9.

Current Electricity

Can you recall?

• There can be three types of electrical

conductors: good conductors (metals),
semiconductors and bad conductors
(insulators).
• Does a semiconductor diode and resistor
have similar electrical properties? Fig 9.1: Electric network.
• Can you explain why two or more For a steady current flowing through an
resistors connected in series and parallel electrical network of resistors, the following
have different effective resistances? Kirchhoff 's laws are applicable.
9.2.1 Kirchhoff’s First Law: (Current law/
9.1 Introduction:
Junction law)
In XIth Std. we have studied the origin of
The algebraic sum of the currents at a
electrical conductivity, in particular for metals.
junction is zero in an electrical network, i.e.,
We have also studied how to calculate the n
effective resistance of two or more resistances I
i 1
i  0 , where Ii is the current in the ith
in series and in parallel. However, a circuit conductor at a junction having n conductors.
containing several complex connections
of electrical components cannot be easily
reduced into a single loop by using the rules
of series and parallel combination of resistors. P
More complex circuits can be analyzed
by using Kirchhoff’s laws. Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff (1824-1887) formulated two rules
for analyzing a complicated circuit. In this Fig. 9.2: Kirchhoff first law.
chapter we will discuss these laws and their Sign convention:
applications. The currents arriving at the junction are
9.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws of Electrical Network: considered positive and the currents leaving
Before describing these laws we will the junction are considered negative.
define some terms used for electrical circuits. Consider a junction P in a circuit where
Junction: Any point in an electric circuit where six conductors meet (Fig.9.2). Applying the
two or more conductors are joined together is sign convention, we can write
a junction. I1 - I2 + I3 +I4 -I5 -I6 = 0 --- (9.1)
Loop: Any closed conducting path in an Arriving currents I1, I3 and I4 are considered
electric network is called a loop or mesh. positive and leaving currents I2, I5 and I6 are
Branch: A branch is any part of the network considered negative.
that lies between two junctions. Equation (9.1) can also be written as
In Fig. 9.1, there are two junctions, I1 + I3 + I4 = I2 +I5 + I6
labeled a and b. There are three branches: Thus the total current flowing towards the
these are the three possible paths 1, 2 and 3 junction is equal to the total current flowing
from a to b. away from the junction.
214
 sense. Applying the sign conventions to Eq.
Example 9.1: Figure shows currents in a
(9.2), we get,
part of electrical circuit. Find the current X ?
-I1R1-I3R5-I1R3+ε1= 0
Solutions: At junction B, ∴ε1= I1R1+ I3R5+ I1R3
current I1 is split into I2 and Now consider the loop BFDCB in
I3 therefore I1 = I2 + I3 anticlockwise direction. Applying the sign
Substituting values we get conventions, we get,
I3 = 14 A  I 2 R2  I 3 R5  I 2 R4   2  0 
At C, I5 = I3 + I4 therefore
∴  2  I 2 R2  I 3 R5  I 2 R4
I5 = 16 A
At D, I5 = I6 + I7 therefore Remember this
I6 = 7 A
Kirchhoff’s first law is consistent with
9.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: the conservation of electrical charge while
The algebraic sum of the potential the voltage law is consistent with the law of
differences (products of current and resistance) conservation of energy.
and the electromotive forces (emfs) in a closed Some charge is received per unit time
loop is zero. due to the currents arriving at a junction. For
 IR     0 --- (9.2) conservation of charge, same amount of charge
Sign convention: must leave the junction per unit time which
1. While tracing a loop through a resistor, leads to the law of currents.
if we are travelling along the direction Algebraic sum of emfs (energy per unit
of conventional current, the potential charge) corresponds to the electrical energy
difference across that resistance is supplied by the source. According to the law of
considered negative. If the loop is traced conservation of energy, this energy must appear
against the direction of the conventional in the form of electrical potential difference
current, the potential difference across that across the electrical elements/devices in the
resistor is considered positive. loop. This leads to the law of voltages.
2. The emf of an electrical source is positive
while tracing the loop within the source Steps usually followed while solving a
from the negative terminal of the source to problem using Kirchhoff’s laws:
its positive terminal. It is taken as negative i) Choose some direction of the currents.
while tracing within the source from ii) Reduce the number of variables using
positive terminal to the negative terminal. Kirchhoff’s first law.
iii) Determine the number of independent
loops.
iv) Apply voltage law to all the independent
loops.
v) Solve the equations obtained
simultaneously.
Fig. 9.3: Electrical network. vi) In case, the answer of a current variable
Consider an electrical network shown in is negative, the conventional current is
Fig. 9.3. flowing in the direction opposite to that
Consider the loop ABFGA in clockwise chosen by us.

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Example 9.2: Two batteries of 7 volt and
13 volt and internal resistances 1 ohm and 2
ohm respectively are connected in parallel
with a resistance of 12 ohm. Find the
current through each branch of the circuit
and the potential difference across 12-ohm
resistance.
Solutions: Let the currents passing through
the two batteries be I1 and I2. Applying Kirchhoff second law,
Applying Kirchhoff second law to the (i) loop EFCDE,
loop AEFBA, 3 I 2  4 I1  10  0
4 I1  3 I 2  10 --- (2)
(ii) loop FABCF
4 I 3  3 I 2  5  0
4 I 3  3 I 2  5 --- (3)
From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2)
4  I 3  I 2   3 I 2 = 10
3 I 2  4 I 3  4 I 2  10
4 I 3  7 I 2  10 --- (4)
12  I1  I 2   1I1  7  0 From Eq. (3) and Eq. (4)
10 I 2  5
12  I1  I 2   1I1  7 --- (1) I 2   0.5 A
For the loop CEFDC
Negative sign indicates that I 2 current
12  I1  I 2   2 I 2   13  0
flows from F to C
12  I1  I 2   2 I 2   13 --- (2)
From Eq. (2) 4 I1  3  0.5   10
From (1) and (2) 2 I 2   I1  13  7  6 I1 = 2.12 A
I1  2 I 2   6
Substituting I1 value in (2) ∴ I 3  I1  I 2  2.12  0.5  1.62 A
85 9.3 Wheatstone Bridge:
I=
2  = 2.237 A
38 Resistance of a material changes due to
I1  2 I 2   6 several factors such as temperature, strain,
85 humidity, displacement, liquid level, etc.
I1  2   6  1.526 A
38 Therefore, measurement of these properties
I  I1  I 2  1.526 A  2.237 A  0.711A is possible by measuring the resistance.
Potential difference across 12 Ω resistance Measurable values of resistance vary from
V  IR  0.711 12  8.53V 
a few milliohms to hundreds of mega ohms.
Example 9.3: For the given network, find Depending upon the resistance range (milliohm
the current through 4 ohm and 3 ohm. to tens of ohm, tens of ohm to hundreds of ohms,
Assume that the cells have negligible hundreds of ohm to mega ohm, etc.), various
internal resistance. methods are used for resistance measurement.
Solution: Applying Kirchhoff first law Wheatstone’s bridge is generally used to
At junction F, measure resistances in the range from tens of
I1 = I 3  – I 2 I1  I 2  I 3 --- (1) ohm to hundreds of ohms.
216
 The Wheatstone Bridge was originally A special case occurs when the current
developed by Charles Wheatstone (1802- 1875) passing through the galvanometer is zero. In
to measure the values of unknown resistances. this case, the bridge is said to be balanced.
It is also used for calibrating measuring Condition for the balance is Ig = 0. This
instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc. condition can be obtained by adjusting the
Four resistances P, Q, R and S are values of P, Q, R and S. Substituting Ig = 0 in
connected to form a quadrilateral ABCD as Eq. (9.4) and Eq. (9.5) we get,
shown in the Fig. 9.4. A battery of emf ε along – I1P + I2S = 0 ∴ I1P = I2S --- (9.6)
with a key is connected between the points A – I1Q + I2R = 0 ∴ I1Q = I2R --- (9.7)
and C such that point A is at higher potential Dividing Eq. (9.6) by Eq. (9.7), we get
P S
with respect to the point C. A galvanometer = --- (9.8)
of internal resistance G is connected between Q R
points B and D. This is the condition for balancing the
When the key is closed, current I flows Wheatstone bridge.
through the circuit. It divides into I1 and I2 at If any three resistances in the bridge are
point A. I1 is the current through P and I2 is the known, the fourth resistance can be determined
current through S. The current I1 gets divided at by using Eq. (9.8).
point B. Let Ig be the current flowing through Example 9.4: At what value should the
the galvanometer. The currents flowing variable resistor be set such that the bridge
through Q and R are respectively (I1 – Ig) and is balanced? If the source voltage is 30 V
(I1 + Ig), find the value of the output voltage across
From the Fig. 9.4, XY, when the bridge is balanced.
I = I1 + I2 --- (9.3)
Consider the loop ABDA. Applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise sense
shown in the loop we get,
– I1P – IgG + I2S = 0 --- (9.4)
X Y
Now consider loop BCDB, applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise sense
shown in the loop we get,
– (I1 – Ig) Q + (I2 + Ig) R + Ig G = 0 --- (9.5) When the bridge is balanced
P/Q=R/S
Q = PS / R
1.36  103  4.4  103
 19.94  103 
300
Total resistance of the arm
ADC = 19940 + 4400 = 24340 Ω
To find output voltage across XY:
Potential difference across
AC = I1  24340  30
Fig. 9.4 : Wheatstone bridge.
30
From these three equations (Eq. (9.3), I1 = A
24340
(9.4), (9.5) we can find the current flowing
Potential difference across
through any branch of the circuit.
217
 Temporary contact with the wire AB can be
AD = I1 × 19940 established with the help of the jockey. A cell
  30  19940  / 24340  24.58 V of emf ε along with a key and a rheostat are
30 30 connected between the points A and B.
I2   A
1360  300 1660 A suitable resistance R is selected from
So, Potential difference across resistance box. The jockey is brought in contact
30
AB= I 2  1360   1360  24.58 V with AB at various points on the wire AB and
1660
the balance point (null point), D, is obtained.
Vout   VB  VD 
The galvanometer shows no deflection when
 VA  VB   VA  VD  the jockey is at the balance point.
 VAB  VAD Let the respective lengths of the wire
= 24.58-24.58 = 0V between A and D, and that between D and C
be  x and  R . Then using the conditions for
Application of Wheatstone bridge:
the balance, we get
Figure 9.4 is a basic circuit diagram of X RAD
Wheatstone bridge, however, in practice =
R RDB
the circuit is used in different manner. In all
where RAD and RDB are resistance of the parts
cases it is used to determine some unknown
AD and DB of the wire resistance of the wire. If
resistance. Few applications of Wheatstone
l is length of the wire, ρ its specific resistance,
bridge circuits are discussed in the following
and A its area of cross section then
article. 
9.3.1 Metre Bridge: RAD  AD RDB    DB
A A
X RAD  x / A
= 
R RDC  R / A
X x
∴ =
R R

Therefore, X = x R --- (9.9)
R
Knowing R,  x and  R , the value of the
unknown resistance can be determined.
Fig. 9.5: Metre bridge. Example 9.5: Two resistances 2 ohm and 3
Metre bridge (Fig. 9.5) consists of a ohm are connected across the two gaps of the
wire of uniform cross section and one metre metre bridge as shown in figure. Calculate
in length, stretched on a metre scale which is the current through the cell when the bridge
fixed on a wooden table. The ends of the wire is balanced and the specific resistance of the
are fixed below two L shaped metallic strips.
material of the metre bridge wire. Given the
A single metallic strip separates the two L
resistance of the bridge wire is 1.49 ohm and
shaped strips leaving two gaps, left gap and
its diameter is 0.12 cm.
right gap. Usually, an unknown resistance X is
Solution: When the bridge is balanced, the
connected in the left gap and a resistance box
resistances 2 and 3 ohm are in series and the
is connected in the other gap. One terminal of
total resistance is 5 ohm.
a galvanometer is connected to the terminal C
Let R1 be the resistance of the wire =1.49
on the central strip, while the other terminal
Ω, and R2 be the total resistance (2+3)=5 Ω
of the galvanometer carries the jockey (J).
218
 detect whether there is a current
through the central branch. This is
possible only by tapping the jokey.
Applications:
• The Wheatstone bridge is used for
measuring the values of very low resistance
precisely.
• We can also measure the quantities such
R1 R2 1.49  5 as galvanometer resistance, capacitance,
R p     1.15
R1  R2 1.49  5 inductance and impedance using a
The current through the cell Wheatstone bridge.
 2 Do you know?
=   1.74 A
R p 1.15
R r 2 Wheatstone bridge along with operational
Specific resistance of the wire   
0.12  l amplifier is used to measure the physical
l  1m, r   0.06 cm , R  1.49  parameters like temperature, strain, etc.
2
 
2
2
R r 2 1.49  3.14  0.06  10
  Observe and discuss
l 1
6
 1.68  10  m 1. Kelvin’s method to determine the
resistance of galvanometer (G) by using
Remember this meter bridge.

Source of errors.
1. The cross section of the wire may not
be uniform.
2. The ends of the wire are soldered to the
metallic strip where contact resistance The galvanometer whose resistance (G) is
is developed, which is not taken into to be determined is connected in one gap
account. and a known resistance (R) in the other gap.
3. The measurements of  x and  R may Working :
not be accurate. 1.  A suitable resistance is taken in the
To minimize the errors resistance box. The current is sent
(i) The value of R is so adjusted that the round the circuit by closing the key.
null point is obtained to middle one Without touching the jockey at any
third of the wire (between 34 cm and point of the wire, the deflection in the
66 cm) so that percentage error in galvanometer is observed.
the measurement of  x and  R are 2. The rheostat is adjusted to get a suitable
minimum and nearly the same. deflection Around (2/3)rd of range.
(ii) The experiment is repeated by 3.  Now, the jockey is tapped at different
interchanging the positions of unknown points of the wire and a point of contact
resistance X and known resistance box D for which, the galvanometer shows
R. no change in the deflection, is found.
(iii) The jockey should be tapped on the 4.  As the galvanometer shows the same
wire and not slided. We use jockey to deflection with or without contact

219
 between the point B and D, these two The resistances in the arms P and Q
points must be equipotential points. are fixed to desired ratio. The resistance
5.  The length of the bridge wire between in the arm R is adjusted so that the
the point D and the left end of the galvanometer shows no deflection. Now the
wire is measured. Let lg be the length bridge is balanced. The unknown resistance
of the segment of wire opposite to the X = RQ / P , where P and Q are the fixed
galvanometer and lr be the length of resistances in the ratio arms and R is an
the segment opposite to the resistance adjustable known resistance.
box. If L is the length of the wire and r is
Calculation : its radius then the specific resistance of the
Let RAD and RDC be the resistance of material of the wire is given by
the two parts of the wire AD and DC
X r2
respectively. Since bridge is balanced 
L
G R AD
=
R R DC
Do you know?
R lg G l
 AD    g
R DC lr R lr Wheatstone Bridge for Strain
G lg Measurement:
  Strain gauges are commonly used
R 100 - lg                      {lg + lr = 100 cm}
for measuring the strain. Their electrical
 lg  resistance is proportional to the strain in
G   R
 100 - l the device. In practice, the range of strain
 g 
gauge resistance is from 30 ohms to 3000
Using this formula, the unknown resistance ohms. For a given strain, the resistance
of the galvanometer can be calculated. change may be only a fraction of full range.
2. Post Office Box
Therefore, to measure small resistance
A post office box (PO Box) is a
changes with high accuracy, Wheatstone
practical form of Wheatstone bridge as
bridge configuration is used. The figure
shown in the figure.
below shows the Wheatstone bridge where
the unknown resistor is replaced with a
strain gauge as shown in the figure.

It consists of three arms P, Q and R.

The resistances in these three arms are
adjustable. The two ratio arms P and Q
contain resistances 10 ohm, 100 ohm and
1000 ohm each. The third arm R contains
resistances from 1 ohm to 5000 ohm. The In these circuit, two resistors R1 and
unknown resistance X forms the fourth R2 are equal to each other and R3 is the
resistance. There are two tap keys K1 and variable resistor. With no force applied
K2 . to the strain gauge, rheostat is varied and

220
 Therefore, the potential difference per unit
finally positioned such that the voltmeter
length of the wire is,
will indicate zero deflection, i.e., the bridge VAB R
is balanced. The strain at this condition =
L L( R  r )
represents the zero of the gauge. V
As long as ε remains constant, AB will
If the strain gauge is either stretched V L
or compressed, then the resistance changes. remain constant. AB is known as potential
L
This causes unbalancing of the bridge. This gradient along AB and is denoted by K.
produces a voltage indication on voltmeter Potential gradient can be defined as potential
which corresponds to the strain change. If difference per unit length of wire.
the strain applied on a strain gauge is more,
then the voltage difference across the meter
terminals is more. If the strain is zero, then
the bridge balances and meter shows zero
reading.
This is the application of precise
resistance measurement using a Wheatstone
Fig. 9.6: Potentiometer.
bridge. Consider a point C on the wire at distance
9.4 Potentiometer:  from the point A, as shown in the figure.
A voltmeter is a device which is used for The potential difference between A and C is
measuring potential difference between two VAC. Therefore,
points in a circuit. An ideal voltmeter which VAC = K  i.e. VAC ∝ 
does not change the potential difference to be Thus, the potential difference between two
measured, should have infinite resistance so points on the wire is directly proportional to
that it does not draw any current. Practically, the length of the wire between them provided
a voltmeter cannot be designed to have an the wire is of uniform cross section, the current
infinite resistance. Potentiometer is one such through the wire is the same and temperature
device which does not draw any current from of the wire remains constant. Uses of
the circuit. It acts as an ideal voltmeter. It is potentiometer are discussed below.
used for accurate measurement of potential 9.4.2 Use of Potentiometer:
difference. A) To Compare emf. of Cells
9.4.1 Potentiometer Principle:
A potentiometer consists of a long wire AB
of length L and resistance R having uniform
cross sectional area A. (Fig. 9.6) A cell of emf
ε having internal resistance r is connected
across AB as shown in the Fig. 9.6. When the
circuit is switched on, current I passes through
the wire.
 Fig. 9.7: Emf comparison by
Current through AB, I =
Rr individual method.
Potential difference across AB is
Method I : A potentiometer circuit is set up
VAB = I R
R by connecting a battery of emf ε , with a key
VAB = K and a rheostat such that point A is at higher
(R  r)
221
potential than point B. The cells whose emfs When two cells are connected so that
are to be compared are connected with their their negative terminals are together or their
positive terminals at point A and negative positive terminals are connected together as
terminals to the extreme terminals of a two- shown in Fig. 9.8 (b).
way key K1K2. The central terminal of the two In this case their emf oppose each other
ways key is connected to a galvanometer. The and effective emf of the combination of two
other end of the galvanometer is connected to cells is ε 1 – ε 2 ( ε 1 > ε 2 assumed). This method
a jockey (J). (Fig. 9.7) Key K is closed and of connecting two cells is called the difference
then, key K1 is closed and key K2 is kept open. method. Remember that this combination of
Therefore, the cell of emf ε1 comes into circuit. cells is not a parallel combination of cells.
The null point is obtained by touching the
jockey at various points on the potentiometer
wire AB. Let  1 be the length of the wire
between the null point and the point A.  1 Fig. 9.8 (a):Sum method.
corresponds to emf ε 1 of the cell. Therefore,
ε1 = K 1
where K is the potential gradient along the
potentiometer wire.
Now key K1 is kept open and key K2 is
Fig. 9.8 (b): Difference method.
closed. The cell of emf ε 2 now comes in the
Circuit is connected as shown in Fig.9.9.
circuit. Again, the null point is obtained with
When keys K1 and K3 are closed the cells ε 1
the help of the Jockey. Let  2 be the length of
and ε 2 are in the sum mode. The null point
the wire between the null point and the point
is obtained using the jockey. Let  1 be the
A. This length corresponds to the emf ε 2 of
length of the wire between the null point
the cell.
and the point A. This corresponds to the emf
∴ ε2 = K 2
( ε 1 + ε 2 ).
From the above two equations we get
∴ ε1 + ε 2 = k 1
1 1
 --- (9.10) Now the key K1 and K3 are kept open and
2 2 keys K2 and K4 are closed. In this case the two
Thus, we can compare the emfs of the two
cells are in the difference mode. Again the null
cells. If any one of the emfs is known, the
point is obtained. Let  2 be the length of the
other can be determined.
wire between the null point and the point A.
Method II: The emfs of cells can be compared
This corresponds to ε 1 - ε 2
also by another method called sum and
∴ ε1 - ε 2 =  2
difference method.
When two cells are connected so that the
positive terminal of the first cell is connected
to the negative terminal of the second cell
as shown in Fig 9.8 (a). The emf of the two
cells are added up and the effective emf of
the combination of two cells is ε 1 + ε 2 . This
method of connecting two cells is called the
sum method. Fig. 9.9: Emf comparison, sum and difference
method.
222
From the above two equations, The length of the wire  2 between the
1   2 1 null point and point A is measured. This

1   2  2 corresponds to the voltage between the null
By componendo and dividendo method, we point and point A.
get,  k 
1 1   2 ∴ V = k 2 ∴ 1  1  1
 --- (9.11) V k 2  2
 2 1   2 Consider the loop PQSTP.
ε 1 = IR + Ir and
Thus, emf of two cells can be compared.
B) To Find Internal Resistance (r) of a Cell: V = IR
The experimental set up for this method ∴  1  IR  Ir  R  r   1
V IR R 2
consists of a potentiometer wire AB connected
 
in series with a cell of emf ε , the key K1, and ∴ r  R  1  1 --- (9.12)
rheostat as shown in Fig. 9.10. The terminal A  2 
is at higher potential than terminal B. A cell This equation gives the internal resistance of
of emf ε1 whose internal resistance r1 is to be the cell.
determined is connected to the potentiometer C) Application of potentiometer:
wire through a galvanometer G and the jockey The applications of potentiometer
J. A resistance box R is connected across the discussed above are used in laboratory. Some
cell ε 1 through the key K2. practical applications of potentiometer are
given below.
1) Voltage Divider: The potentiometer can
be used as a voltage divider to continuously
change the output voltage of a voltage supply
(Fig. 9.11). As shown in the Fig. 9.11,
potential V is set up between points A and B
of a potentiometer wire. One end of a device is
connected to positive point A and the other end
is connected to a slider that can move along
wire AB. The voltage V divides in proportion
Fig. 9.10 : Internal resistance of a cell. of lengths l1 and l2 as shown in the figure 9.11.
The key K1 is closed and K2 is open. The
circuit now consists of the cell ε , cell ε 1 , and
the potentiometer wire. The null point is then
obtained. Let  1 be length of the potentiometer
wire between the null point and the point A.
This length corresponds to emf ε 1 .
∴ ε 1 = k  1 where k is potential gradient of the
potentiometer wire which is constant. Fig. 9.11 :
Now both the keys K1 and K2 are closed so Potentiometer as
that the circuit consists of the cell ε , the cell a voltage divider.
ε 1 , the resistance box, the galvanometer and 2) Audio Control: Sliding potentiometers, are
the jockey. Some resistance R is selected from commonly used in modern low-power audio
the resistance box and null point is obtained. systems as audio control devices. Both sliding

223
(faders) and rotary potentiometers (knobs) difference of the order 10–6 volt can
are regularly used for frequency attenuation, be measured with it. Least count of a
loudness control and for controlling different potentiometer is much better compared to
characteristics of audio signals. that of a voltmeter.
3) Potentiometer as a senor: If the slider of Demerits:
a potentiometer is connected to the moving Potentiometer is not portable and direct
part of a machine, it can work as a motion measurement of potential difference or emf is
not possible.
sensor. A small displacement of the moving
9.5 Galvanometer:
part causes changes in potential which is
A galvanometer is a device used to detect
further amplified using an amplifier circuit.
weak electric currents in a circuit. It has a
The potential difference is calibrated in terms coil pivoted (or suspended) between concave
of the displacement of the moving part. pole faces of a strong laminated horse shoe
Example 9.7: In an experiment to magnet. When an electric current passes
determine the internal resistance of a cell through the coil, it deflects.   The deflection is
of emf 1.5 V, the balance point in the open proportional to the current passing through the
cell condition at is 76.3 cm. When a resistor coil. The deflection of the coil can be read with
of 9.5 ohm is used in the external circuit of the help of a pointer attached to it. Position
of the pointer on the scale provided indicates
the cell the balance point shifts to 64.8 cm
the current passing through the galvanometer
of the potentiometer wire. Determine the
or the potential difference across it. Thus, a
internal resistance of the cell.
galvanometer can be used as an ammeter or
Solution: Open cell balancing length voltmeter with suitable modification. The
l1= 76.3 cm galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance
Closed circuit balancing length (about 100 ohms) and the galvanometer itself
l2 = 64.8 cm External resistance R = 9.5 Ω has a small current carrying capacity (about
 l l  1 mA).
Internal resistance r   1 2  R
 l2 
 76.3  64.8 
   9.5
 64.8 
 1.686 
9.4.3 Advantages of a Potentiometer Over
a Voltmeter:
Merits:
i) Potentiometer is more sensitive than a
voltmeter.
Fig. 9.12 Internal structure of galvanometer.
ii) A potentiometer can be used to measure
a potential difference as well as an emf 9.5.1 Galvanometer as an Ammeter:
of a cell. A voltmeter always measures Let the full scale deflection current and
terminal potential difference, and as it the resistance of the coil G of moving coil
draws some current, it cannot be used to galvanometer (MCG ) be Is and G. It can be
measure an emf of a cell. converted into an ammeter, which is a current
iii) Measurement of potential difference or measuring instrument. It is always connected
emf is very accurate in the case of a in series with a resistance R through which the
potentiometer. A very small potential current is to be measured.

224
 To convert a moving coil galvanometer ∴ GIg = S (I – Ig)
(MCG ) into an ammeter  Ig 
S  
 I  I 
To convert an MCG into an ammeter, the G --- (9.13)
modifications necessary are  g 
Equation 9.13 is useful to calculate the
1. Its effective current capacity must be range of current that the galvanometer can
increased to the desired higher value. measure.
2. Its effective resistance must be decreased. (i) If the current I is n times current Ig, then
The finite resistance G of the galvanometer I = n Ig. Using this in the above expression we
when connected in series, decreases the get GI g G
current through the resistance R which is S OR S
actually to be measured. In ideal case, an nI  I
g g
n 1
ammeter should have zero resistance. This is the required shunt to increase the range
3. It must be protected from the possible n times.
damages, which are likely due to the (ii) Also if Is is the current through the shunt
passage of an excess electric current to be resistance, then the remaining current (I – Is)
passed. will flow through galvanometer. Hence
In practice this is achieved by connecting G (I – Is) = S Is
a low resistance in parallel with the i.e. G I – G Is = S Is
galvanometer, which effectively reduces i.e. S Is + G I s = GI
the resistance of the galvanometer. This low  I s   G 
 
resistance connected in parallel is called shunt I  S  G 
(S). This arrangement is shown in Fig. 9.13. This equation gives the fraction of the
Uses of the shunt: total current through the shunt resistance.
a. It is used to divert a large part of total Example 9.8: A galvanometer has a
current by providing an alternate path resistance of 100 Ω and its full scale
and thus it protects the instrument from deflection current is 100 µ A. What shunt
damage. resistance should be added so that the
b. It increases the range of an ammeter. ammeter can have a range of 0 to 10 mA ?
c. It decreases the resistance between the Solution: Given IG = 100 µ A = 0.1 mA
points to which it is connected. The upper limit gives the maximum current
The shunt resistance is calculated as to be measured, which is I = 10 mA .
follows. In the arrangement shown in the figure, The galvanometer resistance is G = 100 Ω.
Ig is the current through the galvanometer. Now
Therefore, the current through S is 10 G 100 10 0
n  100  s    
(I – Ig) = Is 0.1 n  1 100  1 99
Example 9.9: What is the value of the shunt
resistance that allows 20% of the main
current through a galvanometer of 99 Ω?
Solution: Given
G = 99 Ω and IG =(20/100)I = 0.2 I
Now
Fig. 9.13 Ammeter. I G 0.2 I  99 0.2  99
S G    24.75 
Since S and G are parallel, I  I G  I  0.2 I  0.8
∴ GIg = S Is
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9.5.2 Galvanometer as a Voltmeter: where Ig is the current flowing through the
A voltmeter is an instrument used to galvanometer.
measure potential difference between two Eq. (9.14) gives the value of resistance X.
points in an electrical circuit. It is always V V
If nV   is the factor by which
connected in parallel with the component Vg ( I g  G )
across which voltage drop is to be measured. the voltage range is increased, it can be shown
A galvanometer can be used for this purpose. that X = G (nv-1)
To Convert a Moving Coil Galvanometer
into a Voltmeter. Example 9.10: A Galvanometer has a
To convert an MCG into a Voltmeter the
resistance of 25 Ω and its full scale deflection
modifications necessary are:
current is 25 µA. What resistance should be
1. Its voltage measuring capacity must be
added to it to have a range of 0 -10 V?
increased to the desired higher value.
Solution: Given G = 25 µA.
2. Its effective resistance must be increased,
and Maximum voltage to be measured is
3. It must be protected from the possible V =10 V.
damages, which are likely due to excess The Galvanometer resistance G = 25 Ω.
applied potential difference. The resistance to be added in series,
V 10
All these requirements can be fulfilled, if X G   25
we connect a resistance of suitable high value IG 25  10 6
(X) in series with the given MCG.  399.975  103 
A voltmeter is connected across the points Example 9.11: A Galvanometer has a
where potential difference is to be measured. If resistance of 40 Ω and a current of 4 mA is
a galvanometer is used to measure voltage, it needed for a full scale deflection . What is
draws some current (due to its low resistance), the resistance and how is it to be connected
therefore, actual potential difference to be to convert the galvanometer (a) into an
measured decreases. To avoid this, a voltmeter
ammeter of 0.4 A range and (b) into a
should have very high resistance. Ideally, it
voltmeter of 0.5 V range?
should have infinite resistance.
Solution: Given G = 40 Ω and IG = 4 mA
(a) To convert the galvanometer into an
ammeter of range 0.4 A,
 I  IG  S  IGG
 0.4  0.004  S  0.004  40
0.004  40 0.16
S   0.4040
Fig. 9.14 : Voltmeter. 0.396 0.396
A very high resistance X is connected in
series with the galvanometer for this purpose as (b)To convert the galvanometer into a
shown in Fig. 9.14. The value of the resistance voltmeter of range of 0.5 V
V  I G G  X 
X can be calculated as follows.
0.5  0.004  40  X 
If V is the voltage to be measured, then
0.5
V = Ig X + Ig G. X  40  85 
∴ Ig X = V – Ig G 0.004
V
 X  G , --- (9.14)
Ig
226
Comparison of an ammeter and a voltmeter:

AMMETER VOLTMETER antimony-bismuth thermo-couple is shown

in a diagram.
1. It measures 1. It measures
For this thermo couple the current
current. potential difference
flows from antimony to bismuth at the cold
2. It is connected in 2. It is connected in
junction. (ABC rule). For a copper-iron
series. parallel.
3. It is an MCG with 3. It is an MCG with
low resistance. high resistance.
(Ideally zero) (Ideally infinite)
4. Smaller the shunt, 4. Larger its
greater will resistance,
be the current greater will be the
measured. potential difference
5. Resistance of measured.
ammeter is 5. Resistance of couple (see diagram) the current flows
S G G voltmeter is from copper to iron at the hot junction,
RA   RV  G  X  G  nV
S G n This effect is reversible. The direction
of the current will be reversed if the hot
and cold junctions are interchanged.
The thermo emf developed in a
THERMOELECTRICITY
thermocouple when the cold junction is
When electric current is passed through
at 0 0 C and the hot junction is at T°C is
a resistor, electric energy is converted into
given by    T  1  T 2
thermal energy. The reverse process, viz., 2
conversion of thermal energy directly into
Here α and b are called the
electric energy was discovered by Seebeck
thermoelectric constants. This equation
and the effect is called thermoelectric effect.
tells that a graph showing the variation of
Seebeck Effect ε with temperature is a parabola.
If two different metals are joined to form
a closed circuit (loop) and these junctions
are kept at different temperatures, a small Do you know?
emf is produced and a current flows through
the metals. This emf is called thermo emf Accelerator in India:
this effect is called the Seebeck effect Cyclotron for medical applications.
and the pair of dissimilar metals forming
the junction is called a thermocouple. An

Picture credit: Director, VECC, Kolkata,

Department of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India

227