Questions about translation difficulties:

🧠 General Translation Difficulties

1. What are the main difficulties you face when translating?

2. What types of texts are the most challenging for you (scientific, literary, technical, etc.)?
3. Which is harder for you: translating into your native language or into a foreign language?
4. In which type of translation (written/oral) do you experience more difficulties, and why?
5. What’s more difficult for you: a literal translation or conveying the meaning?

📚 Vocabulary and Terminology

6. How often do you come across unfamiliar words?

7. What difficulties do you face when translating specialized terminology?
8. What problems do you encounter when translating synonyms and homonyms?
9. How do you deal with realia (e.g. names of institutions or culturally specific concepts)?
10. Do you often find that there is no exact equivalent for a word in the target language?

🧾 Grammar and Structure

11. How difficult is it for you to convey the grammatical features of the source text?
12. Do you face challenges with word order in translation?
13. Is it hard for you to maintain tense consistency while translating?
14. Do you struggle with translating passive voice constructions?

🎭 Style and Tone

15. What problems do you face when trying to preserve the style and tone of the original text?
16. How difficult is it to keep the author’s style in literary translation?
17. How do you convey emotional nuances in translation?
18. Is it difficult for you to preserve humor, irony, or sarcasm?

🌍 Cultural Differences and Context

19. What difficulties do you encounter when translating culturally specific elements?
20. What problems do you face when translating idioms, proverbs, or set expressions?
21. How do you handle concepts or realities that don’t exist in the target culture?
22. Have you ever lost or distorted the meaning because of a lack of context?

🔧 Translation Practice

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 23. How do you deal with a lack of dictionary or reference materials?
24. Do you use translation adaptations or substitutions? In what situations?
25. Have you ever had to censor or adjust your translation?
26. Are there times when you deliberately deviate from the original text? Why?

💻 Technology and Translation Tools

27. What tools or services do you use to assist with translation?

28. What problems do you face when using machine translation?
29. How helpful do you find CAT tools (e.g. SDL Trados, MemoQ)?
30. Are there situations where machine translation actually makes things harder?

⚖️Evaluation and Self-Assessment

31. How do you evaluate the quality of your own translations?

32. What types of mistakes do you tend to make when translating?
33. How confident are you in your translation skills?
34. What skills would you like to improve in order to overcome translation challenges?

Unit 1 Translation transformation.

1. Transformations Based on Imitation of the Word or Phrase Form from the Source
Language

Transformations based on the imitation of the word or phrase form from the source language are an
essential tool in the translator's toolkit. This approach allows for the preservation not only of meaning
but also of the form of the original material, which is especially important when translating culturally
specific, technical, or brand-related terms. It includes a range of methods such as transliteration,
calquing, phonetic imitation, and word formation. Each of these methods has its own features and
areas of application, depending on the context of the translation and the specific characteristics of the
target language.

1. Transliteration

Transliteration is the process of translating the letters from one alphabet to another while preserving
the graphical form and sound structure of a word. This method is used when the target language does
not have an exact equivalent for the term, and it is necessary to convey the sound or name as closely
as possible to the original.

Examples of transliteration:

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  "computer" (English) → "компьютер" (Russian). The letters are preserved and adapted to
the Russian phonetic system.
 "Coca-Cola" (English) → "Кока-Кола" (Russian). The brand name retains its original form
in writing and pronunciation.
 "New York" (English) → "Нью-Йорк" (Russian). The original place name is preserved with
adaptation to the Russian context.

When is transliteration used?

 Proper names: names of people, cities, countries, brands.

 Scientific terms that have no established equivalent in the target language.
 Terms and concepts that are unique and must retain their identity in the target language.

2. Calquing

Calquing is a method where the structure of the original expression is preserved, but its components
are translated into the target language. This allows the preservation of not only the meaning but also
the stylistic features of the source language. Calquing can be lexical (translating components of a
word) or syntactic (translating idioms).

Examples of calquing:

 "skyscraper" (English) → "небоскрёб" (Russian). The word is calqued part by part: "sky"
becomes "небо" (sky), "scraper" becomes "скрёб" (scrape). The term describes a building that
"scrapes" the sky.
 "laser printer" (English) → "лазерный принтер" (Russian). The components of the term
are translated while keeping the original structure.
 "hamburger" (English) → "гамбургер" (Russian). This is a calque based on the
geographical origin (Hamburg).

When is calquing used?

 To translate terms and phrases borrowed from other languages.

 To translate scientific and technical terms where it is important to preserve both the meaning
and the structure.
 When there is no exact equivalent in the target language, and a new term needs to be created
based on the structure of the original.

Problems with calquing:

 Sometimes calquing may sound unnatural in the target language, especially if the structure of
the phrase does not align with the grammar of the target language.
 Cultural differences may affect how calqued terms are perceived.

3. Phonetic Imitation (Onomatopoeia)

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Phonetic imitation involves reproducing the sound form of a word or phrase as closely as possible
while taking into account the phonetic system of the target language. This method is used when the
sound or pronunciation of the term is crucial, particularly when translating brand names or unique
cultural items.

Examples of phonetic imitation:

 "Coca-Cola" (English) → "Кока-Кола" (Russian). The graphical form and sound are
preserved.
 "Google" (English) → "Гугл" (Russian). This is an example of the phonetic adaptation of a
brand.
 "McDonald's" (English) → "Макдоналдс" (Russian). The sound and recognizability of the
brand are maintained.

When is phonetic imitation used?

 For brands and proper names, which must be easily recognizable internationally.
 When it is important to preserve the sound of a specific term that carries unique associations.
 For cultural references (e.g., names of cultural objects, music, or films) where maintaining the
original pronunciation is essential.

Problems with phonetic imitation:

 Changing the phonetic form may lead to unexpected associations or distortions, especially if
letters or sounds in the source language have different meanings in the target.
 It is important to strike a balance between preserving the original sound and ensuring practical
clarity for the target audience.

4. Word Formation Based on the Original

Word formation involves creating new words based on the form and structure of the original terms but
adapting them to the morphological and grammatical features of the target language.

Examples of word formation:

 "snowboard" (English) → "сноуборд" (Russian). This word formation comes from the
English roots "snow" and "board," which give the concept of a new sport.
 "brainstorming" (English) → "мозговой штурм" (Russian). Here, new word formation
uses a metaphor, keeping the "storm" concept and adding "brain," which is characteristic of the
Russian language.
 "webcam" (English) → "веб-камера" (Russian). This word formation combines "web" as a
borrowed term with "камера" (camera), creating a new term for a specific concept.

When is word formation used?

 When it is necessary to create a new concept or term in the target language based on existing
components.
 When translating neologisms or technical terms that did not have equivalents in the target
language.
 When it is important to preserve the cultural context and metaphor of the original term.
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Problems with word formation:

 Word formation may not convey the full range of meanings or nuances of the original.
 Sometimes neologisms may not be readily accepted by the target audience if they are not
familiar or easily understood.

5. Semantic Transformations with Imitation of Form

This approach involves transformations where the structure or form of the original word is preserved,
but its semantic content is altered to suit the linguistic and cultural adaptation of the target language.
This method is most commonly applied to terms and concepts that require maintaining both the form
and meaning.

Example:

 "to google" (English) → "гуглить" (Russian). This neologism is based on the brand name
"Google," but over time it has come to mean searching the internet. The word preserves the
structure and form of the original, but its meaning has expanded.

When are semantic transformations used?

 When it is necessary to adapt new concepts or neologisms considering the cultural and
linguistic features of the target language.
 When translating brands where the word not only preserves its form but also acquires new
semantic connotations.

Main Problems Arising from Transformations Based on Imitation of Word or Phrase

Form

When using transformations based on the imitation of word or phrase form, several issues may arise,
relating to both linguistic and cultural aspects of translation. Each of the methods employed, whether
transliteration, calquing, phonetic imitation, word formation, or semantic transformations, has its own
potential challenges and limitations.

Main Problems with Transformations

1. Problems with Transliteration

1.1. Incompatibility with the Phonetic System

 Transliteration often encounters issues when sounds in the source language cannot be exactly
conveyed in the target language. For instance, in Russian, there are no equivalents for certain
English or Arabic sounds, like [θ] or [ʒ], which makes transliteration less precise and more
challenging.

Example:

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 o The English word "thorough" → the Russian transliteration "торо" does not accurately
convey the pronunciation because Russian lacks the [θ] sound.

1.2. Loss of Meaning

 Transliteration can result in the loss of meaning if the word in the source language carries a
specific significance or historical weight, but in the target language, it is perceived merely as a
set of letters.

Example:

o Transliteration of "Hiroshima" (the city in Japan) might lead to the perception of it

simply as a geographical unit, without the deeper historical association tied to the
atomic bombing event.

2. Problems with Calquing

2.1. Unnatural Phrasing

 Calquing can lead to unnatural-sounding expressions in the target language, especially if the
phrase structure does not align with the grammar or syntax of the target language. This may
make the text harder to understand or less fluid.

Example:

o The English expression "to make a decision" calqued into Russian as "сделать
решение" does not follow Russian norms. The correct phrase would be "принять
решение."

2.2. Loss of Meaning

 When the components of the original expression have cultural or idiomatic significance,
calquing may fail to convey the exact meaning in the target language. In such cases, adaptation,
rather than literal translation, is often needed.

Example:

o The English idiom "to pull someone's leg" (meaning to tease or joke) cannot be literally
translated as "тянуть чью-то ногу" in Russian because it doesn’t have a corresponding
idiomatic meaning in the target language.

3. Problems with Phonetic Imitation

3.1. Loss of Meaning and Associations

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  Phonetic imitation preserves the sound of the word but can lead to the loss of meaning or
cultural significance. This is particularly true for proper names or brands, where maintaining
recognizability and associations with the original is crucial.

Example:

o The brand name "Pepsi" is kept as "Пепси" in Russian, but this doesn't fully convey the
same level of association with American culture that the original name does.

3.2. Phonetic and Lexical Limitations of the Target Language

 In some cases, the target language may not have equivalent letters or sounds used in the source
language. This especially complicates the transfer of subtle phonetic details.

Example:

o In Arabic-speaking countries, the English word "chocolate" is transliterated as "

‫"( "شوكالته‬shoklaate"), but if pronounced in other Arabic-speaking regions, the
perception may differ greatly.

4. Problems with Word Formation

4.1. Unsuccessful Word Formation

 When creating new words or expressions to describe concepts that have no direct equivalent in
the target language, incorrect or unfamiliar word formations may occur, making the term
awkward or confusing.

Example:

o The term "интернет-магазин" (internet shop) in Russian may sound artificial and
might not align well with local perceptions of e-commerce terms.

4.2. Issues with Acceptance of Neologisms

 When a new term or neologism is created, the target audience may misunderstand or reject it,
particularly if the word is complex or has no connection to known terms.

Example:

o The neologism "селфи" (from English "selfie") in certain linguistic communities

might be poorly accepted due to the lack of historical context or equivalents, requiring
time for broad acceptance.

5. Problems with Semantic Transformations

5.1. Misunderstanding of Meaning

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  Semantic transformations can lead to misunderstanding of a term or phrase, especially if there
are no close equivalents in the target language or if the translator fails to account for cultural
differences.

Example:

o In English, the word "holiday" can mean both vacation and public holiday, but in
Russian, these meanings are divided into two distinct words: "отпуск" (vacation) and
"праздник" (holiday).

5.2. Distortion of the Original Idea

 If the translator doesn’t take the context or cultural background of the source text into account,
the original idea might be distorted. This is particularly important for metaphoric
expressions or cultural realities, which cannot always be fully transferred into another
language.

Example:

o The English expression "break a leg" (meaning "good luck") cannot be literally
translated as "сломай ногу" into Russian, as this phrase has no equivalent and could
cause confusion.

Conclusion

Each transformation method based on the imitation of word or phrase form carries its own risks and
limitations, as it requires careful attention to both linguistic and cultural nuances. If applied
incorrectly, these methods can lead to misunderstanding, unnatural expressions, or loss of
meaning. It is essential for the translator to possess a deep understanding of both the source and target
languages, as well as the context and cultural specifics, to successfully apply these transformations.

2. Transformations Based on the Substitution of a Source Language Unit with an

Occasional Equivalent

In linguistics and translation studies, transformations based on substituting a unit of the source
language (SL) with an occasional equivalent are an important tool for conveying the meaning and
style of the original text adequately. An occasional equivalent is a translation unit that is not a
standard or commonly accepted equivalent of a term or expression but is created specifically for the
given context, often tailored to unique circumstances or situations.

This method is particularly useful when direct or standard analogs in the target language are absent,
and the translator must adapt the original meaning by creating a new word, expression, or structure that
fits the specific context.

These transformations are especially relevant for translating neologisms, cultural references, and
idiomatic phrases for which no ready-made equivalents exist. Here, understanding the source is
crucial, as is the ability to adapt it into the target language with consideration for linguistic, cultural,
and pragmatic aspects.

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1. What is an Occasional Equivalent?

An occasional equivalent is a method where the translator creates a new word or expression based on
the context in order to render a unique unit from the source language that has no direct counterpart in
the target language. It is not a literal translation but a contextually adapted analog that considers
cultural and pragmatic nuances.

Key characteristics:

 Contextual adaptation: Replacing the SL unit with a suitable element in the TL that fits the
specific context.
 Creative solution: Selecting a word or phrase that may be new, innovative, or unconventional
in the target language.
 Dynamic usage: Such equivalents are situation-specific and not part of fixed translation
inventories.

2. Examples of Occasional Equivalents

2.1. Neologisms

Neologisms are newly created words or expressions arising from innovations, technologies, or current
events. When a new term appears in the SL, the translator may create an occasional equivalent to
convey its intended meaning.

 Example 1:
"smartphone" → "смартфон" (Russian) – A coined word, not a literal translation of "smart" +
"phone".
 Example 2:
"hashtag" → "хештег" – A borrowing and adaptation of a new concept that didn't previously
exist in the TL.

2.2. Cultural References

When translating culture-specific concepts, occasional equivalents help bridge the cultural gap.

 Example 3:
"Thanksgiving" → "День благодарения" – A descriptive equivalent created to convey the
meaning of a culturally specific holiday.
 Example 4:
"Halloween" → "Хэллоуин" – A transliterated and culturally adapted term that retains its
original identity.

2.3. Idioms and Phrases

Occasional equivalents can effectively render idiomatic expressions lacking direct analogs in the target
language.

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  Example 5:
"to break a leg" → "ни пуха, ни пера" – A culturally appropriate equivalent for a good luck
phrase.
 Example 6:
"to pull someone’s leg" → "вешать лапшу на уши" – A meaningful cultural substitution.

2.4. Technical or Specialized Terms

In scientific or technological fields, occasional equivalents help convey new or complex ideas.

 Example 7:
"cloud computing" → "облачные вычисления" – A newly created term with adapted meaning.
 Example 8:
"open source" → "открытый исходный код" – A coined phrase communicating the concept
clearly.

3. When Are Occasional Equivalents Used?

3.1. Lack of Equivalents in the Target Language

When no direct counterpart exists for a term or concept.

3.2. Cultural Adaptation

To convey culturally specific elements with no equivalent in the TL.

3.3. Introducing New Terms or Concepts

Especially in technology, science, or media.

3.4. Marketing and Branding

When adapting slogans, product names, or service titles for new markets.

4. Advantages and Challenges of Occasional Equivalents

4.1. Advantages:

 Flexibility and Adaptation: Allows adaptation for the TL audience, preserving meaning and
style.
 Creativity: Encourages innovation and thoughtful translation decisions.
 Enhanced Comprehension: Helps the audience understand unfamiliar concepts through
accessible equivalents.

4.2. Challenges:

1. Loss or Distortion of Meaning

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If the occasional equivalent fails to capture the full meaning, it may mislead the reader.

 Example: "to break a leg" translated literally into Russian would confuse the audience.

2. Cultural Adaptation Difficulties

Without sufficient understanding of both cultures, the adaptation may fall short.

 Example: "Thanksgiving" as a concept may not resonate with a Russian audience, despite
descriptive translation.

3. Unnatural or Awkward Expressions

Some equivalents may sound unnatural or overly complex.

 Example: Overly technical translations may alienate non-specialist readers.

4. Loss of Originality and Creativity

Overly literal equivalents can result in dull or lifeless translations.

 Example: A creative app name like "EasyConnect" becoming "ЛегкоеСоединение" might lack
appeal.

5. Lexical and Semantic Errors

Misunderstanding of polysemy or idiomatic usage can lead to inaccurate equivalents.

 Example: Translating "to catch the train" too literally might miss a figurative usage.

6. Issues with Standardization

Inconsistent occasional equivalents can confuse users across industries.

 Example: Various terms for "cloud computing" may create ambiguity.

7. Audience Reception Problems

Some equivalents may not be accepted or understood by the target audience.

 Example: Translating "meme" as "funny picture" could lose cultural and social nuances.

8. Risks in New Market Adaptation

Unintended meanings or offensive connotations can arise in other cultures.

 Example: Brand names adapted without cultural sensitivity can backfire.

Conclusion

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Transformations based on substituting a source language unit with an occasional equivalent play a vital
role in translation. However, they also pose various linguistic and cultural challenges. To apply this
method successfully, translators must demonstrate high linguistic competence, deep cultural
awareness, and creativity to ensure effective and appropriate communication in the target language.

Main Problems Arising from Transformations Based on Replacing the Source

Language Unit with an Occasional Equivalent

When using transformations based on replacing the source language (SL) unit with an occasional
equivalent, various problems can arise, both in terms of linguistic and cultural aspects. These issues
may hinder the translation process and affect the accuracy and adequacy of meaning transmission.
Let's review the main problems that may arise.

1. Loss or Distortion of Meaning

Description of the problem:

 Occasional equivalents require the translator to understand the context and the full semantic
weight of the original expression. If the translator creates an equivalent that doesn't fully
convey the meaning or significance, it can lead to loss or distortion of meaning.

Example:

 The phrase "to break a leg" (English — "a wish for good luck") translated literally as
"сломать ногу" in Russian could lead to misunderstanding, as this phrase is not used in the
same context in Russian. The occasional equivalent here would be "ни пуха, ни пера", which
preserves the intended meaning, but if the translator makes a mistake, the message could be
lost.

2. Problems with Cultural Adaptation

Description of the problem:

 Occasional equivalents often require the adaptation of cultural realities. If the translator does
not fully understand both the source and target cultures, this could result in misunderstanding
or misrepresentation of the text.

Example:

 Translating "Thanksgiving" (English) as "День благодарения" (Russian) can pose

problems since this holiday is not widely celebrated in Russian culture. The occasional
equivalent is important for understanding, but the translation may not fully capture the cultural
context associated with the holiday in the U.S.

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3. Creation of Unnatural or Difficult-to-Perceive Expressions

Description of the problem:

 When creating occasional equivalents, the translator may face the problem of producing
unnatural or unfamiliar phrases that sound odd or are difficult for native speakers of the
target language to understand.

Example:

 If a term like "cloud computing" is translated as "облачные вычислительные системы",

it may seem overcomplicated and difficult for an average user to grasp. The translation, though
accurate, could sound overly technical and awkward.

4. Loss of Originality and Creativity

Description of the problem:

 Sometimes, in an effort to maintain accuracy, translators create overly literal occasional

equivalents, which can result in a loss of originality or creativity. Rather than adapting and
enlivening the text, the translation may become dull or unexpressive.

Example:

 If instead of coming up with an innovative term for a brand or technological product, a

translator uses a literal equivalent, the product might lose its distinctiveness and appeal. For
instance, translating a mobile app name like "EasyConnect" into "ЛегкоеСоединение"
would not be as catchy or appealing as a more creative translation.

5. Errors in Lexical and Semantic Fields

Description of the problem:

 In the search for an occasional equivalent, the translator may make mistakes in the lexical or
semantic meaning, especially if the source term is polysemous or context-dependent. This can
result in the creation of incorrect or unsuitable equivalents.

Example:

 The phrase "to catch the train" (literally "поймать поезд") in English is used idiomatically in
contexts like "to catch an opportunity", but if it’s translated literally into Russian as
"поймать поезд", the intended meaning will be lost. The occasional equivalent should reflect
all possible shades of meaning.

6. Issues with Standardization and Unification

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Description of the problem:

 When creating occasional equivalents, there may be challenges with standardizing and
unifying terms, especially in specialized areas like technology, science, and medicine, where
precise terminology is critical. There may not always be a widely accepted equivalent, leading
to ambiguity.

Example:

 In the field of cloud computing, there are multiple possible translations — "облачные
вычисления", "облачные технологии", "облачные системы", etc. This can create
confusion and misunderstanding, as different translations may imply slightly different
meanings in the context of various technologies.

7. Problems with Audience Perception

Description of the problem:

 Occasional equivalents may not be perceived as accurate or appropriate by the target audience,
especially if they are not familiar with the term or if the translation seems artificial or
awkward.

Example:

 A problematic occasional equivalent could arise when translating a term related to internet
culture or a new phenomenon. For instance, the term "meme" may not be immediately
understood by those unfamiliar with internet culture, especially if the translator uses an
equivalent like "картинка-шутка". The cultural context would be lost, and the translation
would lose its appeal and recognizability for the target audience.

8. Risks in Adapting for New Markets

Description of the problem:

 Occasional equivalents may create problems when a product enters a new market, particularly
if there are no equivalent terms for specific cultural expressions. This can lead to cultural
failures or even negative associations.

Example:

 A brand name or advertising slogan created through occasional equivalents might be perceived
as inappropriate or even offensive in a new market if cultural nuances are not taken into
account. This can negatively affect brand perception and market reception.

Conclusion
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When using transformations based on replacing a source language unit with an occasional equivalent,
the translator faces several challenges, including loss of meaning, cultural misadaptation, unnatural
expressions, and errors in lexical or semantic understanding. These issues require the translator to
have a high level of linguistic competence as well as a deep understanding of cultural and pragmatic
nuances. The success of these transformations depends on the translator's ability to preserve the
original meaning, while adapting the text to the target audience in a way that remains both natural and
effective.

Transformations Based on the Violation of Formal Similarity Between the Source

Text and the Target Text

Transformations based on the violation of formal similarity between the target text and the source text
are an important tool in translation practice, especially when the meaning must be preserved, but it is
impossible to directly translate the text while maintaining its structure, form, or grammar. In such
cases, the translator breaks the formal similarity between the source and the target languages in order
to achieve adequacy in meaning transmission that aligns with the context, target audience, and cultural
and linguistic features.

This transformation, where formal similarity is violated, is used when a literal translation or formal
reproduction of the text could distort meaning, be culturally irrelevant, or simply be impossible due to
language differences.

1. What is the Violation of Formal Similarity?

The violation of formal similarity refers to a translation method where the structure or form of the
original text is changed in order to achieve an accurate or more appropriate representation of the
meaning in the target language. This includes syntactic or lexical changes that may be necessary to
preserve meaning or style, even when the form or structure of the original is altered.

2. Reasons for Violating Formal Similarity

 Linguistic Differences: Differences in grammar, word order, declension, conjugation, or other

language-specific features.
 Cultural Differences: When cultural realities do not align, adaptation and changes to the
format are needed to make the text comprehensible to the target audience.
 Stylistic and Pragmatic Differences: The need to change the style of the text to meet the
expectations of the target audience, including humor, emotional tone, or technicalities.
 Need for Clarity: To ensure accuracy in translation, sometimes the sentence structure or word
order needs to be altered to make the meaning clearer and more accessible.

3. Types of Transformations That Violate Formal Similarity

3.1. Word Order Change (Inversion)

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When the word order in a sentence or phrase needs to be altered in the target language to comply with
grammatical norms. This is often necessary when the sentence structure in the source and target
languages is very different.

Example 1:

 English: "I have never been to France."

 Russian: "Я никогда не был во Франции."

Here, the translator violates formal similarity by rearranging parts of the sentence to maintain
naturalness in Russian.

3.2. Syntactic Transformation

When it is necessary to change the sentence structure or grammatical construction to preserve the
accuracy and adequacy of the translation. This can involve turning passive constructions into active
ones or vice versa, changing the sentence type, etc.

Example 2:

 English: "The book was read by John."

 Russian: "Джон прочитал книгу."

In this case, the passive form is transformed into an active one, allowing the meaning to be conveyed
more naturally in Russian.

3.3. Contextual Word Substitution (Explication)

When a direct word or expression is difficult to translate due to the lack of an equivalent in the target
language, the translator may use a more detailed or explanatory translation.

Example 3:

 English: "He was a big cheese in the company."

 Russian: "Он был важной фигурой в компании."

Here, the phrase "big cheese", which literally means "big cheese," is replaced with "important
figure" to preserve the meaning.

3.4. Transformation of Metaphors and Idioms

When translating metaphors or idiomatic expressions, it is often necessary to violate formal similarity
to convey the meaning and effect of the phrase in the target language. A literal translation might sound
unnatural or inappropriate.

Example 4:
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  English: "It’s raining cats and dogs."
 Russian: "Льет как из ведра."

The metaphor "cats and dogs" in English is translated into the Russian equivalent "like from a
bucket," even though the two expressions have completely different imagery.

3.5. Translation Through Analogy

In some cases, to preserve the meaning, it is necessary to change the expression entirely, relying on an
analogy in the target language rather than translating word-for-word.

Example 5:

 English: "He put his money where his mouth is."

 Russian: "Он не только говорит, но и делает."

Here, a similar Russian expression is used to convey the same meaning, though the structure and form
of the phrases differ.

4. More Complex Examples of Transformations

4.1. Example from Technical Translation

Example 6:

 English: "The process of data encryption involves the use of an algorithm."

 Russian: "Процесс шифрования данных включает в себя использование алгоритма."

Here, structural changes are necessary for the sentence to follow Russian syntactical norms while
maintaining clarity and precision in the translation.

4.2. Example from Literary Translation

Example 7:

 English: "He was a man of few words."

 Russian: "Он был немногословным человеком."

In this case, the structure of the phrase changes, but the meaning remains the same. In Russian, this
expression is more commonly used to convey the same idea.

5. Advantages and Problems of Transformations Violating Formal Similarity

Advantages:

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  Meaning Adaptation: This method allows for a more accurate transmission of meaning by
adapting the text to the characteristics of the target language and culture.
 Comprehensibility for the Target Audience: Violating formal similarity helps make the text
more understandable and accessible to the target language audience.
 Ease of Perception: Changes in structure or format can help avoid awkward constructions,
making the text more natural and easier to read.

Problems:

 Loss of Original Form: Violating formal similarity can sometimes lead to a loss of part of the
original form, which may be important for the style or rhythm of the text.
 Ambiguity: In some cases, overly strong transformations can result in confusion or ambiguity
in the translation.
 Risks of Cultural Adaptation: Sometimes, excessive adaptation can lead to over-localization,
making the translation less universal.

Conclusion

Transformations based on the violation of formal similarity between the source and target texts play an
important role in ensuring adequacy and naturalness in translations. When a direct, literal translation
is impossible or distorts meaning, the translator must resort to changes in structure, which helps
preserve accuracy and context. However, these transformations require the translator to have high
qualifications and a deep understanding of both the original text and the peculiarities of the target
language.

Practical tasks

Практические задания

Практические упражнения для студентов переводчиков, направленные на распознавание

различных методов трансформации: транслитерация, калькирование, фонетическая
имитация (звукоподражание), словообразование на основе оригинала, и семантическая
трансформация с имитацией формы. Эти упражнения помогут развить навыки применения
разных трансформаций в реальном переводе и улучшат понимание их применения на практике.

Упражнение 1: Транслитерация

Цель: Понять, как использовать метод транслитерации при передаче имен собственных,
брендов и терминов, заимствованных из других языков.

Задание 1.1: Вставьте в пропуски слова, заимствованные в русском языке через

транслитерацию:

1. 1.1. Большинство пользователей в России предпочитают устройства марки _________

(Apple).
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 2. 1.2. Вчера я заметил в магазине новые _________ (Nike) кроссовки.
3. 1.3. Он работает в _________ (Google) и занимается разработкой поисковых алгоритмов.

Задание 1.2: Переведите следующие английские выражения в русский язык с использованием

транслитерации:

1. "Facebook"
2. "Instagram"
3. "Twitter"

Ответы:

1. Apple → Эппл
2. Nike → Найк
3. Google → Гугл

Упражнение 2: Калькирование

Цель: Научиться определять и использовать метод калькирования, при котором перевод

происходит путем дословного перевода компонентов фразы.

Задание 2.1: Переведите следующие фразы, используя калькирование:

1. "Skyscraper" (небоскрёб)
2. "Black Friday" (Черная пятница)
3. "Business plan" (Бизнес-план)
4. "Waterproof" (Водонепроницаемый)

Задание 2.2: Определите, какие из следующих слов являются кальками. Объясните, почему:

1. "Софт" (от английского "Software")

2. "Флешка" (от английского "Flash drive")
3. "Смартфон" (от английского "Smartphone")
4. "Магнитола" (от английского "Stereo system")

Ответы:

1. Софт — калька с английского "Software".

2. Флешка — калька от английского "Flash drive".
3. Смартфон — калька от английского "Smartphone".
4. Магнитола — не калька, это заимствованное слово, но не дословный перевод, а бренд.

Упражнение 3: Фонетическая имитация (Звукоподражание)

Цель: Изучить, как происходит адаптация звуков в переводе с помощью фонетической

имитации.

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Задание 3.1: Прочитайте и переведите следующие звукоподражания с учетом их звучания в
целевом языке:

1. "Bark" (звучание лай собаки)

2. "Meow" (звучание кошки)
3. "Moo" (звучание коровы)
4. "Buzz" (звучание пчелы или жужжания)

Задание 3.2: Определите, какие из приведенных фраз являются примерами фонетической

имитации:

1. "Р-р-р" (звук рычания тигра)

2. "Мур-мур" (звук кошки)
3. "Бур-бур" (звук гудения двигателя)

Ответы:

1. Bark → Гав-гав (звук собаки)

2. Meow → Мяу (звук кошки)
3. Moo → Му-у (звук коровы)
4. Buzz → Ж-ж-ж или Бззз (звук пчелы)

Упражнение 4: Словообразование на основе оригинала

Цель: Понять, как изменять форму слова в процессе перевода для лучшего звучания и точности
на целевом языке.

Задание 4.1: Измените следующие слова, чтобы они соответствовали нормам целевого языка.
Преобразуйте их в разные части речи:

1. "Analysis" (существительное) → превратить в глагол.

2. "Perform" (глагол) → превратить в существительное.
3. "Active" (прилагательное) → превратить в существительное.
4. "Create" (глагол) → превратить в существительное.

Задание 4.2: Переведите следующие фразы с учетом словообразования. Используйте

подходящий перевод:

1. "To simplify the process" (сделать процесс проще) — какой глагол можно использовать
в русском языке для этого контекста?
2. "A strong performer" (сильный исполнитель) — какую форму можно использовать в
русском языке для описания этого человека?

Ответы:

1. Analysis → Анализировать (глагол)

2. Perform → Исполнение (существительное)
3. Active → Активность (существительное)
4. Create → Творчество (существительное)

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Упражнение 5: Семантическая трансформация с имитацией формы

Цель: Научиться применять семантические трансформации с сохранением формы и структуры

исходного текста.

Задание 5.1: Переведите следующие фразы с помощью семантической трансформации,

имитируя структуру и форму:

1. "She’s the apple of my eye." — идиома на английском языке.

2. "It’s a piece of cake." — идиома.
3. "He’s a big fish in a small pond." — метафора.

Задание 5.2: Вставьте в предложения подходящие фразы, сохраняя смысл и форму:

1. "This project is a walk in the park." → в русском языке аналогичная фраза, используя
метафору.
2. "She’s the king of the hill." → аналог на русском языке с сохранением формы и смысла.

Ответы:

1. "She’s the apple of my eye." → "Она — зеница моего ока."

2. "It’s a piece of cake." → "Это проще простого."
3. "He’s a big fish in a small pond." → "Он — большая шишка в маленьком кругу."

Упражнение 6: Анализ смешанных трансформаций

Цель: Развить способность анализировать, какие трансформации использованы в разных

примерах.

Задание 6.1: Прочитайте следующие примеры и определите, какой метод трансформации

используется в каждом случае:

1. "Facebook" → "Фейсбук"
2. "Black Friday" → "Черная пятница"
3. "Spam" → "Спам"
4. "Zoom" → "Зум"

Задание 6.2: Выберите правильный вариант перевода с учетом трансформации:

1. "Loudspeaker" →
o А) Колонка
o Б) Громкоговоритель
2. "Smartphone" →
o А) Умный телефон
o Б) Смартфон
3. "Highway" →
o А) Шоссе

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 o Б) Высокая дорога

Ответы:

1. Facebook → Транслитерация
2. Black Friday → Калькирование
3. Spam → Транслитерация
4. Zoom → Транслитерация

Выбор правильных вариантов:

1. Громкоговоритель (калька).
2. Смартфон (калька).
3. Шоссе (калька).

Заключение

Эти упражнения помогут студентам развить навыки распознавания и применения различных

типов трансформаций, таких как транслитерация, калькирование, фонетическая имитация,
словообразование, и **семантические трансформации

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