discuss the role of pastoralists in the Indian economy during the colonial period.

Intro:
●​ Define pastoralists, highlight their economic and cultural significance.
Body:

1. Traditional Role – livestock, transport, trade carriers.

2. Colonial Disruptions – Forest Acts, grazing tax, reduced mobility.

3. Impact – decline of pastoral livelihood, migration, loss of cattle wealth.

4. Resistance – some joined revolts, e.g., against British restrictions.

Conclusion:
Pastoralists adapted by shifting occupations, but colonial policies marginalized them
permanently.

Pastoral and Farming Communities in the Neolithic Phase

1. Introduction
●​ The Neolithic Age (c. 7000–1000 BCE in India) marked the shift from hunting-gathering
to food production.
●​ People began domestication of plants and animals, leading to settled villages and early
pastoral–farming economies.
●​ This was the “Neolithic Revolution” → basis of future social, cultural, and political
developments.

2. Farming Communities in Neolithic India

Features
●​ First evidence of agriculture: Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, c. 7000 BCE) – wheat, barley
cultivation.
●​ Later spread to Ganga valley (rice at Koldihwa & Mahagara, c. 6th millennium BCE).
●​ Tools: ground & polished stone axes (celts), sickles, querns, pestles.
●​ Pottery: handmade, later wheel-made, often decorated.
●​ Settlements: mud-brick or wattle-daub houses.
●​ Storage pits for grain → surplus management.

Sites
●​ North-West: Mehrgarh, Burzahom (Kashmir).
●​ Ganga Valley: Koldihwa, Mahagara, Chirand.
●​ South India: Hallur, Piklihal, Maski, Paiyampalli.
●​ North-East: Daojali Hading (Assam), Sarutaru (Meghalaya).

3. Pastoral Communities in Neolithic India

Features
●​ Domestication of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs; later horses (Chalcolithic).
●​ Burzahom: pit-dwellings, dog burials, cattle bones → strong pastoral presence.
●​ Piklihal & Hallur (Karnataka): pastoral camps, evidence of cattle pens.
●​ Seasonal mobility → early nomadic pastoralism.
●​ Animals used for food, hides, and ritual purposes.

4. Farming–Pastoral Interaction
●​ Mutual dependence: Farmers relied on pastoralists for milk, meat, traction animals;
pastoralists relied on farmers for grains.
●​ Mixed economy: Many Neolithic sites show both farming and herding.
●​ Social change: Surplus → stratification, rituals, megalithic burials.

5. Importance of Neolithic Pastoral–Farming Communities

●​ Basis of agrarian economy → paved way for Harappan Civilization.
●​ Early craft specialization (pottery, weaving).
●​ Initiated sedentary life, village communities.
●​ Shaped cultural practices: burials, rituals, ancestor worship.

PYQs (Prelims)

1. 2020: With reference to history of India, consider the following pairs:

●​ Era / Culture: Domestication of horse → Late Harappan.
●​ Era / Culture: First evidence of rice cultivation → Neolithic.
●​ (Shows linkage of crops with Neolithic phase).

2. 2016: Which of the following is/are correct about Neolithic sites?

●​ Burzahom: pit dwellings.
●​ Mehrgarh: earliest agriculture in South Asia.

3. 2013 (CSAT): Which one of the following is the most significant feature of Indus Valley
Civilization? (Comparison question – Neolithic background).

PYQs (Mains)

1. 2019 (GS I): Highlight the importance of Neolithic revolution in the Indian subcontinent.

2. 2016 (GS I): Discuss the Neolithic farming cultures of the Indian subcontinent.

3. 2013 (GS I): Discuss the significance of the Neolithic settlements in shaping human history.

Answer Writing Structure (Mains)

Q. Discuss the significance of pastoral and farming communities in the Neolithic phase
of India.

Intro:
●​ Define Neolithic phase (7000–1000 BCE) – shift from hunting to food production.

Body:

1. Farming Communities:
●​ Mehrgarh (wheat, barley), Ganga valley (rice), South India (millets).
●​ Tools, pottery, settled life.

2. Pastoral Communities:
●​ Domestication of cattle, sheep, goats.
●​ Seasonal migrations, animal burials.

3. Interaction & Impact:

●​ Mixed economy → mutual dependence.
●​ Surplus → social stratification, rituals.
●​ Basis for Harappan urbanization.

Conclusion:
●​ Pastoral–farming symbiosis was the foundation of Indian civilization, enabling transition
from nomadic life to settled agrarian societies.

Pastoral and Farming Communities in Chalcolithic Phase

1. Introduction
●​ The Chalcolithic Age = “Copper–Stone Age” (use of copper + stone tools).
●​ Timeline in India: c. 2000–700 BCE (after Neolithic, before Iron Age).
●​ Characterized by rural farming–pastoral communities, spread across different ecological
zones.
●​ Often contemporaneous with Late Harappan phase, but mostly non-urban, village-based
cultures.

2. Farming Communities in Chalcolithic India

Agriculture
●​ Practiced subsistence agriculture with some surplus.

Crops varied regionally:

●​ North-West (Ahar–Banas): barley, wheat, rice.
 ●​ Central India (Malwa, Jorwe): jowar, bajra, lentils, rice, pulses.
●​ Deccan (Daimabad, Inamgaon): millet, pulses, cotton.
●​ Use of plough (Jorwe culture) and irrigation (wells, canals in Inamgaon).

Settlements
●​ Rural settlements with mud or wattle–daub houses.
●​ Example: Inamgaon (Maharashtra) → well-planned rectangular houses, granaries.
●​ Fortification in some sites (Ahar–Banas).

3. Pastoral Communities in Chalcolithic India

●​ Domesticated Animals
●​ Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, fowl.
●​ Horse evidence is rare/late (possibly early Iron Age).
●​ Animals provided traction (ploughing, transport), dairy, meat, hides.

Pastoralism Features
●​ Seasonal migration is still practiced.
●​ Pastoral economy often combined with agriculture (mixed economy).
●​ Large herds → social status.
●​ Inamgaon burials show cattle remains, indicating ritual significance.

4. Chalcolithic Cultures (Regional Examples)

5. Interaction of Pastoral and Farming Communities

Symbiotic relationship:
●​ Farmers relied on cattle for ploughing, manure, and transport.
●​ Pastoralists exchanged milk, meat, hides for grain, pottery.
●​ Village economy → surplus agriculture supported crafts.
●​ Decline often due to climatic factors (aridity, floods), resource stress, overgrazing.

6. Importance
●​ Set stage for Iron Age agricultural expansion.
●​ Laid foundations for megalithic and early historic cultures.
●​ Showed regional diversity in economy and social organization.
●​ Provided continuity from Neolithic → Harappan → Early Historic phases.

PYQs (Prelims)

1. 2023: With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct
description of the term "Black and Red Ware Culture"?
 ●​ (Answer: Chalcolithic pottery style associated with farming–pastoral communities).

2. 2019: Which of the following characterizes the people of Chalcolithic cultures?

●​ Painted pottery, copper tools, agriculture + cattle rearing.

3. 2014: Match the following prehistoric sites with their features (Inamgaon, Daimabad,
Navdatoli).

PYQs (Mains)

1. 2019 (GS I): Discuss the significance of Chalcolithic cultures in shaping early Indian villages.

2. 2016 (GS I): Highlight the features of Chalcolithic farming communities in the Deccan and
Malwa regions.

3. 2013 (GS I): Discuss how Chalcolithic cultures contributed to the development of agriculture
and animal domestication in India.

Answer Writing Structure (Mains)

Q. Discuss the role of pastoral and farming communities in the Chalcolithic phase of
India.

Intro:

●​ Define Chalcolithic phase (2000–700 BCE) – transition between Neolithic and Iron Age.
●​ Known for copper–stone technology, rural settlements.

Body:

1. Farming Communities:
●​ Crops (wheat, rice, barley, millets).
●​ Tools, irrigation, plough agriculture.
●​ Settlements (Inamgaon, Navdatoli).

2. Pastoral Communities:
●​ Cattle, sheep, goats.
●​ Evidence from burials and faunal remains.
●​ Seasonal movement + integrated with farming.

3. Interaction & Significance:

 ●​ Mixed economy, surplus storage.
●​ Supported craft specialization, pottery traditions.
●​ Basis of proto-urban societies.

Conclusion:
Chalcolithic farming–pastoral communities laid the economic foundation for early historic India,
bridging Neolithic subsistence and Iron Age state formations.

Pastoral and Farming Communities in Early Iron Phase (c. 1200–600 BCE)

1. Introduction
●​ Early Iron Phase = transition from Chalcolithic rural villages → Iron Age agrarian
societies.
●​ Introduction of iron technology (ploughshares, sickles, axes, hoes) revolutionized
agriculture.
●​ Pastoralism and farming became more integrated, leading to surplus → urbanization in
the 6th century BCE (Mahajanapadas).

2. Farming Communities

Features
●​ Widespread agriculture due to iron ploughs and tools.
●​ Expansion into fertile regions: Ganga plains, Malwa, Deccan, Odisha.
●​ Crops: rice, barley, wheat, millets, pulses, sugarcane, cotton.
●​ Irrigation evidence: tanks, wells, embankments.
●​ Permanent rural settlements with storage facilities.
●​ Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture in upper Ganga–Yamuna doab linked to
agricultural–village life.

Significance
●​ Increased productivity → surplus grain.
●​ Surplus supported population growth and trade.
●​ Formation of tribal → territorial states (Janapadas → Mahajanapadas).

3. Pastoral Communities

Features
●​ Continued domestication: cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, horses, elephants.
●​ Pastoralism integrated with farming – cattle provided traction, manure, dairy.
●​ Horses became important for warfare (seen in PGW & Northern Black Polished Ware
phases).
 ●​ Pastoral groups often moved on margins of settled zones, but interacted through
exchange.

Archaeological Cultures
●​ PGW (c. 1200–600 BCE): rice, barley, cattle bones, iron ploughshares.
●​ Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW, later 700–200 BCE): more urbanized, but
pastoralism still present in peripheries.
●​ Megalithic cultures (Deccan & South India): mixed farming + herding economy, iron axes
& ploughs, cattle burials.

4. Interaction of Farming & Pastoral Communities

●​ Symbiotic economy: farmers needed animal power; pastoralists needed grain.
●​ Villages with plough agriculture sustained craft specialists (iron smiths, potters,
weavers).
●​ Rise of agrarian surplus → trade → urban centres (e.g., 6th century BCE cities like
Rajgir, Ujjain, Kaushambi).
●​ Pastoral surplus (cattle wealth) became linked with ritual economy (Vedic sacrifices,
gifts, dana).

5. Importance of Early Iron Age Pastoral–Farming Societies

●​ Agrarian base of early states (Mahajanapadas, Magadha rise).
●​ Iron tools + pastoral support facilitated forest clearance and agricultural expansion.
●​ Provided continuity from Chalcolithic → Early Historic urbanism.
●​ Basis for social stratification: land-owning elites, pastoral clans, artisanal groups.

PYQs (Prelims)

1. 2019: Consider the following pairs: Painted Grey Ware → Iron Age.

2. 2018: Which of the following is associated with agricultural expansion in the Ganga valley?
(Iron ploughshare).

3. 2017: Megaliths are…? (Burial sites associated with iron-using, pastoral–farming

communities).

4. 2013: The Ganga valley became fertile and agriculturally productive in the later Vedic period
due to… (Iron tools).
PYQs (Mains)

1. 2019 (GS I): Highlight the role of iron technology in the growth of agriculture in the Ganga
valley.

2. 2016 (GS I): Discuss the significance of Painted Grey Ware culture in early Iron Age India.

3. 2013 (GS I): Evaluate the importance of megalithic cultures in understanding early farming
and pastoral life in South India.

Answer Writing Structure (Mains)

Q. Discuss the role of pastoral and farming communities in the Early Iron Age of India.

Intro:
●​ Mention Early Iron Age (c. 1200–600 BCE) – expansion of agriculture and pastoralism
with iron technology.

Body:

1. Farming Communities:
●​ Iron ploughshares → Ganga valley rice cultivation.
●​ Settlements (PGW sites: Hastinapur, Atranjikhera).
●​ Megalithic farming in South India.

2. Pastoral Communities:
●​ Cattle, horses, elephants.
●​ Megalithic burials → cattle remains.
●​ Linked with rituals (cattle wealth in Vedic sacrifices).

3. Interaction:
●​ Pastoralism + agriculture = surplus economy.
●​ Surplus → urbanization + Mahajanapadas.
●​ Role in socio-political changes (varna, jana → janapada).

Conclusion:
The symbiotic relationship of farming and pastoral communities, aided by iron tools, transformed
rural India into the agrarian foundation of early states.

Pastoral and Farming Communities in India – Geographical Distribution & Characteristics

1. Introduction
 ●​ Pastoral and farming communities represent the two foundational modes of subsistence
in Indian history.
●​ Their geographical spread was shaped by climate, resources, and terrain.
●​ Interactions between pastoralists and farmers created the agrarian base of Indian
civilization.

2. Geographical Distribution

A. Farming Communities

North-West (Indus Basin, Baluchistan):

●​ Mehrgarh (7000 BCE): wheat, barley, cattle, sheep.
●​ Later Indus Valley → surplus agriculture.

Ganga Valley (Neolithic to Early Iron):

●​ Koldihwa, Mahagara, Chirand: rice cultivation.
●​ Later Vedic age → iron plough → agricultural expansion.

Central India (Malwa, Jorwe, Kayatha):

●​ Chalcolithic farming of wheat, barley, millets, pulses.
●​ Painted pottery traditions.

Deccan Plateau:
●​ Inamgaon, Daimabad: millet, pulses, irrigation tanks.
●​ Jorwe culture with plough agriculture.

South India (Neolithic–Megalithic):

●​ Hallur, Maski, Paiyampalli: millet, pulses.
●​ Megalithic iron plough agriculture.

North-East:
●​ Daojali Hading (Assam): shifting cultivation + Neolithic rice.
●​ Continued jhum cultivation (shifting cultivation).

B. Pastoral Communities

Western Himalayas:
●​ Gaddis, Gujjars, Bakarwals → transhumance (seasonal migration).

Arid Rajasthan & Gujarat:

●​ Raikas, Maldharis → camel, cattle, goat herding.

Deccan Plateau:
 ●​ Dhangars, Kurumas → sheep, goats, cattle.

Nilgiris (South India):

●​ Todas → buffalo pastoralism.

North-West & Central India (historical):

●​ Banjaras → nomadic traders & cattle rearers.

Indo-Gangetic Plains (Vedic Age):

●​ The pastoral cattle economy was central to early Vedic society.

3. Characteristics
●​ Farming Communities
●​ Sedentary, permanent villages.
●​ Surplus agriculture → storage, granaries.
●​ Irrigation: wells, tanks, canals.
●​ Craft specialization: pottery, weaving, metallurgy.
●​ Basis of taxation & state formation in historic period.

Pastoral Communities
●​ Nomadic/semi-nomadic (transhumance in Himalayas, deserts, plateaus).
●​ Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses.
●​ Provided dairy, hides, wool, traction animals, trade support.
●​ Mobility allowed linking of agricultural regions.
●​ Faced restrictions during the colonial period (Forest Acts, grazing taxes).

4. Interaction between Farming & Pastoralism

Mutual dependence:
●​ Farmers → grain surplus, exchange for animal products.
●​ Pastoralists → cattle for plough, milk, transport.
●​ Mixed economy: common at sites like Inamgaon (crops + cattle pens).
●​ Social change: surplus → stratification, rituals (e.g., cattle in Vedic sacrifices).

PYQs (Prelims)

1. 2020: First evidence of rice cultivation in India → Neolithic (Koldihwa, Mahagara).

2. 2019: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture is associated with → Early Iron Age agricultural
societies.

3. 2017: Megaliths are burial sites associated with iron-using pastoral–farming communities.
4. 2016: Burzahom (pit dwellings) and Mehrgarh (early farming).

5. 2013: Widespread use of iron ploughshare revolutionized agriculture in Ganga valley (Vedic
Age).

PYQs (Mains)

1. 2019 (GS I): Highlight the importance of Neolithic revolution in the Indian subcontinent.

2. 2016 (GS I): Discuss the Neolithic farming cultures of the Indian subcontinent.

3. 2016 (GS I): Discuss the role of pastoralists and nomadic communities in the economic
history of India.

4. 2013 (GS I): Throw light on the nature of the agrarian economy in India during the 17th
century (continuity from earlier farming).

Lec - 4

Harappan Civilization

Overview
●​ Timeframe: c. 2600–1900 BCE (Mature phase)
●​ Geographical spread: Indus Valley & Ghaggar-Hakra region — from Sutkagendor
(Balochistan) to Alamgirpur (UP), from Manda (J&K) to Daimabad (Maharashtra).
Phases:
1. Early Harappan (c. 3300–2600 BCE) – village culture, regional styles, urban foundations.

2. Mature Harappan (c. 2600–1900 BCE) – urban planning, trade, crafts, writing.

3. Late Harappan (c. 1900–1500 BCE) – deurbanisation, regionalisation.

Salient Features (Mature Phase)

1. Urban Planning
●​ Grid pattern streets, right angles.
 ●​ Citadel & lower town division.
●​ Standardized brick size ([Link] ratio).
●​ Advanced drainage system with covered drains & soak pits.
●​ Sites: Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Kalibangan.

2. Economy
●​ Agriculture: Wheat, barley, sesame, cotton (first in world), date palm; flood-based
irrigation.
●​ Pastoralism: Cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo; limited horse evidence.
●​ Crafts: Bead-making (Chanhudaro), metallurgy (bronze, copper, gold, silver), shell &
ivory work.
●​ Trade: Internal (raw materials → craft centres → finished goods), External
(Mesopotamia, Oman, Bahrain).
●​ Standardized weights (binary system) and measures.

3. Society
●​ No clear evidence of kingship — possible merchant/elite control.
●​ Social stratification visible in house sizes.
●​ Distinct town planning uniformity suggests strong centralised regulation.

4. Religion & Culture

●​ Mother goddess figurines, male deity (proto-Shiva/Pashupati seal), animal worship, fire
altars (Kalibangan, Lothal).
●​ No clear temple structures.
●​ Burials: Extended inhumation; some secondary burials; grave goods.

5. Script
●​ Pictographic; ~400–600 signs.
●​ Written right-to-left; undeciphered.

6. Art
●​ Steatite seals (unicorn, zebu), bronze dancing girl (Mohenjo-daro), bearded priest
(steatite bust), terracotta figurines.

7. Science & Technology

●​ Standardized weights & measures.
●​ Dockyard at Lothal.
●​ Water reservoirs at Dholavira.

Decline Theories
●​ Gradual decline ~1900 BCE.
 ●​ Factors: Climate change, river shifts (Ghaggar-Hakra drying), resource depletion,
over-urbanisation, decline of trade, possible conflicts.
●​ Infiltration by Indo-Aryans (controversial, not sole cause).

Important Harappan Sites (with Unique Features)

Site Location Feature

Mohenjo-daro Sindh, Pakistan Great Bath, granary, bronze

dancing girl

Harappa Punjab, Pakistan Granaries, evidence of ploughed

fields

Dholavira Gujarat Water reservoirs, 3-tier town plan,

large signboard

Lothal Gujarat Dockyard, bead-making factory

Kalibangan Rajasthan Fire altars, ploughed fields

Chanhudaro Sindh, Pakistan Bead-making, shell industry

Banawali Haryana Both pre- and post-Harappan

phases

Rakhigarhi Haryana Largest Harappan site in India

Sutkagendor Balochistan Coastal trade outpost

Daimabad Maharashtra Late Harappan bronze chariot

UPSC PYQs

Prelims

2020: Which of the following Harappan sites had ploughed fields? (Kalibangan).

2017: Consider the following — Bhirrana, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan — arranged chronologically

by earliest evidence.

2013: With reference to Harappan civilization, consider the statement(s) about dockyard
(Lothal).

2010: Which animal is not depicted on seals? (Horse).

2004: Binary system in Harappan weights.

Mains

2020 GS-1: To what extent the urban planning of the Indus Valley Civilization is relevant for
contemporary cities?

2019 History Optional: Discuss the water management system of the Harappan Civilization
with reference to Dholavira.

2017 GS-1: How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the art of Harappan
civilization was not repeated in subsequent periods?

2013 History Optional: Discuss the trade and economic activities of the Indus Valley people.

2009 History Optional: Was the decline of the Harappan civilization sudden?

Town Planning of Harappan Civilization

The Harappan urban planning is one of the most sophisticated in ancient history and can be
studied under the following heads:

1. City Layout
●​ Grid pattern: Streets intersect at right angles, dividing the city into rectangular blocks.
●​ Hierarchy of streets: Main streets (up to 10 m wide) → smaller lanes → narrow
alleyways.
●​ Standardised orientation: Streets mostly oriented in N-S and E-W directions.

2. Division of the City

Citadel:
●​ Located on a raised mud-brick platform.
●​ Contained public buildings like Great Bath, granaries, assembly halls, ritual platforms.
●​ Used for administration, storage, and ceremonial purposes.

Lower Town:
●​ Residential areas with houses of baked bricks.
●​ Houses had multiple rooms, courtyards, private wells, bathing areas.

3. Building Material
●​ Standardised baked bricks: Ratio [Link] (height:width:length).
●​ Uniform brick sizes across regions indicate centralised authority or shared cultural
norms.

4. Drainage System
 ●​ Covered drains with inspection holes at regular intervals.
●​ Connected to soak pits for filtration.
●​ Household wastewater connected to street drains — world’s earliest integrated
sanitation system.

5. Water Management
●​ Dholavira: Large reservoirs cut into bedrock; rainwater harvesting.
●​ Mohenjo-daro: Wells in almost every house.
●​ Lothal: Dockyard linked with channels for water flow.

6. Public Buildings

Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro):

●​ Waterproofed with bitumen.
●​ Likely used for ritual bathing.

Granaries:
●​ Harappa, Mohenjo-daro — multiple blocks with ventilated passages.
●​ Assembly halls & pillared halls.

7. Specialised Zones
●​ Industrial areas: Chanhudaro (beads), Lothal (semi-precious stones), Harappa (copper
& shell work).
●​ Market areas inferred from street intersections.

Significance for UPSC

Prelims: Focus on sites and their special features, brick ratio, layout pattern, drainage
uniqueness.

Mains: Link urban planning to socio-political organisation — uniformity suggests central

coordination and standardisation; water management reflects adaptation to the environment.

PYQs on Harappan Town Planning

Prelims

2020: Ploughed fields evidence → Kalibangan.

2017: Chronological arrangement of Bhirrana, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan.

2010: Which Harappan site had a dockyard? (Lothal).

2004: Standard brick ratio in Harappan cities.

Mains

2020 GS-1: To what extent is Harappan urban planning relevant for contemporary cities?

2017 GS-1: How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the art of Harappan
Civilization was not repeated in later periods?

2013 History Optional: Discuss the nature of Harappan urban planning and what it reveals
about the socio-economic conditions of the people.

Agriculture

Agricultural Practices in Harappan Civilization

1. Subsistence Base
●​ Harappans were primarily agrarian, supplemented by trade, crafts, and pastoralism.
●​ Agriculture was well-organised and often surplus-producing → supported urban growth

2. Crops Cultivated

Primary crops:
●​ Wheat & Barley → staple grains (found at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro).
●​ Rice → found at Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat), also Chanhudaro.
●​ Millets → found in Gujarat sites like Rojdi.
●​ Pulses → peas, lentils, chickpeas.

Cash crops:
●​ Cotton → cultivated extensively; Harappa called the first cotton-producing civilization
(Greek sindon from Sindh).
●​ Sesame → for oil.
●​ Dates → from Sindh and Balochistan areas.

Horticulture:
●​ Grapes, melons, and other fruits indicated by seeds.

3. Irrigation & Water Management

●​ Seasonal rivers (Indus, Ghaggar-Hakra) + rainfall patterns → agriculture in both winter
(Rabi) and summer (Kharif) seasons.
●​ Evidence of canals is debated, but Dholavira and Lothal show rainwater storage for
crops.
 ●​ Wells in Mohenjo-daro used for irrigation.
●​ Floodplain farming utilised fertile alluvial soil.

4. Agricultural Tools
●​ Wooden plough (furrows found at Kalibangan fields).
●​ Stone blades for harvesting.
●​ Terracotta sickles.

5. Techniques
●​ Plough-based farming: Kalibangan → fields with cross-furrows show mixed cropping
(two crops grown together).
●​ Crop rotation to maintain soil fertility.
●​ Possible manuring (inferred from animal domestication and dung use).

6. Integration with Economy

●​ Surplus grains stored in granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro.
●​ Agriculture supported craft specialisation, trade (e.g., cotton textiles exported to
Mesopotamia).
●​ Agricultural surplus was possibly controlled by authorities → evidence of standardised
weights and measures.

PYQs on Harappan Agriculture

Prelims

2020: Which Harappan site has evidence of ploughed fields? (Kalibangan).

2013: Rice evidence in Harappan sites (Lothal, Rangpur).

2006: First civilisation to grow cotton (Harappan).

Mains

2017 GS-1: Discuss the subsistence base of the Harappan civilisation.

2013 History Optional: What light does the evidence of agriculture and irrigation throw on the
Harappan economy?

2008 History Optional: Describe the tools and techniques of agriculture in the Indus Valley.

Domestication of animals

Domesticated Animals in Harappan Civilization

1. Major Domesticated Species

(a) Bovines
●​ Humped bull (Zebu) – Bos indicus, frequently depicted in seals & terracotta figurines.
●​ Buffalo – valued for dairy and possibly for traction in wet agriculture.

(b) Ovines & Caprines

●​ Sheep – for wool, meat, and milk.
●​ Goat – for milk, meat, hide.

(c) Equines & Related

●​ Horse – Controversial; no clear evidence in early Harappan phase. A few bones at
Surkotada (later phase, debated).
●​ Ass/Onager – used as pack animals.
●​ Camel – domesticated in later Harappan, especially in Gujarat & Rajasthan.

(d) Other Mammals

●​ Dog – for guarding settlements and herds.
●​ Elephant – symbolic and utilitarian, possible use in timber transport.

(e) Birds
●​ Fowl – domesticated for meat & possibly ritual purposes.

2. Functions of Domesticated Animals

●​ Agriculture – bullocks for ploughing and traction.
●​ Transport – ox-carts, camels, asses for carrying goods.
●​ Food production – dairy (milk, butter, ghee), meat.
●​ Clothing – wool from sheep, hides from cattle/goats.
●​ Symbolic/Religious – bulls in seals possibly had cultic significance.

3. Archaeological Evidence
●​ Bones – found at sites like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, Surkotada.
●​ Seals – depict bulls, buffaloes, elephants, unicorns (possibly mythical).
●​ Terracotta figurines – bulls with movable heads, carts with yokes.
●​ Iconography – Bull worship inferred from the prevalence of bull motifs.

4. Economic Significance
●​ Animal husbandry complemented agriculture.
●​ Helped in a mixed subsistence economy → resilience to crop failure.
●​ Facilitated trade and urban supply chains (pack animals carried raw materials).

Quick Revision Table

 Animal Use Evidence/Site

Humped bull Ploughing, traction Seals (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa)

Buffalo Dairy, meat Harappa

Sheep Wool, meat Harappa, Mohenjo-daro

Dog Guard Harappa

Camel Transport Mohenjo-daro figurines

Elephant Timber transport, Gujarat sites

prestige

Horse Controversial Seals, bones

Ass/Onager​ Transport Surkotada (later phase)

Fowl Meat Lothal

Integration with Economy

Urban Harappan life was supported by a triad:

●​ Agriculture – food surplus
●​ Animal Husbandry – mobility, protein supply, textiles
●​ Crafts/Trade – wealth generation

Animals were crucial for trade connectivity, urban food security, and symbolic identity.

PYQs Related to Domestication of Animals in Harappan Context

Prelims
2020: Which Harappan site provides evidence of horse bones? (Surkotada, disputed).

2017: Evidence of domesticated camels in Harappan context.

2002: First evidence of cotton in the world was from Harappans — indirectly linked to
sheep/goat wool and mixed textile production.

Mains
2017 GS-1: Discuss the subsistence base of Harappan civilisation (animal husbandry is a major
point).

2013 History Optional: Critically examine the role of animal domestication in Harappan
economy.

2008 History Optional: Assess the evidence regarding the presence of horse in the Harappan
culture.

Crafts
●​ Harappan Crafts – Overview
●​ Harappan crafts were highly specialized, diversified, and urban-oriented, reflecting both
mass production for internal use and luxury goods for trade.
Archaeology shows:
●​ Standardization → weight & measures, bead-making, pottery.
●​ Specialized production centres → often separate from residential areas.
●​ Evidence of craft guilds in some cases.

Major Craft Specializations

1. Bead-making
●​ Materials: Carnelian, agate, steatite, chalcedony, faience, terracotta, shell.
●​ Techniques: Drilling, polishing, heat treatment for color enhancement.
Sites:
●​ Chanhudaro – bead-making factory.
●​ Lothal – semi-precious stone bead production.
Significance: High demand in Mesopotamian trade.

2. Pottery
●​ Type: Wheel-made, standardized shapes, red ware with black painted designs.
●​ Special varieties: Polychrome pottery, perforated jars, miniature vessels.
●​ Sites: All major Harappan sites; Bhanwali – painted motifs.
●​ Function: Domestic use, ritual, and trade packaging.

3. Metalwork
●​ Metals used: Copper (from Khetri mines, Rajasthan), bronze, gold, silver, lead.
●​ Products: Tools, weapons, ornaments, vessels.
●​ Lost-wax casting: Famous example → Dancing Girl bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro.
●​ Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal (metallurgical workshops).

4. Seal Carving
●​ Material: Steatite (soft, easily carved then fired to harden).
 ●​ Designs: Animal motifs (unicorn, bull), script inscriptions.
●​ Uses: Trade authentication, ownership marks.
●​ Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan.

5. Textile Production
●​ Evidence: Impressions of woven cloth on pottery, copper objects; spindle whorls.
●​ Material: Cotton (Harappans were first to grow and weave cotton).
●​ Sites: Mehrgarh (early), Mohenjo-daro.

6. Stone Carving
●​ Figurines, weights, beads from steatite, chert, jasper.
●​ Standard cubical stone weights → trade regulation

7. Shell and Ivory Work

●​ Products: Bangles, inlays, combs, decorative items.
●​ Sites: Nageshwar, Balakot (shell working), Lothal (ivory work).

8. Faience Work
●​ Material: Artificially glazed non-clay silica-based product.
●​ Products: Beads, bangles, figurines, amulets.
●​ Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro.

Organisation of Craft Production

●​ Evidence of specialized quarters in cities.
●​ Craft workshops often near raw material sources or ports.
●​ Likely state supervision → uniformity in weights/measures.
●​ Standardized production → indicates centralized economic planning.

Significance of Harappan Crafts

●​ Economic Backbone: Provided goods for domestic consumption & export.

●​ Urban Growth Driver: Supported occupational specialization.
●​ Cultural Expression: Motifs reflect beliefs, art, and symbolism.
●​ Trade Catalyst: Many crafts designed for long-distance commerce.

PYQs Related to Harappan Crafts

Prelims

2020: Which Harappan site is known for bead-making? (Chanhudaro).

2017: Harappan use of bronze → lost-wax casting.

2013: Evidence of cotton → Harappan innovation.

2004: Perforated jars – use and site associations.

Mains

2017 GS-1: Examine the craft specialisation in the Harappan civilisation and its link to urban
economy.

2010 History Optional: Discuss the main craft industries of the Harappan civilisation and their
organisation.

2008 History Optional: Write notes on the Harappan weights and measures and their
significance in trade and craft.

Quick Revision Table

Craft Type Material Key Sites Notable Finds

Beads Carnelian, agate, Chanhudaro, Lothal Long carnelian beads

steatite

Pottery Red ware, painted Bhanwali, Kalibangan Perforated jars

Metalwork Copper, bronze, gold Harappa, Lothal Dancing Girl

​

Seals Steatite Harappa, Unicorn seal

Mohenjo-daro

Textiles Cotton Mohenjo-daro Cloth impression

Shell work Shell Nageshwar, Balakot Shell bangles

Faience Silica + glaze Harappa Faience beads

Ivory Ivory Lothal Ivory combs

Weights and Measures

Overview
●​ The Harappans developed one of the world’s earliest, most standardised systems of
weights and measures, reflecting:
 ●​ Urban economic complexity
●​ Long-distance trade needs
●​ Centralised authority ensuring uniformity

Evidence is largely archaeological—no surviving textual record of the system.

Weights in the Harappan Civilisation

Materials
●​ Chert (hard, fine-grained stone), steatite, jasper.
●​ Finely polished cubical shapes without markings.

Shapes & Sizes

●​ Uniform cubical weights with no inscriptions.
●​ Binary system: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 160 units.
●​ Primary unit: ~13.63 grams (scholarly estimate).

Standardisation
●​ Found across all sites—Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Chanhu-daro.
●​ Suggests central authority control to regulate trade.

Specialised Weights
●​ Larger weights → wholesale trade & taxation.
●​ Smaller weights → retail trade, jewellery, beads.

Measures (Length, Area, Capacity)

Length
●​ Evidence: Ivory scale from Lothal, shell scale from Mohenjo-daro.
●​ Unit length: ~1.32 inches (3.35 cm) → corresponds to “Indus inch”.
●​ Used in construction, craft production, trade.

Area
●​ Town planning shows proportional measurements—streets & bricks in [Link] ratio.
●​ Suggests use of geometric measurement in architecture.

Capacity
●​ Standardised jars and measuring pots found.
●​ Used in grain storage, trade transactions, possibly taxation.

Economic & Cultural Significance

 ●​ Facilitated Internal & External Trade – especially with Mesopotamia.
●​ Ensured Fair Transactions – prevented fraud in markets.
●​ State Authority Evidence – uniform standards across 1,500 km.
●​ Urban Planning Support – standard brick ratios & layout.
●​ Proto-Scientific Thinking – abstract concept of units.

Important Sites & Finds

Evidence Site Material Significance

Cubical chert Harappa, Chert Standard trade

weights Mohenjo-daro, Lotha weights

Ivory scale Lothal Ivory Precision

measurement

Shell scale Mohenjodaro Shell Durable measuring

device

Measuring jars Harappa Pottery Standard volume

measures

PYQs Related to Weights & Measures

Prelims

2020: Which Harappan site is associated with the dockyard & evidence of weights and
measures? (Lothal).

2017: Evidence for standardised weights points to what? (Centralised authority & urban trade).

2004: Harappan use of chert weights – function & standardisation.

Mains

2017 GS-1: Discuss the contribution of the Harappans to the field of metrology and its
significance in their urban economy.

2010 History Optional: Write notes on Harappan weights and measures and their role in trade
and administration.

2008 History Optional: What do the Harappan weights and measures reveal about their
economic organisation?
Lec - 5

Script and Language

Overview
●​ The Harappan civilisation had a unique script still undeciphered.
●​ Found mainly on seals, pottery, copper tablets, and other artefacts.
●​ The script is one of the earliest writing systems in the Indian subcontinent.

Features of the Harappan Script

1. Writing Material & Medium

●​ Found on steatite seals, pottery sherds, copper plates, bone rods.
●​ Also inscribed on jewellery, tools, and ivory objects.

2. Form & Symbols

●​ Pictographic (signs represent objects/ideas).
●​ Around 400–600 distinct signs were recorded.
●​ Signs depict animals, plants, human figures, and geometric forms.

3. Direction of Writing
●​ Predominantly right-to-left.
●​ Occasionally boustrophedon (alternate lines in opposite directions).

4. Usage
●​ Mostly short inscriptions (average length: 5 signs).
●​ Likely used for:
○​ Identifying ownership (on trade goods, seals).
○​ Administrative control.
○​ Possibly religious/ritual purposes.

Decipherment Efforts
●​ Still undeciphered – lack of bilingual inscriptions (like the Rosetta Stone).
●​ Not enough long texts to understand grammar/structure.
●​ Scholars attempted linking it to:
○​ Proto-Dravidian (e.g., Parpola’s theory).
○​ Early Indo-Aryan.
○​ Munda languages.
○​ But no consensus.

Language Debate

1. Proto-Dravidian Hypothesis
 ●​ Supported by linguistic & cultural parallels in South India.
●​ Seals’ signs may represent Dravidian words.

2. Early Indo-Aryan Hypothesis

●​ Suggested by cultural similarities with Vedic Sanskrit words.
●​ Less widely accepted.

3. Munda or Austroasiatic Hypothesis

●​ Based on some shared agricultural vocabulary.

4. Indigenous Isolate Hypothesis

●​ Harappan language could be unrelated to any known surviving family.

Significance of the Script

●​ Indicates high literacy among administrators/traders.
●​ Suggests a centralised record-keeping system.
●​ Supports evidence of long-distance trade (many seals found in Mesopotamia).

PYQs on Script & Language

Prelims

2020: Evidence of writing in Harappan culture is found on? (Seals).

2014: Which feature of Harappan script is correct? (Pictographic, mostly right-to-left).

1996: What is the main reason Harappan script is undeciphered? (No bilingual texts).

Mains

2014 GS-1: Discuss the salient features of the Harappan script and the difficulties in its
decipherment.

2007 History Optional: What do you understand by the pictographic script of the Indus Valley?
Discuss the theories regarding the language represented by it.

2001 History Optional: Assess the evidence for literacy in the Harappan culture.

Harappan Society

Nature of Harappan Society

Urban, stratified, and highly organised.
●​ Reflected a complex social hierarchy based on occupation, craft specialisation, and
control of trade.
●​ Evident from:
○​ Town planning
○​ Housing patterns
○​ Burial practices
○​ Craft and trade organisation
○​ Seal ownership

Social Stratification & Hierarchy

Class Evidence

Ruling/Administrative Elite Citadel areas with large buildings (e.g.,

Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, Granary at
Harappa), seals used for authority.

Merchants/Traders Standardised weights & measures, seals,

dockyard at Lothal, foreign artefacts.

Craftsmen/Artisans Workshops in Chanhudaro, bead-making at

Lothal, pottery at Kot Diji.

Farmers & Herders Evidence from rural settlements, agricultural

tools, and faunal remains.

Labourers/Servants Small one-room dwellings in the lower town,

possibly wage workers.

Gender & Family Structure

●​ Figurines of mother goddesses → belief in fertility cults.
●​ Evidence of women in religious symbolism.
●​ No direct proof of matriarchy, but women likely had important religious roles.
●​ Family likely patrilineal (based on burials and inheritance patterns).

Religion & Beliefs

●​ No clear temples, but:
●​ Great Bath (ritual purity?)
●​ Fire altars (Kalibangan)
●​ Mother Goddess figurines
●​ Proto-Shiva/Pashupati seal
●​ Animal and nature worship

Belief in amulets and charms (found in jewellery and seals).​ ​ ​ ​

Lifestyle & Culture

1. Housing
●​ Planned cities with brick houses.
●​ Multi-room houses for elites; single-room for poor.
●​ Public wells and drainage.

2. Dress & Ornaments

●​ Men: waist cloth, women: long skirts.
●​ Ornaments: gold, silver, copper, beads, semi-precious stones.
●​ Hair styles varied; evidence of headgear and jewellery.

3. Food
●​ Wheat, barley, pulses, dates, melons; some rice (Lothal, Rangpur).
●​ Meat (beef, mutton, poultry, fish) consumed.
●​ Dairy products indicated from residue analysis.

4. Recreation
●​ Board games, dice, terracotta figurines, toys.
●​ Dancing figurines (bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro).

Social Control
●​ Likely governed by a merchant-priest elite.
●​ Seals & standard weights indicate regulation of trade.
●​ Urban uniformity suggests centralised planning.

Decline & Social Changes

●​ Late Harappan phase: reduction in urban size, decline of long-distance trade, simpler
pottery.
●​ Evidence of ruralisation and smaller settlements.

PYQs on Harappan Society

Prelims
●​ 2020: Which statements are correct about the lifestyle of Harappans? (Ornaments, diet,
agriculture).
●​ 2013: Match Harappan sites with their features (dockyard, dancing girl, fire altars).
●​ 1995: Harappan society was essentially urban—explain with reference to evidence.

Mains
●​ 2019 GS-1: Highlight the central Asian and Mesopotamian elements in the Harappan
civilisation.
 ●​ 2016 GS-1: Examine the factors responsible for urban decline in the Harappan
civilisation.
●​ 2004 History Optional: Discuss the socio-economic conditions of the Harappan people
with special reference to craft specialisation and trade.
●​ 1998 History Optional: What light does the study of town planning and art objects of
Harappa throw on the social and economic life of the Harappans?

Quick Revision Table

●​ Social Structure: Stratified – ruling elite, merchants, artisans, farmers, labourers

●​ Gender: Women important in religion, possibly patrilineal society
●​ Religion: Mother Goddess, Pashupati seal, animal worship
●​ Housing: Brick houses, drainage, public wells
●​ Dress/Ornaments: Cotton, jewellery in gold, silver, beads
●​ Food: Agriculture + meat + dairy
●​ Recreation: Dance, games, toys
●​ Control: Centralised planning, standard weights

Harappan Religion

Nature of Harappan Religion

●​ Polytheistic, nature-oriented, fertility-centric.
●​ No clear temples found, indicating religion was decentralised and possibly practised at
the household/community level.
●​ Religion inferred mainly from archaeological evidence — seals, figurines, altars, and
burial practices.

Major Features of Harappan Religion

1. Mother Goddess Worship

●​ Numerous terracotta female figurines with exaggerated reproductive features → fertility
cult.
●​ Suggests agricultural communities’ emphasis on fertility of soil and reproduction.
●​ Similar cults in contemporary Mesopotamia.

2. Proto-Shiva / Pashupati
●​ Famous seal depicting a horned figure, seated cross-legged, surrounded by animals →
identified by some as Proto-Shiva (Lord of Beasts).
●​ Suggestive of early Shaivism and yogic practices.
●​ Not universally accepted — interpretation debated.

3. Animal Worship
●​ Unicorn, bull, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger motifs on seals.
 ●​ Suggests totemistic beliefs.
●​ Bull likely a symbol of strength and fertility.

4. Trees and Nature Worship

●​ Peepal tree depicted on seals — possibly sacred.
●​ Evidence of worship of natural forces (earth, water, fire).

5. Fire Worship
●​ Fire altars at Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali.
●​ Possibly connected to rituals of purity, sacrifice.

6. Amulets & Symbols

●​ Amulets for protection against evil.
●​ Swastika and cross motifs found — symbols still in Indian tradition.

7. No Evidence of Ritual Sacrifices

●​ Unlike Vedic religion, there is no conclusive proof of large-scale animal sacrifice.

Religious Practices
●​ Household shrines are likely common.
●​ Ritual bathing (Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro) → purity rituals.
●​ Probable ancestor worship (from burial practices).

Burials & Afterlife Beliefs

●​ Burials show extended inhumation; grave goods like pottery, ornaments.
●​ Suggests belief in life after death.
●​ Secondary burials and symbolic burials were also found.

Differences from Later Vedic Religion

●​ Harappan Religion - Later Vedic Religion
●​ Fertility cult, Mother Goddess prominent - Male sky gods (Indra, Varuna) dominant
●​ No temples - Fire altars in household/ritual spaces
●​ Seals, amulets used in worship - Oral hymns, sacrifices
●​ Proto-Shiva & animal worship - Anthropomorphic deities

PYQs on Harappan Religion

Prelims
●​ 2014: Which among the following is/are features of Harappan religion? (Mother
Goddess, Pashupati, fire altars).
●​ 1995: Harappans worshipped Mother Goddess and Pashupati — evidence and
interpretation.
Mains
●​ 2017 GS-1: Discuss the main features of religion in the Harappan civilisation.
●​ 2008 History Optional: Critically assess the evidence for Harappan religion. To what
extent can it be connected to later Hinduism?
●​ 1999 History Optional: Describe the salient features of religion in the Indus Valley
civilisation.

Harappan Economy

Overview
●​ Harappan economy was diversified: agriculture + pastoralism + crafts + internal &
external trade.
●​ Self-sufficient in essentials but connected to a long-distance trade network
(Mesopotamia, Persian Gulf, Afghanistan).
●​ Archaeological evidence is the primary source — no deciphered written records.

Agriculture

Evidence:
●​ Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal.
●​ Crops: Wheat, barley (dominant), peas, sesame, dates, cotton (world’s earliest evidence
of cotton from Mehrgarh c. 5000 BCE).
●​ Two-crop system in some regions (winter & summer).
●​ Rice from Lothal, Rangpur (Gujarat) — not widespread.
●​ Tools: Wooden plough with copper/stone blade.
●​ Irrigation: Mostly flood-based; canal irrigation not confirmed.

Significance:
●​ Agricultural surplus supported urban growth.

Domestication of Animals
●​ Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, elephant.
●​ Horse absent (evidence only from late/post-Harappan sites like Surkotada — debated).
●​ Oxen used for ploughing, bull for carts.
●​ Evidence from faunal remains, terracotta figurines.

Craft Production

Main crafts:
●​ Bead-making (Carnelian from Gujarat, steatite, faience).
●​ Pottery (Red ware, black-painted designs).
●​ Metallurgy (Copper, bronze; gold & silver for ornaments).
●​ Stoneware (steatite seals).
●​ Shell, ivory, semi-precious stone work.
Specialised centres:
●​ Chanhudaro — bead-making.
●​ Lothal — beads, bangles.
●​ Nageshwar — shell working.
●​ Balakot — semi-precious stone crafting.

Significance:
●​ Specialisation & standardisation → division of labour.

Trade & Commerce

Internal Trade:
●​ Standardised weights & measures (binary & decimal systems).
●​ River & land routes connecting settlements.
●​ Evidence: Granaries, dockyard at Lothal.

External Trade:
●​ Mesopotamian records mention Meluhha — identified with the Indus region.
●​ Imports: Silver (Afghanistan), copper (Rajasthan, Oman), tin (Afghanistan), lapis lazuli
(Badakhshan), gold (Karnataka).
●​ Exports: Cotton textiles, beads, carnelian, ivory.

Modes of Transport:
●​ Bullock carts, boats (depicted on seals).

Barter System
●​ No evidence of coins.
●​ Standardised seals & weights facilitated barter-based exchange.

Decline of Economy
●​ Trade network collapse due to decline of urban centres and Mesopotamian demand.
●​ Craft specialisation declined; ruralisation set in.

PYQs on Harappan Economy

Prelims
●​ 2017: Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (Testing trade site knowledge
like Lothal, Chanhudaro).
●​ 2013: Evidence of rice from Harappan sites.
●​ 2004: Which metal was not known to Harappans?
●​ 1995: Which craft was most developed in Harappa? (Bead-making).
Mains
●​ 2017 GS-1: To what extent has the urban planning of the Harappan Civilisation
contributed to the present-day city planning in India? (Indirect link through economic
surplus & organisation).
●​ 2013 History Optional: Discuss the trade and commercial activities of the Indus Valley
civilisation.
●​ 2001 History Optional: Describe the economic life of the Harappan people.

Harappan Burial System

Sources of Information
●​ Primary: Archaeological excavations — Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal,
Rakhigarhi, Surkotada, Farmana.
●​ Evidence: Skeletons, grave goods, burial pits, pottery, ornaments.

Types of Burials

1. Primary Burials
●​ Dead body placed in north–south orientation (head generally north).
●​ Accompanied by grave goods (pottery, ornaments, tools).
●​ Example: Harappa, Rakhigarhi.

2. Secondary Burials
●​ Bones collected after partial decomposition elsewhere, then buried.
●​ Example: Kalibangan, Mohenjo-daro.

3. Fractional Burials
●​ Only part of the body buried — perhaps ritualistic.
●​ Example: Harappa.

Burial Practices & Rituals

A. Orientation & Position

●​ Most skeletons are in supine (lying on back) position.
●​ Few in flexed or crouched position (esp. in Gujarat).

B. Grave Goods
●​ Pottery (red ware with black designs), ornaments (carnelian beads, bangles, shell), tools.
●​ Possibly placed for afterlife use → suggests belief in life after death.

C. Cemetery Types
●​ Cemetery R-37 (Harappa): Adult burials with rich grave goods.
 ●​ Cemetery H (Harappa): Two phases — Phase I (Late Harappan burials), Phase II (urn
burials, evidence of cremation).
●​ Cemetery at Farmana (Haryana): Well-planned rows of graves, showing social
organisation.

D. Cremation Evidence
●​ Limited evidence; some sites (Cemetery H Phase II) show urn burials with ashes.

Regional Variations
●​ Sindh & Punjab: Extended inhumation more common.
●​ Gujarat (Lothal, Surkotada): Flexed burials, more use of local materials in grave
goods.
●​ Haryana (Farmana, Rakhigarhi): Planned cemeteries, standardised pit sizes.

Socio-Cultural Significance
●​ Variation in grave goods indicates social stratification.
●​ Ritualistic burial practices suggest religious beliefs (life after death, ancestor worship).
●​ Diversity of burial styles reflects cultural plurality within Harappan civilisation.

PYQs Related to Harappan Burial System

Prelims
●​ 2017: Which of the following is not a Harappan site? (Burial sites like Farmana,
Rakhigarhi can be part of such questions.)
●​ 2001: Evidence of belief in life after death in Harappan civilisation (grave goods).

Mains
●​ History Optional 2010: Discuss the burial practices of the Harappan civilisation and
what they reveal about their socio-religious life.
●​ GS-1 2017: Belief systems and practices in Harappan civilisation (burial system as
evidence).

Harappan Art & Architecture

Sources of Evidence
●​ Archaeological excavations — Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal,
Rakhigarhi, Chanhudaro.
●​ Material: Fired & unfired bricks, stone, terracotta, metals, steatite.

Harappan Architecture

A. Urban Planning
●​ Grid Pattern — Streets intersect at right angles.
 ●​ Division — Citadel (west, elevated, administrative/religious) & Lower Town (east,
residential).
●​ Standardised bricks — Ratio [Link]; both burnt & sun-dried.

B. Major Architectural Features

1. Fortifications
●​ Thick mud-brick walls; sometimes stone (Dholavira).
●​ Defensive and flood-control purpose.

2. Drainage System
●​ Covered drains with inspection holes.
●​ Domestic wastewater linked to main drains.

3. Public Buildings
●​ Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) — waterproof brickwork, bitumen lining.
●​ Granaries — Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira (massive storage blocks).
●​ Assembly Hall — Mohenjo-daro.

4. Dockyard
●​ Lothal — trapezoidal structure for trade & transport.

5. Water Management
●​ Dholavira — sophisticated reservoirs & water channels.

6. Houses
●​ Usually two storeys, central courtyard, bathrooms connected to drainage.

Harappan Art

A. Sculpture
●​ Stone — Bearded priest (Mohenjo-daro), male torso (Harappa).
●​ Bronze — Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro) — lost-wax casting.
●​ Terracotta — Mother Goddess figurines, toy carts, animals.

B. Seals & Sealings

●​ Material: Steatite, faience.
●​ Designs: Pashupati-like figure, unicorn, humped bull.
●​ Purpose: Trade, identification, religious symbolism.

C. Pottery
●​ Red ware with black designs; geometric patterns, animals.
●​ Wheel-made; some hand-made.
●​ Perforated jars for filtration.
D. Beads & Ornaments
●​ Materials: Carnelian, lapis lazuli, gold, shell.
●​ Centres: Chanhudaro, Lothal.

E. Faience & Jewellery

●​ Glazed faience beads — high craftsmanship.
●​ Gold jewellery for the elite; shell/terracotta for commoners.

Cultural Significance
●​ Reflects urban sophistication & aesthetic sense.
●​ Standardisation → centralised control.
●​ Themes show religious motifs (fertility, animals, proto-Shiva).
●​ Technological advancement in metallurgy & hydraulic engineering.

PYQs on Harappan Art & Architecture

Prelims
●​ 2020: Which of the following Harappan sites has a dockyard? (Lothal).
●​ 2019: In which of the following was a ploughed field found? (Kalibangan — indirect link
to layout & architecture).
●​ 2013: Match sites with finds (e.g., Dancing Girl — Mohenjo-daro).

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2017): "The ancient civilisation in the Indian subcontinent differed from those of
Egypt and Mesopotamia in terms of urban planning."
●​ History Optional (2012): "Discuss the salient features of Harappan architecture and art.
What do they reveal about socio-economic and religious life?”

Harappan Internal & Foreign Trade

Overview
●​ Harappan economy was urban and commercial in nature.
●​ Trade was the lifeline of Harappan cities — both internal (regional) and external (foreign)
trade.
●​ Archaeological evidence shows a network of exchange involving raw materials, finished
goods, and cultural items.

Internal Trade (Within the Indus Domain)

Features
●​ Well-connected network of urban centres: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Lothal,
Kalibangan.
 ●​ Specialised craft centres:
○​ Chanhudaro → beads, shell bangles.
○​ Lothal → beads, semi-precious stones.
○​ Balakot & Nageshwar → shell objects.
○​ Rangpur → rice cultivation.

●​ Goods in internal trade:

○​ Agricultural produce: wheat, barley, sesame, pulses.
○​ Craft items: beads, pottery, textiles.
○​ Raw materials: stone, shell, copper, ivory.

●​ Transport & Communication:

○​ Bullock carts, boats (riverine and coastal routes).
○​ Dockyard at Lothal for sea trade.

●​ Evidence:
○​ Standardised weights & measures.
○​ Harappan script on seals for authentication.
○​ Storage facilities (granaries).

Foreign Trade (External)

A. Mesopotamia (Sumer & Akkad)

●​ Mesopotamian records refer to trade with a region called Meluhha (identified as Indus
Valley).
●​ Harappan goods found in Mesopotamia:
○​ Carnelian beads, lapis lazuli, ivory, cotton textiles.

●​ Mesopotamian imports to Harappa:

○​ Silver, tin, wool, luxury items.

B. Oman & Bahrain (Dilmun)

●​ Trade via sea route through the Arabian Sea.
●​ Copper from Oman.
●​ Evidence: Harappan seals in Bahrain.

C. Afghanistan & Iran

●​ Lapis lazuli from Badakhshan (Afghanistan).
●​ Turquoise from Iran.

D. Central Asia
●​ Possible overland trade through Bolan and Khyber passes.
Mechanisms of Trade
●​ Barter system — no evidence of coinage.
●​ Standardised binary & decimal weights.
●​ Seals used as marks of ownership and origin.
●​ Use of dockyards (Lothal) and storage facilities.

Significance of Trade
●​ Supported urbanisation and craft specialisation.
●​ Linked Harappan cities with the global Bronze Age economy.
●​ Spread Harappan cultural elements abroad.

Archaeological Evidence

Evidence Place Relevance

Dockyard Lothal​ Sea trade

Seals Harappa, Bahrain Trade authentication

Carnelian beads Chanhudaro Export item to Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian records Ur, Lagash Mention of Meluhha

Lapis lazuli Shortughai (Afghan) Raw material import

​ ​
PYQs on Harappan Trade

Prelims
●​ 2017: With reference to Indus Valley Civilisation, consider:
○​ 1. A dockyard has been found at Lothal.
○​ 2. Evidence of cotton trade to Mesopotamia.
(Both correct — Answer: C)

✔️
●​ 2013: Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?

✔️
○​ Lothal — Dockyard
○​ Kalibangan — Ploughed field

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2017): “The craft production and trade of the Indus Valley Civilisation played a key
role in its urban growth.” Discuss.
●​ History Optional (2021): “Discuss the evidence for Harappan trade with Mesopotamia
and other regions.”
Decline of the Harappan Culture

Chronology
●​ Mature Harappan Phase: c. 2600–1900 BCE
●​ Late Harappan Phase: c. 1900–1300 BCE
●​ The decline was gradual, regionally varied, and multi-causal — not a sudden collapse.

Archaeological Evidence of Decline

●​ Abandonment of cities (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa).
●​ Reduced use of standardised weights, seals, script.
●​ Poorer quality pottery & brickwork.
●​ Disappearance of long-distance trade.
●​ Changes in burial patterns.
●​ Shift from urban to rural settlements.

Theories Explaining Decline

A. Environmental Factors

1. River Changes
●​ Sutlej & Yamuna migration → drying of Saraswati/Ghaggar-Hakra system.
●​ Indus shifting course → flooding in some areas, drought in others.

2. Floods
●​ Evidence at Mohenjo-daro: silt deposits in layers.
●​ Possibly recurrent, damaging urban infrastructure.

3. Drought / Climate Change

●​ Reduced monsoon intensity (aridification around 2000 BCE).
●​ Decreased agricultural surplus.

B. Economic Factors
●​ Decline in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia (collapse of Mesopotamian Ur III
dynasty).
●​ Breakdown of craft specialisation.
●​ De-urbanisation → small, scattered rural settlements.

C. Sociopolitical Factors
●​ Possible breakdown of central authority.
●​ Localised polities replacing urban centralisation.

D. External Factors
●​ Aryan Invasion Theory (Mortimer Wheeler, now largely rejected):
 ●​ Proposed that Indo-Aryan migrants invaded and destroyed cities.
●​ Archaeology does not show large-scale warfare; only isolated skeletal remains with
injuries.

E. Multi-Causal / Integrated Theory (Most accepted today)

●​ Climate change → reduced agricultural production → trade decline → political instability
→ migration to rural areas.
●​ The decline was not uniform — some Late Harappan cultures (e.g., Cemetery H, Jhukar,
Rangpur) continued in modified forms.

Late Harappan Cultures

●​ Cemetery H Culture (Punjab) — painted pottery, urn burials.
●​ Jhukar Culture (Sindh) — crude pottery, reduced trade.
●​ Rangpur Culture (Gujarat) — continued rice cultivation.

Significance for UPSC

●​ Harappan decline is not a mystery anymore — it’s understood as a complex,
region-specific transformation rather than a single catastrophic event.
●​ Important for linking Prehistory with Early Historic cultures.

PYQs on Decline of Harappan Culture

Prelims
2019: Which of the following characterises the Late Harappan phase?
●​ (A) Painted Grey Ware, (B) Script continuity, (C) Decline of urban centres, (D) Copper
hoards) —
●​ Answer: (C)

2013: Which river is considered to have dried up, affecting Harappan settlements?
(Saraswati/Ghaggar-Hakra)

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2014): “To what extent environmental factors can explain the decline of Harappan
civilisation?”
●​ History Optional (2018): “Discuss various factors responsible for the disintegration of
the urban economy of the Indus civilization.”

Lec - 6

Vedic Society

Vedic Society (c. 1500–600 BCE)

Overview

Period divided into:

1. Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic, c. 1500–1000 BCE) – based mainly on the Rigveda.

2. Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE) – based on the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.

Sources

1. Literary

Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva)

Brahmanas

Aranyakas

Upanishads

Later Vedic texts (Dharmasutras, Grihyasutras)

2. Archaeological

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture.

Iron tools (later Vedic).

Early Vedic Society (Rig Vedic Period)

Social Structure

Tribal, kin-based society.

Basic unit: Kula (family) → Grama (village) → Vis (clan) → Jana (tribe).

Varna system embryonic: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya; Shudra mentioned rarely.

Women:
Enjoyed relatively high status.

Participated in religious rituals.

Could choose partners (Swayamvara), attend Sabha & Samiti.

Educated women called Brahmavadinis.

Slavery (dasa, dasi) existed but not in large numbers.

Economy

Pastoral with limited agriculture.

Cow as measure of wealth.

Barter system.

Religion

Nature worship: Indra (war), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order), Surya (sun).

Sacrifices (yajna) prominent.

No temples, no idol worship.

IV. Later Vedic Society (c. 1000–600 BCE)

Social Changes

●​ Varna system rigidified → emergence of caste (jati).

●​ The Gotra system (lineage exogamy) became prevalent.
●​ The patriarchal family strengthened.
●​ Women’s position declined:
●​ No participation in assemblies.
●​ Child marriage began.
●​ Education is restricted.

Economy
●​ Agriculture became dominant.
 ●​ Use of iron tools → forest clearance, surplus production.
●​ Land ownership concepts emerging.
●​ Specialised crafts, urban growth in Ganga plain.

Religion
●​ Ritualism intensified; the priestly class (Brahmanas) gained power.
●​ Emphasis on sacrifices (Ashvamedha, Rajasuya).
●​ Philosophical thought → Upanishads (karma, samsara, moksha).

V. Comparison Table

Feature Early Vedic Age Later Vedic Age

Tribal Tribal, egalitarian Stratified, caste-based

Women High status, public role Declining status

Economy Pastoral-agricultural Agricultural-urban

Religion Nature worship Ritualism + philosophy

Political units Jana, Sabha, Samiti Larger kingdoms,

bureaucracy

VI. PYQs on Vedic Society

Prelims

2018: Which one of the following was a very important seaport in Kalinga during the rule of
Ashoka? (Indirect link to later Vedic expansion routes — Ganga basin trade importance)

2013: With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following
statements:

1. Upanishads are treatises on ritual action. ❌ (They deal with philosophy)

2. Shankaracharya advocated Advaita. ✔️
(Answer: B)
1995: Which is the oldest Veda? (Rigveda)

Mains

GS-1 (2016): Discuss the role of women in the Vedic age.

GS-1 (2013): Discuss the social and economic life of the later Vedic people.

History Optional (2018): Compare and contrast the socio-political and economic conditions of
the Rig Vedic and Later Vedic periods.

VII. Answer-writing tips for Mains

Intro: Mention time frame + literary sources.

Body: Use thematic subheadings (social, economic, political, religious).

Diagrams: Draw a flowchart showing Vedic political hierarchy (Kula → Grama → Vis → Jana).

Conclusion: Show transition from tribal-pastoral society to stratified agricultural kingdoms.

Origin and Home of the Aryan

I. Who were the Aryans?

●​ The term ‘Arya’ appears in Rigveda meaning noble, cultured, refined.
●​ Described as Indo-European language speakers who composed Vedic literature.
●​ Debate concerns their original homeland and migration/indigenous origins.

II. Major Theories about the Original Home

1. Central Asian Theory

●​ Proponent: Max Müller (19th century).
●​ Aryans came from Central Asia (Steppes region).

Reasons:
●​ Similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin (Indo-European family).
●​ References in Vedas to horses, chariots, and steppe environment.

Criticism: Weak archaeological evidence linking direct migration route.

2. Arctic / Polar Theory

Proponent: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (The Arctic Home in the Vedas, 1903).
●​ Based on astronomical references in Vedas (long days, six months daylight).
●​ Suggested Aryans lived in the Arctic region before migrating.

Criticism: Highly speculative; no archaeological support.

3. German / Baltic Theory

●​ Homeland: Baltic Sea / Eastern Europe.
●​ Based on linguistic similarities.

4. Indian / Indigenous Theory

●​ Proponents: Dayananda Saraswati, A.C. Das, Shrikant Talageri.
●​ Aryans originated in India and spread outward.
●​ Vedic culture is indigenous to the subcontinent.

Criticism: Limited archaeological correlation; contested by most linguists.

5. Iranian Theory
●​ Homeland: Iran and adjoining areas.
●​ Similarities between Avesta (Zoroastrian scripture) and Rigveda.
●​ River names, deities show parallels (Mitra, Varuna, Asura/Ahura).

6. Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) Link

●​ Modern archaeological studies show Indo-Iranian cultures interacted in
Bactria–Margiana region (modern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan) before
entering India.

III. Evidence Considered in the Debate

Linguistic
●​ Sanskrit is close to Greek, Latin, Avestan → Indo-European language families.
●​ Shared root words for family members, flora, fauna.

Archaeological
●​ Painted Grey Ware culture overlaps with later Vedic material remains.
●​ Horse remains and chariot depictions (e.g., Sanauli, though dating is debated).

Literary
 ●​ Rigveda mentions Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers).
●​ Early hymns suggest familiarity with Punjab plains and river systems.

IV. Current Scholarly Consensus

●​ Most mainstream historians support migration hypothesis:
●​ Indo-Aryans entered NW India around 1500 BCE through the Afghan passes.
●​ Homeland probably in the Central Asian steppes near Caspian Sea.

●​ However, indigenous theory remains in nationalist discourse.

V. Relevance for UPSC

Prelims Pointers
●​ Rigveda mentions Sapta Sindhu → probable NW India location during Rig Vedic period.
●​ Avestan similarities → Iran connection.
●​ Archaeological overlap with PGW culture.

Mains Pointers
●​ Discuss multiple theories neutrally.
●​ Provide both linguistic + archaeological arguments.
●​ Conclude with scholarly consensus and mention ongoing debates.

VI. PYQs on Origin of Aryans

Prelims

2016: Which of the following characterizes the people of the Indus Valley Civilization? (Indirect
link — comparison with Vedic people)

1995: The Aryans came to India from? (Answer: Central Asia – as per mainstream view)

Mains

History Optional (2017): Discuss the various theories on the original home of the Aryans and
assess the evidence for each.

GS-1 (2019): Examine the evidence for and against the Aryan migration theory.

VII. Answer-writing Tip

Intro: Define who Aryans were and what the debate is about.
Body: Use subheadings for each theory with evidence + criticism.

Conclusion: Present balanced scholarly consensus while noting ongoing debates.

Diagram: Map showing possible migration routes from Central Asia, Iran, and internal
movement in India → fetches extra marks.

Features of Aryan Culture

I. Meaning of Aryan Culture

Arya = noble, cultured (appears in Rigveda).

Culture known from Vedic literature (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda) and related
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.

Spans c. 1500 BCE – 600 BCE, divided into:

1. Early/Rig Vedic period – c. 1500–1000 BCE

2. Later Vedic period – c. 1000–600 BCE

II. Major Features of Aryan Culture

1. Political Organization

Rig Vedic:

Tribal, semi-nomadic polity.

Basic unit: Jana (tribe) → composed of grama (villages).

Head: Rajan (chief), assisted by purohita (priest) & senani (army commander).

Assemblies: Sabha & Samiti (deliberative bodies), Vidhata (ritual gatherings).

Later Vedic:

Emergence of territorial kingdoms (Janapadas).

Rajan’s power increased; wars for land became common.

Sabha & Samiti declined in influence.

2. Society

Patriarchal and patrilineal.

Varna system in embryonic form in Rig Vedic times (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya mentioned;
Shudra added later).

Later Vedic period → varna system became more rigid; hereditary occupation.

Joint family (Kutumba) common.

Women in Rig Vedic period had relatively higher status:

Could attend assemblies, receive education, choose spouses.

Declined in later Vedic period; child marriage & restrictions increased.

3. Religion

Rig Vedic:

Polytheistic, nature worship.

Major deities: Indra (war), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order), Soma (plant god), Surya, Ushas.

No temples; yajnas performed in open.

Later Vedic:

Priestly domination increased.

Sacrificial rituals (Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya) became elaborate.

Transition towards philosophical speculation seen in Upanishads (Brahman, Atman).

4. Economy

Pastoral-agricultural in Rig Vedic period; cows were a measure of wealth.

Agriculture became more prominent in Later Vedic period:

Use of iron (krishna-ayas) led to clearing forests & expansion of cultivation.

Trade: barter in early period → coins (Nishka) in later period.

Craft specialization: carpentry, chariot-making, pottery.

5. Language & Literature

Language: Vedic Sanskrit (older form of classical Sanskrit).

Rich oral tradition; hymns memorized and transmitted orally.

Literature:

Rigveda – earliest text.

Later Vedas, Brahmanas (rituals), Aranyakas (forest texts), Upanishads (philosophy).

6. Warfare

Horse-drawn chariots with spoked wheels.

Weapons: bows, arrows, spears, swords, axes.

Wars fought for cattle (Gavishti) and land.

7. Art & Science

Rig Vedic people had knowledge of astronomy (nakshatras), mathematics (use of numbers),
and medicine (herbal remedies in Atharvaveda).

No monumental architecture; temporary dwellings made of wood and reed.

IV. PYQs

Prelims

2020: With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (Indra – God of Rain,
Agni – God of Fire, Varuna – God of Oceans) – Which is correctly matched? (UPSC tested
Vedic deities)
2012: Which one of the following is the most significant feature of the Rig Vedic religion?
(Answer: Worship of natural forces in personified form)

1995: The Rig Vedic Aryans were a pastoral people. Discuss the evidence. (MCQ form in earlier
Prelims)

Mains

GS-1 (2016): Discuss the changing political, economic and social organisation of the Vedic
Aryans.

History Optional (2021): Examine the social and economic conditions of the Rig Vedic period.

V. Answer-writing Tip

Intro: Define Aryan culture in context of Vedic civilization.

Body: Present features under headings – polity, society, religion, economy, culture.

Conclusion: Link to later developments (Mahajanapadas, philosophical traditions).

Value addition:

Quote Rigveda hymns (e.g., “Mata bhumih putro aham prithivyah” – The Earth is my mother, I
am her son).

Draw a simple flowchart showing transition from Rig Vedic → Later Vedic.

Vedic Texts & Upanishads

(Sources, Features, Significance)

I. Overview

Vedic Literature is the earliest literary source of Indian history.

Written in Vedic Sanskrit, composed c. 1500–500 BCE, preserved orally for centuries.

Divided into Shruti (heard/revealed) and Smriti (remembered).

Upanishads are the philosophical end part of the Vedic corpus (Vedānta).

II. Components of Vedic Literature

1. The Four Vedas (Samhitas)

Veda Main Content Key Deities / Associated Vedic

Features Period

Rigveda 1028 hymns, mainly Indra, Agni, Varuna, Earliest Vedic period
prayers to deities Soma

Samveda Hymns set to music; Indra, Agni Basis of Indian music

chants for rituals

Yajurveda Prose formulae for Ritualistic, Transition to later

rituals & sacrifices instructions for yajnas Vedic

Atharvaveda Hymns, spells, Daily life concerns, Later Vedic

charms healing, magic​

2. Brahmanas

Prose texts explaining meaning and performance of rituals in the Vedas.

Examples:

Aitareya (Rigveda)

Panchavimsha (Samaveda)

Shatapatha (Yajurveda)

Gopatha (Atharvaveda)

3. Aranyakas

“Forest books” – meditative and mystical interpretations of rituals.

Bridge between ritualism (Brahmanas) and philosophy (Upanishads).

4. Upanishads
Philosophical treatises; focus on knowledge (jnana), meditation (dhyana), renunciation
(sannyasa).

Discuss concepts like Brahman (universal soul), Atman (individual soul), Karma, Moksha.

~108 Upanishads, but principal 11 often mentioned:

Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Kena, Katha, Isha, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya,

Prashna, Shvetashvatara.

Known as Vedānta ("end of the Veda" in both position & essence).

5. Vedangas (Auxiliary Disciplines)

1. Shiksha – phonetics

2. Kalpa – ritual rules (includes Shrautasutras, Grihyasutras, Dharmasutras)

3. Vyakarana – grammar (Panini’s Ashtadhyayi)

4. Nirukta – etymology (Yaska)

5. Chhanda – metre

6. Jyotisha – astronomy & astrology

6. Smriti Literature

Later texts: Itihasas (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranas, Dharmashastras.

III. Importance in History

Provide earliest record of Aryan society, polity, economy, religion.

Linguistic analysis helps trace Indo-Aryan migration.

Upanishads mark the shift from ritualism to philosophical inquiry.

IV. Prelims-Focused Points

Oldest Veda: Rigveda.

Gayatri Mantra: in Rigveda (Mandala 3, Sukta 62, Rishi Vishwamitra).

Nishka: gold coin mentioned in later Vedic texts.

Atharvaveda: accepted into Vedic corpus later than others.

Mandukya Upanishad: shortest, deals with Om and consciousness states.

Brihadaranyaka & Chandogya: oldest Upanishads.

Shatapatha Brahmana: source for Vedic geometry and fire altar construction.

V. Mains-Focused Themes

1. Vedic texts as historical sources – strengths & limitations.

2. Ritualism vs. Philosophical thought – transition from Samhitas → Brahmanas → Aranyakas

→ Upanishads.

3. Ethical and social ideas in the Upanishads – unity of existence, non-violence, renunciation.

4. Influence of Vedic thought on later philosophies (Buddhism, Jainism, Vedanta).

VI. PYQs

Prelims

2020: Which one of the following pairs of ancient texts and their contents is correctly matched?
(UPSC tested Atharvaveda – magic and charms)

2016: Which of the following statements is/are correct about the Rigveda? (questions on its
composition & content)
2014: Which Veda is partly prose and partly verse? (Answer: Yajurveda)

Mains

GS-1 (2013): Discuss the rituals and their significance in the Vedic period.

History Optional (2019): Examine the socio-religious ideas in the Upanishads.

GS-1 (2007): Evaluate the role of Vedic literature in reconstructing the history of ancient India.

VII. Answer-writing Structure for Mains

Intro: Define Vedic literature, timeline, and oral tradition.

Body:

Explain four divisions: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.

Discuss features and examples.

Show evolution from ritualism to philosophy.

Conclusion: Link to later Indian thought, e.g., influence on Vedanta, Bhakti, modern reformers.

Sources for Reconstructing Vedic Society & Culture

I. Introduction

Vedic period: c. 1500–500 BCE (Early & Later Vedic phases).

Society reconstructed mainly from literary sources, supported by archaeological, linguistic, and
anthropological evidence.

Primary difficulty: Vedic texts are religious and ritualistic, so historical interpretation requires
caution.

II. Main Sources

1. Literary Sources (Primary)

A. Shruti Literature
1. Samhitas (Vedas)

Rigveda: Earliest source of Indian history; hymns on deities, nature, and social life.

Mentions sabha (assembly), samiti (council), pastoral life, cattle wealth.

Samaveda: Ritual chants, shows religious practices.

Yajurveda: Ritual formulae for sacrifices (yajnas).

Atharvaveda: Magic, healing, daily life practices.

2. Brahmanas

Ritual explanations, priestly hierarchy, varna rules.

3. Aranyakas

Forest treatises; ascetic values, withdrawal from society.

4. Upanishads

Philosophical thought; concepts of Brahman, Atman, renunciation.

B. Vedangas

Auxiliary sciences—phonetics, ritual rules, grammar, etymology, metrics, astronomy—show

educational and intellectual life.

C. Epic Literature (Itihasas)

Ramayana, Mahabharata: Though compiled later, preserve traditions of later Vedic

society—kinship, dharma, warfare.

D. Smriti Literature
Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras: Social norms, duties of varnas, law and justice.

E. Foreign Accounts

Though no foreign writings exist for early Vedic phase, later Indo-Iranian connections and
Avestan texts help comparative study.

2. Archaeological Sources

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites linked to later Vedic culture.

Settlements in Punjab, Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna doab.

Implements: iron tools in later Vedic phase.

No direct inscriptions—literary and material cultures have to be correlated.

3. Linguistic & Comparative Sources

Comparative study of Sanskrit and Avestan gives clues to early Aryan culture.

Philology helps date Vedic compositions.

4. Anthropological & Ethnographic Parallels

Study of tribal rituals in rural India gives insights into continuity of some Vedic customs.

III. Strengths & Limitations

Strengths:

Direct cultural descriptions in hymns.

Continuity between early and later texts shows social evolution.

Limitations:

Composed by and for the priestly class—elite bias.

Religious focus, less on material culture.

Chronology is debated; oral tradition leads to interpolations.

IV. Prelims-Focused Facts

Oldest text in Indo-European language: Rigveda.

Sabha vs Samiti: both assemblies, but sabha more aristocratic, samiti popular.

Nishka: gold ornament used as currency (later Vedic).

Painted Grey Ware: associated with later Vedic settlements.

Upanishads: philosophical, not ritualistic.

V. Mains-Focused Analysis

Mains Answer Structure

Intro:

Define the Vedic period, mention primary sources, and note oral tradition.

Body:

1. Literary Sources

Shruti (Samhitas → Brahmanas → Aranyakas → Upanishads) – examples + info given.

Epics and Dharmashastras – examples + relevance.

2. Archaeological Evidence

PGW sites, iron tools, settlements.

3. Linguistic Analysis

Sanskrit–Avestan comparisons.
4. Anthropological Parallels

Surviving rituals in rural India.

5. Critical Evaluation

Bias of priestly authors, interpolation, dating issues.

Conclusion:

Combined use of literary, material, and comparative sources gives a fuller picture.

Even with limitations, Vedic literature remains the core evidence for reconstructing early Indian
society.

VI. PYQs

Prelims

2020: With reference to Vedic literature, which one of the following is not correctly matched?
(Options on Veda–content pairings).

2014: Consider the following: (Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha) – Which were assemblies in Vedic
period?

2012: Which Veda contains the Gayatri mantra?

Mains

GS-1 (2016): How do you account for the cultural similarities between the early Vedic age and
those of Iran and Afghanistan?

GS-1 (2013): Discuss the rituals and their significance in the Vedic period.

History Optional (2019): Evaluate the role of Vedic literature in reconstructing the social and
cultural history of the Vedic period.
Geography of the Rig Vedic & Later Vedic Period

I. Introduction

Vedic civilization evolved in two broad phases:

1. Early/Rig Vedic Period: c. 1500–1000 BCE

2. Later Vedic Period: c. 1000–600 BCE

Geographical spread is reconstructed from Vedic hymns, archaeology (PGW culture), and river
names.

II. Geography of the Rig Vedic Period

Core Region:

Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers): Indus, Jhelum (Vitasta), Chenab (Asikni), Ravi
(Parushni), Beas (Vipasa), Sutlej (Shutudri), and the Saraswati (probably Ghaggar–Hakra).

Covered Punjab, parts of eastern Afghanistan, and northwest Rajasthan.

Extent:

West: Afghanistan (River Kubha = Kabul, River Suvastu = Swat)

East: Western UP (Ganga barely mentioned in Rigveda, showing limited eastern spread)

South: Mention of Vindhyas absent—no penetration into peninsular India.

Landscape & Economy Influence:

Fertile river plains → pastoral-agricultural mix.

Rivers central to rituals, hymns, and settlements.

Rainfall adequate; no evidence of large-scale irrigation.

III. Geography of the Later Vedic Period

Core Expansion:

Movement from Punjab → Haryana → Upper Ganga–Yamuna Doab.

Frequent mention of Ganga and Yamuna in later texts (esp. Atharvaveda, Brahmanas).

Extent:

West: Decline in centrality of Indus region.

East: Eastern UP and North Bihar (Videha, Koshala).

South: Limited awareness of Vindhya foothills.

Associated Archaeology:

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture sites in Ganga–Yamuna doab.

Iron implements facilitate clearing of Ganga plains forests.

Landscape & Economy Influence:

Dense forests cleared → agricultural expansion.

Shift from pastoralism to settled agrarian communities.

Riverine fertility supports surplus → urban precursors (Janapadas).

IV. Comparative Table

Aspect Rig Vedic Later Vedic

Core Area Sapta Sindhu (Punjab, Upper & Middle Ganga

NW India) valley
 Eastern Limit Mention of Yamuna Ganga central in
(rare), Ganga (very rare) religious texts

Economy Pastoral + small-scale Large-scale farming, iron

farming ploughs

Rivers in Focus Indus system + Ganga-Yamuna system

Saraswati

Climate Adequate rainfall, open Forest clearing, more

pastures settled life

V. Prelims-Focused Facts

●​ Rigveda: ~30 rivers mentioned; Saraswati called “Naditama” (best of rivers).

●​ Sapta Sindhu = Indus + 5 Punjab rivers + Saraswati.
●​ Later Vedic shifted eastward due to population growth & fertile plains.
●​ PGW culture associated with Later Vedic geography.
●​ Iron use → Ganga plain settlement.

VI. Mains-Focused Answer Structure

Intro
Mention Vedic period division & sources for geographical reconstruction.

Body

1. Rig Vedic Geography

●​ Core region (Sapta Sindhu), key rivers, extent.
●​ Pastoral–agrarian economy.

2. Later Vedic Geography

●​ Eastward expansion, Ganga-Yamuna prominence, PGW sites.
●​ Iron technology and forest clearance.

3. Reasons for Shift

●​ Resource pressure, agricultural potential of Ganga plains, political centralization.

4. Impact on Society & Polity

●​ From tribal clans to Janapadas.
●​ Larger, more stratified society.
Conclusion
●​ The Eastward movement transformed Vedic society from semi-nomadic pastoralism to
settled agrarian kingdoms, laying the foundation for Mahajanapadas.

VII. PYQs

Prelims

●​ 2020: Which river is described as ‘Naditama’ in the Rigveda?

●​ 2014: The river Saraswati of Rigvedic fame flowed into which river/sea?
●​ 2011: Which Vedic river is identified with the modern Ghaggar-Hakra?

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2016): Discuss the geographical distribution of Vedic tribes and their movement
during the Vedic age.
●​ History Optional (2019): Examine the archaeological evidence that correlates with the
geographical expansion of Vedic culture.

Economic Conditions in Vedic Society

I. Introduction

Vedic economy evolved from pastoralism in the Rig Vedic period to agro-based, iron-using
agrarian systems in the Later Vedic period.

Sources:
●​ Literary – Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads
●​ Archaeology – Painted Grey Ware (PGW), iron tools, settlements

II. Early (Rig Vedic) Economic Conditions

1. Subsistence Base
●​ Predominantly pastoral – cattle (especially cows) was the main wealth unit (Gavishti =
search for cows, Gopa = cow protector).
●​ Agriculture secondary; crops like barley (yava) & some wheat.

2. Agriculture
●​ Wooden ploughs; no evidence of iron.
●​ Monsoon-fed; no irrigation evidence.

3. Craft Production
●​ Pottery (Black-and-Red Ware), weaving (cotton, wool), leather work, carpentry.
4. Trade & Exchange
●​ Limited local barter – cattle, grains, hides.
●​ No coinage; nishka (gold ornament) and krishnala (metal piece) used as high-value gifts.

5. Property & Wealth

●​ Cattle = primary wealth measure.
●​ Land not privately owned; tribal/clan property.

III. Later Vedic Economic Conditions

1. Shift to Agriculture
●​ Large-scale farming in Ganga-Yamuna doab after iron ploughs were introduced.
●​ New crops: rice (vrihi), wheat, pulses, oilseeds.

2. Pastoralism
●​ Still important, but subordinate to agriculture.
●​ Horses & chariots important for warfare & prestige.

3. Craft Specialisation
●​ Advanced pottery (Painted Grey Ware).
●​ Metalwork in iron, copper, bronze.
●​ Weaving diversified; ornaments in gold, beads, ivory.

4. Trade & Proto-Market

●​ Increased inter-regional trade along Ganga basin.
●​ Use of boats; rivers as trade arteries.
●​ No coins yet – barter continued, but nishkas were used as proto-currency.

5. Property & Surplus

●​ Agricultural surplus supported priestly & warrior classes.
●​ Emergence of private land ownership indicators in texts (kheti, setu for irrigation bunds).

IV. Comparative Table

Aspect Right Vedic Later Vedic

Core Economy Pastoral Agrarian + craft

Tools Wooden plough Iron plough

Main crops Barley Rice, barley, wheat

Trade Local barter Wider network

 Currency No coins, nishka No coins, nishka more
ornaments common

Land ownership Tribal Proto-private

V. Prelims-Focused Facts
●​ Gavishti = cattle raid (Rigveda).
●​ Vrihi = rice in Later Vedic texts.
●​ Painted Grey Ware associated with Later Vedic agrarian expansion.
●​ Iron ploughs first mentioned in the Later Vedic period (Krishna Ayas = black metal).
●​ Nishka = gold ornament used as a currency substitute.

VI. Mains Answer Structure

Intro
Mention two phases of Vedic economy and main sources (texts + archaeology).

Body

1. Early Vedic Economy

●​ Pastoral dominance; barley cultivation; limited craft.

2. Later Vedic Economy

●​ Agrarian expansion; iron tools; surplus production; craft specialization; trade.

3. Factors Driving Change

●​ Iron technology, fertile Ganga plains, population growth.

4. Impact on Society
●​ Stratification (varna), proto-urban settlements, larger state structures.

Conclusion
Vedic economic transformation laid foundations for Mahajanapada economy, coinage, and
urban revival in 6th century BCE.

VII. PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2011: The term Krishna Ayas in Vedic literature refers to?
●​ 2012: The Painted Grey Ware culture is associated with which period?
●​ 2018: In Vedic texts, which crop is referred to as Vrihi?

Mains
 ●​ GS-1 (2016): Discuss the transition in the economic life of Vedic people from Rig Vedic
to Later Vedic times.
●​ History Optional (2019): Examine the role of iron technology in transforming the Later
Vedic economy.

Political Organisation & Evolution of Monarchy – Vedic Age

I. Introduction

Vedic polity evolved from tribal chiefdoms (Rig Vedic) to territorial monarchies (Later Vedic).

Transformation driven by agrarian expansion, iron technology, surplus production, and varna
stratification.

Sources: Vedic texts (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), Brahmanas,

Dharmasutras, epics, and PGW archaeological sites.

II. Rig Vedic Political Organisation (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

1. Nature of Polity
●​ Tribal – kin-based (jana, vis, grāma).
●​ No territorial state; loyalty to clan/tribe.
●​ Egalitarian in decision-making (at least among male warriors).

2. Ruler (Rājan)
●​ Elected/selected from royal family by assemblies.
●​ Not absolute – power limited by customs, assemblies, and priestly counsel.
●​ Duties: protection (rakshā), law (dharma), cattle wealth distribution, religious patronage.

3. Assemblies
●​ Sabha – smaller, elite advisory council (elders, nobles, priests).
●​ Samiti – larger, popular tribal assembly (war, alliances, major decisions).
●​ Vidatha – religious, military, and economic gathering (mentioned in Rigveda).

4. Officials
●​ Purohita – chief priest, political advisor.
●​ Senani – military commander.
●​ Gramani – head of grāma (village/war band).
5. Military
●​ Tribal militia; chariots & bows; cattle raids common.

III. Later Vedic Political Organisation (c. 1000–600 BCE)

1. Shift to Monarchy
●​ Chiefship became hereditary.
●​ Rajan → king with divine sanction (concept of Rājan as protector of Rta).
●​ Larger territorial control due to agriculture in fertile Gangetic plains.

2. Weakening of Assemblies
●​ Samiti declined; Sabha became aristocratic advisory body.
●​ Common people excluded from direct political participation.

3. Administrative Expansion
●​ Emergence of Rajanya/Kshatriya class as ruling elite.
●​ New officials:
○​ Bhagadugha – tax collector.
○​ Sangrahitri – treasurer.
○​ Aksha-patal – record keeper.

4. Army & Warfare

●​ Larger standing armies supported by agrarian surplus.
●​ Use of iron weapons; fortified settlements.

5. Taxation
●​ Bali (voluntary gift) → semi-compulsory tax in Later Vedic phase.

IV. Evolution of Monarchy – Key Stages

Stage Characteristics Political form

Early Rig Vedic Tribal chief, elective, Tribal chiefdom

assemblies strong

Later Rig Vedic Hereditary chief, more Emerging monarchy

territory, reduced
assemblies

Later Vedic Divine kingship, Centralised monarchy

 hereditary succession,
state officials

V. Factors for Monarchical Evolution

1.​ Agricultural surplus → sustained full-time rulers & armies.
2.​ Iron technology → territorial expansion.
3.​ Varna system → legitimised Kshatriya dominance.
4.​ Decline of assemblies → concentration of power.
5.​ Priestly ideology → divine sanction for kingship.

VI. Prelims-Focused Points

●​ Rajan in Rigveda – tribal protector, not absolute ruler.
●​ Samiti = popular assembly; Sabha = elite advisory council.
●​ Vidatha – unique to Rigveda; combined religious, military, and economic roles.
●​ Later Vedic official Bhagadugha – tax collector; Sangrahitri – treasurer.
●​ Bali – voluntary → compulsory in Later Vedic period.

VII. Mains Answer Structure

Intro
State the transformation: “The Vedic polity witnessed a gradual shift from pastoral tribal
chiefdoms to hereditary monarchies, driven by economic and social changes.”

Body
1.​ Rig Vedic political setup – tribal chief, assemblies, officials.
2.​ Later Vedic setup – hereditary monarchy, decline of assemblies, emergence of
bureaucracy.
3.​ Comparative Table – Early vs Later.
4.​ Causes of change – agrarian expansion, iron tools, varna system.
5.​ Impact – basis for Mahajanapadas & early states.

Conclusion
“The Later Vedic monarchy, though rudimentary, laid the institutional and ideological foundation
for the territorial kingdoms of the 6th century BCE.”

VIII. PYQs

Prelims

2013: Which of the following statements about Sabha and Samiti in the Vedic period is correct?

2019: Match the Vedic official with their function (Bhagadugha, Sangrahitri).
Mains
GS-1 (2016): Examine the transformation of political institutions from the Rig Vedic to the Later
Vedic period.

History Optional (2020): Trace the origin and evolution of monarchy in the Vedic period with
reference to political assemblies.

Social Organisation & Varna System – Vedic Age

I. Introduction
Vedic society evolved from a pastoral, kin-based, egalitarian tribal structure (Rig Vedic) to a
settled, stratified, and hierarchical order (Later Vedic).

Transition closely linked to agrarian expansion, division of labour, religious sanction, and
political centralisation.

Sources: Vedas, Brahmanas, Dharmasutras, epics, and archaeology (PGW sites).

II. Social Organisation in Rig Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

1. Family & Kinship

●​ Patriarchal (pitṛsatta), patrilineal descent, joint families common.
●​ Grihapati (male head) held authority over household.
●​ Monogamy dominant; polygamy among chiefs.
●​ Women enjoyed high status:
●​ Could attend sabhas & samitis.
●​ Participated in religious sacrifices.
●​ Women scholars like Lopamudra, Gargi, Ghosha.

2. Tribal Social Units

●​ Kula (family) → Grama (village) → Vis (clan) → Jana (tribe).
●​ Egalitarian distribution of resources; status by age, wisdom, and valor.

3. Varna System (Early Form)

●​ No rigid hierarchy.
●​ Four varnas mentioned in Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90), but not fully enforced.
●​ Brahmana – priests.
●​ Kshatriya/Rajanya – warriors, rulers.
●​ Vaishya – herders, agriculturists, traders.
●​ Shudra – service providers.
 ●​ Based on occupation, merit, personal ability rather than birth.

III. Social Organisation in Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE)

1. Changes in Family & Gender

●​ Patriarchal control strengthened.
●​ Women’s status declined:
○​ Exclusion from sabhas & samitis.
○​ Limited participation in yajnas.
○​ Child marriage and dowry began to appear.
●​ Education largely restricted to upper varnas.

2. Stratification
●​ Varna system hardened into a birth-based hierarchy.
●​ Emergence of jatis (sub-castes) linked to occupations.
●​ Intermarriage between varnas discouraged (pratiloma marriages condemned).

3. Varna Duties (as per Dharmashastras & Brahmanas)

●​ Brahmana – study, teach, perform sacrifices, accept gifts.
●​ Kshatriya – protect, rule, dispense justice, perform sacrifices.
●​ Vaishya – agriculture, cattle-rearing, trade, pay taxes.
●​ Shudra – serve other varnas, manual labour.

4. Untouchability
●​ Early signs in later Vedic texts; certain occupations considered impure.

IV. Evolution of Varna System

Feature Right Vedic Later Vedic

Basis Occupation & merit Birth-based, hereditary

Social mobility High Restricted

Status of Shudras Recognised but not Lowest, excluded from

degraded rituals

Women’s status High, education Declined, confined to

allowed domestic roles
V. Causes for Change
1.​ Agrarian economy → need for stable labour division.
2.​ Political centralisation → legitimisation of Kshatriya dominance.
3.​ Religious ideology → Brahmanical texts justified hierarchy.
4.​ Wealth accumulation → occupational specialisation.
5.​ Contact with indigenous populations → integration as Shudras.

VI. Impact
●​ Social rigidity paved way for caste-based discrimination in later periods.
●​ Provided order and stability in expanding agrarian society.
●​ Created religious legitimacy for political authority.

VII. Prelims-Focused Points

●​ Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90) is earliest textual mention of four varnas.
●​ Women scholars: Lopamudra, Gargi, Ghosha (Rig Vedic).
●​ Pratiloma marriage – woman from higher varna marrying man from lower varna
(disapproved).
●​ Dharmasutras formalised varna duties.
●​ Later Vedic period saw rise of gotra system.

VIII. Mains Answer Structure

Intro
Briefly mention Vedic society’s evolution from egalitarian tribal to hierarchical caste order.

Body
1.​ Rig Vedic social organisation – kinship, women’s role, early varna.
2.​ Later Vedic changes – birth-based hierarchy, decline in women’s status.
3.​ Comparative table – Early vs Later.
4.​ Causes – economic, political, religious factors.
5.​ Impact – stability vs social rigidity.

Conclusion
“The later Vedic varna system, while ensuring functional specialisation, sowed the seeds for a
rigid caste hierarchy that shaped Indian society for centuries.”

IX. PYQs

Prelims
 ●​ 2018: With reference to the Vedic society, which one of the following statements is
correct regarding the marriage of a man from a lower varna with a woman from a higher
varna?
●​ 2013: In the context of the Vedic period, which one of the following was not a category of
varna mentioned in the Purusha Sukta?

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2015): Examine the social differences and inequalities in the Later Vedic period
with reference to the varna system.
●​ History Optional (2018): Discuss the evolution of the varna system from the Rig Vedic
to the Later Vedic period.

Religion & Thought – Vedic Age

I. Introduction

Vedic religion evolved from nature-worship and ritualism in the Rig Vedic period to philosophical
speculation and internalisation of spiritual ideas in the Later Vedic period.

Source material: Vedas (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas), early Upanishads.

II. Religion in the Rig Vedic Period (c. 1500–1000 BCE)

1. Nature Worship
●​ Polytheistic; deities personified natural forces.
●​ Major Deities:
○​ Indra – god of rain & war (most hymns).
○​ Agni – fire god, mediator between humans & gods.
○​ Varuna – upholder of ṛta (cosmic order).
○​ Surya (sun), Ushas (dawn), Vayu (wind), Prithvi (earth).

●​ No temples, idols, or images; worship at open altars.

2. Rituals
●​ Yajna (fire sacrifice) central; conducted by priests (hotri, adhvaryu, udgatri).
●​ Offerings: milk, ghee, grains, soma juice.
●​ Aim: material prosperity, victory, cattle, sons.

3. Religious Concepts
●​ Ṛta: cosmic order maintained through moral conduct & rituals.
●​ No rigid priestly monopoly yet; participation open.

III. Religion in the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000–600 BCE)

1. Shift in Deities
●​ Rise of Prajapati (creator), Vishnu (preserver), Rudra (destroyer).
●​ Decline of Indra & Agni in prominence.
●​ Anthropomorphic tendencies increasing.

2. Ritualism & Priesthood

●​ Yajnas became elaborate (Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya).
●​ Priesthood gained dominance (Brahmanas).
●​ Social stratification linked to religious duties.

3. Philosophy & Speculation

●​ Brahmanas → focus on ritual perfection.
●​ Aranyakas (“forest texts”) → meditative speculation for hermits.
●​ Upanishads (“end of the Vedas”) → monistic philosophy:
○​ Brahman (universal soul) & Atman (individual soul) unity.
○​ Karma, Samsara (rebirth), Moksha (liberation).
○​ Internalisation of yajna → mental discipline, meditation.

IV. Evolution of Thought

Aspect Right Vedic Later Vedic

Nature of gods Natural forces Abstract deities, creator

personified god

Worship Simple yajnas Complex sacrifices

Role of priests Important but not Dominant, exclusive

monopolistic​ knowledge

Philosophy Practical, material focus Speculative, spiritual

focus

Concepts Ṛta, material well-being Karma, Moksha,

Atman-Brahman unity

V. Impact of Vedic Religion & Thought

1.​ Foundation for later Hindu philosophy.
2.​ Ritualism → led to reactionary movements like Buddhism & Jainism.
3.​ Upanishadic monism influenced Bhagavad Gita, Advaita Vedanta.
4.​ Early ideas of cosmic law (ṛta) evolved into dharma.

VI. Prelims-Focused Points

●​ Purusha Sukta → earliest mention of varna & cosmic creation.
●​ Ashvamedha → horse sacrifice for kingship.
 ●​ Upanishad means “sitting near” (teacher–disciple learning).
●​ Ṛta in Rig Veda → precursor to dharma.
●​ Nasadiya Sukta (RV 10.129) → hymn of creation, agnostic tone.

VII. Mains Answer Structure

Intro
“The Vedic Age witnessed an evolution from animistic nature worship to abstract philosophical
inquiry, shaping the foundations of Indian spiritual thought.”

Body
1. Rig Vedic religion – deities, rituals, concepts (ṛta, yajna).

2. Later Vedic changes – new deities, elaborate rituals, priest dominance.

3. Philosophical developments – Aranyakas, Upanishads, concepts of Brahman, Atman, Karma,

Moksha.

4. Comparative table – Rig vs Later.

5. Impact – on social, political, and later religious traditions.

Conclusion
Emphasise continuity and transformation: “From hymns to fire and rain to meditations on the
eternal soul, Vedic religion laid both the ritualistic and philosophical bedrock of Indian
civilisation.”

VIII. PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2019: With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were sects of Buddhism.

2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not entirely momentary.
(Though Buddhist-focused, reflects continuity of philosophical traditions from Vedic speculation.)

●​ 2016: Which of the following is/are the precepts of Upanishadic thought? (unity of Atman
and Brahman, Karma, rebirth, liberation).
Mains
●​ GS-1 (2016): The philosophy of the Upanishads forms the basis of later Indian thought.
Discuss.
●​ History Optional (2019): Examine the transformation of Vedic religion into the
philosophical doctrines of the Upanishads.

Pre-Mauryan Period (6th century BCE – mid-4th century BCE)

I. Chronological Context
●​ Period between Later Vedic Age and Mauryan Empire.
●​ Key processes:
○​ Second Urbanisation (after Harappan civilisation).
○​ Rise of Mahajanapadas.
○​ Emergence of heterodox religions (Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas).
○​ Development of coinage, trade, and crafts.

●​ Sources: Buddhist & Jain texts (e.g., Anguttara Nikaya, Bhagavati Sutra), Puranas,
archaeology (PGW, NBPW), inscriptions.

II. Political Landscape

1. Mahajanapadas
●​ 16 large states (Anguttara Nikaya list).
●​ Categories:
○​ Monarchies (Rajan) → Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa.
○​ Republics / Gana-sanghas → Vajji (Licchavis), Malla, Shakya.
●​ Key capitals:
○​ Magadha – Rajagriha / later Pataliputra
○​ Vatsa – Kausambi
○​ Kosala – Shravasti
○​ Avanti – Ujjayini

2. Rise of Magadha
●​ Advantages: fertile Gangetic plains, iron ore (Bihar), elephants, rivers for transport.
●​ Dynasties:
○​ Haryanka – Bimbisara, Ajatashatru.
○​ Shishunaga – capital shifted to Vaishali.
○​ Nanda – large army, taxation system.

III. Economy

1. Agriculture
 ●​ Expansion into Gangetic plains via iron ploughshare.
●​ Use of bullocks, improved irrigation.

2. Crafts & Technology

●​ NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) – luxury tableware for elites.
●​ Specialisation: pottery, beads, metal tools.

3. Trade
●​ Emergence of guilds (shrenis).
●​ Punch-marked coins – earliest metallic currency.
●​ Trade routes (uttarāpatha, dakṣiṇāpatha) linked north–south & east–west.

4. Urbanisation
●​ Growth of cities: Rajagriha, Kausambi, Champa, Ujjain, Taxila.
●​ Fortifications, streets, drainage systems.

IV. Society
●​ Varna System becoming rigid; increasing Brahminical dominance.
●​ Social mobility possible via gana-sanghas and heterodox sects.
●​ Women’s status varied:
○​ In monarchies, patriarchal norms solidified.
○​ In republics, evidence of better participation.
●​ Slavery existed but was not widespread; bonded labour (dasa, dasi).

V. Religion & Philosophy

1. Brahmanism – dominated monarchies, ritualistic, sacrificial yajnas.

2. Heterodox Movements:
●​ Buddhism – founded by Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE) at Sarnath.
●​ Jainism – founded by Vardhamana Mahavira.
●​ Ajivikas – deterministic doctrine (niyati).
●​ Materialist Lokayata (Cārvāka) thought.

3. Shift from ritualism to ethics, renunciation, and personal salvation.

VI. Art & Culture

●​ Early stone architecture – stupas, monastic halls.
●​ Wooden palisades in city fortifications.
●​ Terracotta figurines, beads, ornaments.
●​ Pali & Ardhamagadhi literature flourished.

VII. Mains Answer Structure

Intro
“The Pre-Mauryan period (6th–4th BCE) marks the transformation of Vedic tribal polities into
territorial states, setting the socio-economic and political foundations for the Mauryan Empire.”

Body
1.​ Political scenario – Mahajanapadas, rise of Magadha.
2.​ Economic changes – agriculture, iron technology, trade, coins, urban growth.
3.​ Society – varna, gender, mobility.
4.​ Religion & thought – heterodox movements vs Brahmanism.
5.​ Culture – art, literature, architecture.
6.​ Historical significance – link to Mauryan unification.

Conclusion
“By the time of Chandragupta Maurya, India’s political and economic integration was already
underway, aided by urbanisation, new faiths, and strong states.”

VIII. Prelims Key Facts

●​ NBPW → hallmark pottery of second urbanisation.
●​ Punch-marked coins → earliest metallic currency.
●​ Rajagriha → capital of early Magadha.
●​ Uttarapatha & Dakshinapatha → major trade routes.
●​ Ajatashatru → war with Vajji confederacy, built fort at Pataligrama (later Pataliputra).

IX. PYQs

Prelims
●​ 2023: Consider the following statements:

1. The NBPW pottery is associated with urbanisation in the Gangetic plains.

2. Punch-marked coins were in use during the Mahajanapada period.

(Both correct – directly linked to this topic.)

●​ 2018: In the context of ancient India, the term Shreni refers to? (Guilds of artisans &
merchants.)

Mains

●​ GS-1 (2017): The emergence of urban centres in the Gangetic plains marked a
significant departure from earlier rural economies. Discuss.
 ●​ History Optional (2015): Assess the role of Magadha in the second urbanisation of
India.

Age of Second Urbanisation (c. 600 BCE onwards)

I. Introduction
●​ First Urbanisation → Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
●​ Second Urbanisation → Emerged in the Middle Gangetic Basin in the 6th century BCE.
●​ Associated with:
○​ Rise of Mahajanapadas
○​ Spread of iron technology
○​ Agricultural surplus → urban growth
○​ Emergence of heterodox religions (Buddhism, Jainism)
●​ Main archaeological culture: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).

II. Causes of Second Urbanisation

1. Iron Technology
●​ Iron ploughshares cleared dense Gangetic forests.
●​ Increased food production.

2. Agricultural Surplus
●​ Surplus supported artisans, traders, and administrators.

3. Trade & Commerce

●​ Internal: Uttarapatha & Dakshinapatha routes.
●​ External: links with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Central Asia.

4. Monetary Economy
●​ Punch-marked silver coins facilitated trade.

5. Political Stability
●​ Powerful Mahajanapadas (especially Magadha) provided security.

6. Religious & Cultural Changes

●​ Buddhism & Jainism encouraged urban patronage and craft activities.

7. Decline of Vedic pastoralism

●​ Shift from semi-nomadic life to permanent settlements.

III. Features of Urban Centres

●​ Location: Mostly on river banks & trade crossroads.
●​ Major Cities:
 ○​ Rajagriha, Pataliputra (Magadha)
○​ Kausambi (Vatsa)
○​ Shravasti (Kosala)
○​ Ujjain (Avanti)
○​ Champa (Anga)
○​ Taxila (Gandhara)
●​ Town Planning:
○​ Fortified walls
○​ Moats
○​ Gates and bastions
○​ Market streets
●​ Craft Specialisation:
○​ Bead making, pottery, metal tools, ivory carving.
●​ Urban Society:
○​ Merchants (setthis), guilds (shrenis), artisans, priests, royal officials.

IV. Socio-Economic Impacts

1. Social Stratification
●​ Varna system hardened.
●​ Merchant class gained influence.

2. Guilds
●​ Self-regulated bodies for production and trade.

3. Cultural Exchange
●​ Cosmopolitan centres facilitated exchange of ideas and languages (Prakrits, Pali).

4. Urban Patronage
●​ Rulers, merchants, and religious institutions invested in urban development.

V. Archaeological Evidence
●​ Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) → luxury tableware for elite.
●​ Fortifications & urban layouts at Rajagriha, Kaushambi.
●​ Punch-marked coins from 6th century BCE.
●​ Ring wells for drainage in Pataliputra.

VI. Decline Factors (Later Phase)

●​ Political instability (wars between Mahajanapadas).
●​ Shift in trade routes.
●​ Environmental factors (flooding, silting in rivers).

VII. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro
“The Age of Second Urbanisation (c. 600 BCE) marked a transition from agrarian-rural
settlements to urban centres, driven by iron technology, surplus production, and state
formation.”

Body
1.​ Causes – iron, agriculture, trade, coins, political stability, religious patronage.
2.​ Features – cities, craft production, markets, guilds, fortifications.
3.​ Socio-economic changes – new classes, merchant power, guilds, cultural diversity.
4.​ Historical significance – link to Magadha’s rise, spread of Buddhism & Jainism.

Conclusion
“The Second Urbanisation laid the foundation for pan-Indian empires like the Mauryas and
transformed India’s socio-economic fabric, echoing changes not seen since the Harappan era.”

VIII. Prelims Key Points

●​ NBPW culture = hallmark pottery of Second Urbanisation.
●​ Punch-marked coins = earliest metallic currency in India.
●​ Important Mahajanapada capitals (Rajagriha, Kausambi, Ujjain, Champa, Taxila).
●​ Setthis = rich merchants, Shrenis = guilds.
●​ Uttarapatha & Dakshinapatha = ancient trade routes.

IX. PYQs

Prelims

2023: Consider the following statements:

1. The NBPW pottery is associated with urbanisation in the Gangetic plains. ✅

2. Punch-marked coins were in use during the Mahajanapada period. ✅
(Both correct – core to Second Urbanisation.)

✅
2018: In the context of ancient India, the term Shreni refers to? (Guilds of artisans &
merchants.)

Mains
●​ GS-1 (2017): The emergence of urban centres in the Gangetic plains marked a
significant departure from earlier rural economies. Discuss.
●​ History Optional (2015): Analyse the factors that led to the Second Urbanisation in
India.
Formation of State in Ancient India

I. Introduction

Transition from tribal pastoral society of the Early Vedic period to complex, stratified, and
centralised states by the 6th century BCE.

Theories of state origin in India are derived from archaeology, Vedic texts, Buddhist & Jain
literature, and Arthashastra.

State formation culminated in the rise of Mahajanapadas, Magadha Empire, and later
pan-Indian empires like the Mauryas.

II. Stages of Political Evolution

1. Tribal Polity (Early Vedic, c. 1500–1000 BCE)

●​ Kin-based organisation (jana, vis, grama).
●​ Leadership: Rajan → primarily war leader & ritual head.
●​ No coercive authority; decisions by Sabha & Samiti.
●​ Economy: pastoral-cum-agrarian.

2. Chiefdom to Kingdom (Later Vedic, c. 1000–600 BCE)

●​ Agriculture expanded with iron ploughshares.
●​ Hereditary monarchy replacing elective kingship.
●​ Social stratification: Varna system crystallised.
●​ Standing army, taxation beginnings (bali, bhaga).
●​ Larger territorial units (janapadas).

3. Territorial States (Mahajanapadas, c. 600–321 BCE)

●​ Shift from kinship to territorial sovereignty.
●​ Fortified capitals, bureaucracies, and standing armies.
●​ Two types:
○​ Monarchies (Magadha, Kosala, Avanti)
○​ Republics / Gana-sanghas (Vajji, Malla)
●​ Emergence of laws, punishments, and administrative officers.

III. Factors in State Formation

1. Economic Changes
●​ Surplus production due to iron tools → food security → support for non-producers
(soldiers, priests, administrators).
2. Urbanisation
●​ Growth of cities (Rajagriha, Kausambi) created administrative needs.

3. Trade & Coinage

●​ Punch-marked coins → monetary economy → taxation system.

4. Military Organisation
●​ Need to protect trade & territory.

5. Ideological Legitimacy
●​ Vedic rituals (Rajasuya, Ashvamedha), Buddhist & Jain dhamma principles.

6. Decline of Tribal Assemblies

●​ Replaced by centralised monarchical authority.

IV. Theories of State Origin in Ancient Indian Thought

●​ Brahmanical Theory (Shatapatha Brahmana, Manusmriti) → divine origin, king as
protector, duty-bound to uphold dharma.
●​ Buddhist Theory (Digha Nikaya) → social contract: people chose a ruler
(Maha-sammata) to maintain order.
●​ Kautilya’s Arthashastra → pragmatic theory: state exists for protection of people and
expansion of power.

V. Significance of State Formation

●​ Enabled large-scale infrastructure & irrigation.
●​ Facilitated codification of laws.
●​ Strengthened trade networks.
●​ Paved the way for Magadha’s dominance and later empires.

VI. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro:
“The formation of state in ancient India was a gradual transformation from kin-based tribal
structures to territorial monarchies and republics, driven by economic, technological, and
ideological factors.”

Body:
1.​ Stages of evolution – Early Vedic → Later Vedic → Mahajanapadas.
2.​ Factors – economic surplus, iron technology, urbanisation, trade, military, ideology.
3.​ Theories – Brahmanical, Buddhist, Arthashastra.
4.​ Significance – stability, administration, foundation for empires.

Conclusion:
“This process was neither uniform nor unilinear but laid the political and administrative
foundations for classical Indian empires such as the Mauryas and Guptas.”

VII. Prelims Key Points

●​ Maha-sammata → Buddhist concept of elected ruler.
●​ Rajasuya, Ashvamedha → Vedic rituals for sovereignty.
●​ Gana-sanghas → clan-based republics.
●​ Punch-marked coins → economic indicator of state formation.
●​ Sabha, Samiti → early political institutions, declined by Later Vedic period.

VIII. PYQs

Prelims

2020: With reference to ancient India, which of the following was/were the republic(s)?

1. Malla

2. Vajji

✅
3. Panchala
(Ans: 1 & 2 only — Panchala was a monarchy)

2013: Which one of the following was a republic in the Mahajanapada period? (Vajji) ✅
Mains
●​ GS-1 (2016): Discuss the changing nature of polity in the Later Vedic period.
●​ History Optional (2015): Critically analyse the process of state formation in the
Gangetic plains with reference to archaeological and literary evidence.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas (c. 6th Century BCE)

I. Introduction

Term Mahajanapada → Maha (great) + Janapada (foothold of a tribe/people).

Period: c. 600 BCE, coinciding with the Age of Second Urbanisation.

Sources:

Buddhist – Anguttara Nikaya (lists all 16).

Jain – Bhagavati Sutra.

*Arthashastra.

Rise due to iron technology, agriculture surplus, trade, urbanisation, and decline of tribal
polity.

II. List of 16 Mahajanapadas & Capitals

Mahajanapada Capital Modern Location Type

Anga Champa Bihar (Bhagalpur) Monarchy

Magadha Rajagriha / later Bihar Monarchy

Pataliputra

Vajji (Vriji) Vaishali​ Bihar Republic

Malla Kusinara & Pava Eastern UP Republic

Kashi Varanasi UP Monarchy

Kosala Shravasti UP Monarchy

Vatsa Kaushambi UP Monarchy

Kuru Indraprastha Haryana-Delhi-UP Monarchy

(Delhi)

Panchala Ahichhatra (north), UP Monarchy

Kampilya (south)

Matsya Viratanagara Rajasthan Monarchy

(Bairat)

Chedi Shuktimati Bundelkhand (MP) Monarchy

Avanti Ujjayini & MP Monarchy

Mahishmati
 Surasena Mathura UP Monarchy

Ashmaka Potana / Maharashtra Monarchy

Pratishthana (Godavari basin)

Gandhara Taxila NW Pakistan & Monarchy

Afghanistan​

Kamboja Rajapura Afghanistan (and Monarchy

parts of Kashmir)
​

III. Political Types

●​ Monarchies: Most states; king as supreme ruler, hereditary rule.
●​ Republics (Gana-sanghas): Vajji, Malla, some Kambojas; ruled by assemblies of clan
chiefs.
●​ Fortified capitals, organised armies, taxation systems.

IV. Features of Mahajanapadas

1.​ Shift from Janapada → Mahajanapada
○​ Larger territorial control, agricultural surplus.
2.​ Urban Centres
○​ Growth of cities like Rajagriha, Vaishali, Ujjayini.
3.​ Military
○​ Standing armies, fortifications (Puratana).
4.​ Economy
○​ Punch-marked coins, craft specialisation, internal & external trade.
5.​ Administration
○​ Officers for tax collection, law enforcement.

V. Magadha’s Rise from Mahajanapadas

●​ Magadha emerged dominant due to:
○​ Fertile Gangetic plains
○​ Iron mines (Chotanagpur)
○​ Control over Ganga trade routes
○​ Strong rulers (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru)
○​ Use of war engines (catapults, covered chariots).

VI. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro:
“The 6th century BCE witnessed the emergence of sixteen Mahajanapadas as large territorial
units replacing smaller Janapadas, marking a crucial phase in India’s political history.”
Body:

1. Sources – Anguttara Nikaya, Jain texts, archaeological evidence.

2. List of Mahajanapadas with capitals & locations (map can be drawn here).

3. Political types – monarchy vs republic.

4. Features – urbanisation, military, economy.

5. Significance – facilitated spread of Buddhism/Jainism, rise of empires.

Conclusion:
“The Mahajanapadas represent the crystallisation of early states in India, laying the foundation
for Magadha’s imperial expansion and the Mauryan Empire.”

VII. Prelims Key Facts

●​ Anguttara Nikaya – Buddhist text listing 16 Mahajanapadas.

●​ Republics – Vajji, Malla.
●​ Ashmaka – only southern Mahajanapada.
●​ Gandhara – Taxila as a major learning centre.
●​ Kamboja – known for horse breeding.

Gana-sangha (Republics) in Ancient India

I. Introduction

Gana-sangha (Gana = group, Sangha = assembly) refers to tribal oligarchic republics in ancient
India (c. 6th century BCE).

It co-existed with monarchies during the Mahajanapada period.

Power rested with a collective of clan chiefs rather than a single king.

Sources:

Buddhist: Anguttara Nikaya, Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Vajji Sangha).

Jain: Bhagavati Sutra.

Greek: Megasthenes’ account of republics in NW India.

Arthashastra: Mentions Sanghas and Ganas as sanghika states.

Epigraphic: Ashtadhyayi of Panini (mentions Sanghas like Vrijis, Yaudheyas).

II. Features of Gana-sanghas

Aspect Description

Political Council/assembly of chiefs

Structure (rajas) from clans or families;
decisions by consensus or
majority.

Leadership Chief (ganapati, gana-mukhya)

elected for limited tenure.

Territory Often smaller than monarchies;

tribal in nature.

Administration Executive council, officials for

defence, revenue, diplomacy.

Military Citizen-soldiers; collective

responsibility for defence.

Economy Agriculture, pastoralism, trade;

sometimes control over trade
routes.

Judiciary​ Decisions taken in council;

adherence to customary law.

Republic Values Collegial decision-making,

corporate sovereignty.

III. Examples of Gana-sanghas

Republic Capital / Region Special Notes

Vajji (Vriji) Vaishali (Bihar)​ Sutta was prosperous,

Federation of 8 clans; democratic.
mentioned in
Mahaparinibbana
 Malla Kusinara & Pava (UP) Place of Buddha’s
Mahaparinirvana.

Yaudheyas Punjab–Rajasthan Known from coins; warrior

republic.

Shakyas Kapilavastu (Nepal Terai) Clan of Gautama Buddha.

Koliya Near Shakyas Connected by matrimonial

alliances with Shakyas.

Kamboja NW frontier (Afghanistan) Known for horse breeding;

some tribes as republics.

IV. Significance of Gana-sanghas

●​ Early form of participatory governance.
●​ Preservation of tribal traditions amidst rise of monarchies.
●​ Provided fertile ground for Buddhism and Jainism, which appealed to egalitarian ideals.
●​ Resistance to imperial expansion (e.g., Licchavis vs. Magadha).

V. Causes of Decline
1.​ Military weakness vs. large standing armies of monarchies.
2.​ Internal factionalism among clans.
3.​ Economic disparity due to less surplus generation.
4.​ Conquest by monarchies (Magadha under Ajatashatru annexed Vajji).

VI. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro:
“The gana-sanghas of 6th century BCE India represented a unique oligarchic political
experiment, coexisting with monarchies during the Mahajanapada period.”

Body:
1.​ Sources – textual, archaeological, numismatic.
2.​ Features – political structure, decision-making, military, economy.
3.​ Examples – Vajji, Malla, Shakyas, Yaudheyas (with map).
4.​ Significance – political diversity, link to Buddhism/Jainism.
5.​ Decline – political centralisation under monarchies.

Conclusion:
“While the gana-sanghas eventually succumbed to the expansionist monarchies, their traditions
of collective decision-making and egalitarian ideals remain an important part of India’s ancient
political heritage.”

VII. Prelims Key Facts

 ●​ Anguttara Nikaya lists Vajji among the Mahajanapadas.
●​ Mahaparinibbana Sutta – Buddha praises Vajji republic’s governance.
●​ Yaudheyas – republic known from coins, worshipped Karttikeya.
●​ Only Vajji and Malla among 16 Mahajanapadas were republics.
●​ Shakyas – Buddha’s clan; part of a republic.

VIII. PYQs

Prelims

UPSC 2020: Which one of the following was/were the republic(s) in the Mahajanapada period?

1. Malla

2. Vajji

✅
3. Panchala
(Ans: 1 and 2 only)

UPSC 2013: Which one of the following was a republic in the 6th century BCE? (Vajji) ✅
Mains
●​ GS-1 (2016): “Examine the factors leading to the decline of Gana-sanghas in the face of
rising monarchies in ancient India.”
●​ History Optional (2015): “Discuss the political organisation of the gana-sanghas and
evaluate their historical importance.”

Rise of Urban Centres in Ancient India

I. Introduction

The second urbanization in India occurred during the 6th century BCE, after the first urban
phase of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Driven by agricultural surplus, iron technology, trade growth, and political centralization.
Centred largely in the Middle Gangetic plains.

Key sources:
●​ Buddhist texts: Anguttara Nikaya (lists prosperous cities).
●​ Jain texts: Bhagavati Sutra.
●​ Archaeology: Sites like Rajgir, Kaushambi, Ujjain.
●​ Greek accounts: Megasthenes on Pataliputra.
II. Factors Leading to Rise of Urban Centres

Factor Role in Urban Growth

Agricultural surplus Use of iron ploughshare, better tools →

surplus production → supports
non-agricultural population.

Trade & Craft Increased long-distance trade, guilds

specialisation (shrenis), demand for urban markets.

Political centralisation Mahajanapadas and Magadhan empire

promoted administrative & commercial hubs.

Geographical Ganga plain’s fertile soil + river network for

advantage transport.

Religious centres Cities like Rajgir, Varanasi, and Vaishali

became hubs for Buddhism & Jainism.

Monetary economy Punch-marked coins facilitated market

exchange.

III. Features of Urban Centres

●​ Nucleated settlements with planned streets (in some cities).
●​ Fortifications for defence and authority display.
●​ Marketplaces (hatta) and craft production zones.
●​ Multi-caste, multi-professional population.
●​ Urban-rural interdependence.

IV. Major Urban Centres of the Period

City Region Significance

Pataliputra Magadha Political capital; administrative hub;

described by Megasthenes.

Rajgir Magadha Early Magadhan capital; religious

centre.

Varanasi Kashi Textile production; religious

significance.

Vaishali Vajji Centre of early republican tradition.

Kaushambi Vatsa Commercial hub.

 Ujjain Avanti Trade routes to western ports.

Takshashila Gandhara Centre of learning, trade with NW.

V. Impact of Urbanization
●​ Economic: Growth of specialised crafts, monetisation, market networks.
●​ Social: Emergence of new occupational groups; varna-jati stratification.
●​ Political: Strengthening of centralised administration.
●​ Cultural: Flourishing of Buddhist and Jain art, architecture.

VI. Decline in Some Centres

●​ Political instability, shifts in trade routes, environmental changes.
●​ Rise of new capitals (e.g., Pataliputra replacing Rajgir).

VII. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro:
“The 6th century BCE witnessed the rise of urban centres in the Gangetic plains, marking India’s
second urbanization, rooted in agricultural growth, iron technology, and expanding trade.”

Body:

1. Sources & definition of urban centres.

2. Factors – agricultural surplus, trade, political centralisation, religion, geography.

3. Features – physical layout, economic and social character.

4. Major examples with location and importance.

5. Impact on economy, politics, and culture.

Conclusion:
“These cities not only symbolised economic vitality but also served as crucibles of religious and
cultural transformation, laying foundations for later empires.”

VIII. Prelims Key Points

●​ Second urbanization → Middle Gangetic plains, 6th century BCE.
●​ Punch-marked coins → key to market economy.
●​ Iron ploughshare → surplus agriculture.
●​ Pataliputra → Megasthenes compared it to Persian capitals.
●​ Varanasi → famous for fine cotton textiles (muslin).
IX. PYQs

Prelims:

UPSC 2019: Consider the following statements:

1. The second urbanization took place in the middle Gangetic plains.

✅
2. Punch-marked coins belong to this period.
(Ans: Both 1 and 2 correct)

Mains:
●​ GS-1 (2016): “Discuss the factors responsible for the growth of urban centres in the
Gangetic plains during the 6th century BCE.”
●​ History Optional (2018): “Examine the socio-economic conditions responsible for the
second urbanization of the Gangetic valley.”

Evolution of Coins in Ancient India

I. Introduction
●​ Coins are a key archaeological and numismatic source for reconstructing economic
history.
●​ In India, coinage evolved from punch-marked coins in the 6th century BCE to
machine-struck coins in the colonial period.
●​ Study of coins = Numismatics.

II. Phases of Coin Evolution

Period Coin type Metal Key features

Pre-Mauryan & Punch-mark Silver, Copper Irregular shapes; symbols

Mahajanapada period ed coins punched; weight
(c. 6th century BCE) (PMC)​ standardised; issued by
states & merchants.

Mauryan period State-issued Silver More standardisation in

(4th–2nd century BCE) PMCs weight & symbols;
centralised minting.

Indo-Greek coins Die-struck Silver, Gold, Copper Greek legends & deities on
(2nd century BCE – 1st one side, Indian symbols on
century CE) reverse. Introduction of
portrait heads.
 Shaka–Kushan coins Gold, Copper Gold coins in large
(1st–3rd century CE) quantities; depictions of
kings,Iranian/ Greek/
Buddhist motifs; Bactrian
script.​

Satavahana coins (1st Lead, Copper, Potin Regional symbols, Prakrit

century BCE–3rd legends in Brahmi script.
century CE) ​

Gupta coins (4th–6th Gold dominant High artistic quality; variety

century CE) of king’s poses (archer,
horseman); Hindu deities.

Early medieval coins Debasement of gold Rajput, Pala, Chola

(Post-Gupta – 12th → silver & copper coinage; temple motifs,
century CE) dynastic symbols.

Delhi Sultanate Silver tanka, copper Arabic inscriptions;

(13th–16th century CE) jital introduction of Islamic
calligraphy.​

Mughal coins Gold mohur, silver Names of emperors, mints,

(16th–18th century CE) rupee Islamic kalima.

Colonial period Machine-stru Uniform weight; British

(18th–20th century CE) ck monarch portraits;
introduction of modern
rupee.​

III. Significance of Coinage

1.​ Economic – Trade expansion, market monetisation.
2.​ Political – Assertion of sovereignty (king’s portrait, titles).
3.​ Cultural – Depictions of gods, scripts, art styles.
4.​ Chronological – Coins often bear dates, rulers’ names.

IV. Factors Influencing Coin Evolution

●​ Metallurgy advancements – Use of gold, silver, copper, lead, alloys.
●​ Political changes – Foreign invasions brought new minting techniques.
●​ Trade needs – High-value gold coins for long-distance trade; copper for local exchange.
●​ Religious symbolism – From Vedic motifs to Buddhist and Islamic imagery.

V. Mains Answer Writing Structure

Intro
“Coinage in India evolved from irregular punch-marked coins of the 6th century BCE to refined
machine-struck coins under colonial rule, reflecting shifts in economy, polity, and culture.”
Body

1. Chronological phases – Table format for clarity (PMC → Indo-Greek → Gupta → Mughal →
British).

2. Features – Shape, metal, inscription, imagery.

3. Impact – Economic integration, assertion of political legitimacy, art styles.

4. Sources & evidence – Numismatic hoards, inscriptions, foreign travellers.

Conclusion
“The evolution of coins mirrors India’s transition from fragmented mahajanapadas to centralised
empires, from indigenous systems to global trade networks, making them invaluable historical
artefacts.”

VI. Prelims Key Facts

●​ First coins in India → Punch-marked, silver, irregular shape.
●​ Gupta coins → Peak of gold coinage.
●​ First gold coins in large numbers → Kushanas.
●​ Tanka and Jital → Delhi Sultanate.
●​ Rupee → Standardised under Sher Shah Suri, continued by Mughals.

VII. PYQs

Prelims

UPSC 2020: With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were
common to both Buddhism and Jainism? (Related coinage question in context of economic
activity – linked indirectly to trade and monetisation)

UPSC 2012: With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following
statements… (Coin hoards from sites are archaeological context clues).

Mains

GS-1 (2013): “Discuss the role of numismatic evidence in reconstructing the history of ancient
India.”

History Optional (2016): “Trace the evolution of coinage in ancient India and assess its
significance for understanding socio-economic conditions.”
Haryanka Dynasty (c. 544 BCE – c. 413 BCE)

I. Introduction
●​ First historically recorded dynasty of Magadha.
●​ Laid the foundation for Magadha’s rise as a powerful Mahajanapada.
●​ Ruling capital: Rajagriha (modern Rajgir).
●​ Time period overlaps with Buddha and Mahavira.

II. Sources
●​ Buddhist texts – Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Anguttara Nikaya.
●​ Jain texts – Bhagavati Sutra.
●​ Puranas – genealogical details.
●​ Archaeology – Rajgir fortifications.
●​ Foreign accounts – Buddhist chronicles from Sri Lanka (Ceylonese tradition).

III. Political History