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Natural Gas Engineering
Handbook
2nd Edition

Dr. Boyun Guo

and
Dr. Ali Ghalambor

University of Louisiana at Lafayette

Houston, TX
Natural Gas Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition
Copyright © 2005 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form without the prior written permission of the publisher.

HOUSTON, TX:
Gulf Publishing Company
2 Greenway Plaza, Suite 1020
Houston, TX 77046

ISBN-13: 978-1-933-762-21-8
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Guo, Boyun.
Natural gas engineering handbook / Boyun Guo, Ali Ghalambor. --
2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-933762-41-1 (alk. paper)
1. Natural gas—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Petroleum
engineering—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. CD-ROMs I. Ghalambor,
Ali. II. Title.
TN880.G86 2012
665.7—dc23
2012005312

Printed in the United States of America

Printed on acid-free paper. ∞
Text design and composition by TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.
 This book is dedicated to the families of the authors for their
understanding and encouragement that were as responsible as the
experience and knowledge that have been inscribed herein.
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface xi

List of Spreadsheet Programs xv

Spreadsheet Programs and Functions xvi

List of Nomenclature xvii

1 Introduction ........................................................................... 1
1.1 What Is Natural Gas? 1
1.2 Utilization of Natural Gas 2
1.3 Natural Gas Industry 4
1.4 Natural Gas Reserves 5
1.5 Types of Natural Gas Resources 6
1.6 Future of the Natural Gas Industry 7

2 Properties of Natural Gas ................................................... 13

2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Specific Gravity 13
2.3 Pseudocritical Properties 14
2.4 Viscosity 17
2.5 Compressibility Factor 20
2.6 Gas Density 26
2.7 Formation Volume Factor and Expansion Factor 26
2.8 Compressibility of Natural Gas 27
2.9 Real Gas Pseudopressure 28
2.10 Real Gas Normalized Pressure 30

3 Gas Reservoir Deliverability .............................................. 35

3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Analytical Methods 35
3.3 Empirical Methods 38
3.4 Construction of Inflow Performance Relationship Curve 43

v
vi Contents

3.5 Horizontal Wells 49

3.6 Multi-Fractured Horizontal Wells 50
3.7 Shale Gas Wells 54
3.8 Well Deliverability Testing 56
3.8.1 Flow-After-Flow Test 57
3.8.2 Isochronal Test 59
3.8.3 Modified Isochronal Test 61

4 Wellbore Performance ........................................................ 67

4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Single-Phase Gas Well 68
4.2.1 The Average Temperature and Compressibility Factor
Method 68
4.2.2 The Cullender and Smith Method 72
4.3 Mist Flow in Gas Wells 74

5 Choke Performance ............................................................ 81

5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Sonic and Subsonic Flow 81
5.3 Dry Gas Flow through Chokes 82
5.3.1 Subsonic Flow 82
5.3.2 Sonic Flow 85
5.3.3 Temperature at Choke 85
5.3.4 Applications 86
5.4 Wet Gas Flow through Chokes 92

6 Well Deliverability ............................................................... 97

6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Nodal Analysis 97
6.2.1 Analysis with the Bottom Hole Node 98
6.2.2 Analysis with Wellhead Node 101
6.3 Production Forecast 106

7 Separation ......................................................................... 113

7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Separation of Gas and Liquids 113
 Contents vii

7.2.1 Principles of Separation 114

7.2.2 Types of Separators 115
7.2.3 Factors Affecting Separation 118
7.2.4 Separator Design 120
7.3 Stage Separation 129
7.4 Flash Calculation 131
7.5 Low-Temperature Separation 138

8 Dehydration ....................................................................... 143

8.1 Introduction 143
8.2 Dehydration of Natural Gas 143
8.2.1 Water Content of Natural Gas Streams 144
8.2.2 Dehydration Systems 146
8.2.3 Glycol Dehydrator Design 155
8.3 Removal of Acid Gases 167
8.3.1 Iron-Sponge Sweetening 168
8.3.2 Alkanolamine Sweetening 168
8.3.3 Glycol/Amine Process 169
8.3.4 Sulfinol Process 170

9 Compression and Cooling ............................................... 173

9.1 Introduction 173
9.2 Types of Compressors 174
9.3 Selection of Reciprocating Compressors 176
9.3.1 Volumetric Efficiency 178
9.3.2 Stage Compression 179
9.3.3 Isentropic Horsepower 181
9.4 Selection of Centrifugal Compressors 189
9.5 Selection of Rotary Blowers 194

10 Volumetric Measurement ................................................. 199

10.1 Introduction 199
10.2 Measurement with Orifice Meters 199
10.2.1 Orifice Equation 201
10.2.2 Recording Charts 206
10.2.3 Computation of Volumes 209
viii Contents

10.2.4 Selection of Orifice Meter 212

10.3 Other Methods of Measurement 212
10.3.1 Displacement Metering 212
10.3.2 Turbine Meter 214
10.3.3 Elbow Meter 214
10.4 Natural Gas Liquid Measurement 215

11 Transportation ................................................................... 219

11.1 Introduction 219
11.2 Pipeline Design 219
11.2.1 Sizing Pipelines 220
11.2.2 Pipeline Wall Thickness 250
11.3 Transportation of LNG 257

12 Special Problems .............................................................. 263

12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Liquid Loading on Gas Wells 263
12.2.1 Turner’s Method 264
12.2.2 Guo’s Method 267
12.2.3 Comparison of Methods 273
12.2.4 Solutions to the Liquid Loading Problem 275
12.3 Hydrate Control 276
12.3.1 Hydrate-Forming Conditions 277
12.3.2 Preventing Hydrate Formation 281
12.4 Pipeline Cleaning 287
12.4.1 Pigging System 290
12.4.2 Selection of Pigs 298
12.4.3 Major Applications 306
12.4.4 Pigging Procedure 310

A Pseudopressures of Sweet Natural Gases ..................... 317

B Normalized Pressures of Sweet Natural Gases ............. 321

C Orifice Meter Tables for Natural Gas ............................... 325

D The Minimum Gas Production Rate for Water Removal

in Gas Wells ....................................................................... 361
 Contents ix

E The Minimum Gas Production Rate for Condensate

Removal in Gas Wells ....................................................... 413

F Mathematical Model for Obtaining Correction Factor Fg ...465

Index 469
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

It is well recognized that the nineteenth century was a century of coal that
supported the initiation of industrial revolution in Europe. The twentieth
century was the century of oil that was the primary energy source to sup-
port the growth of global economy. The demand of the world’s economy
for energy is ever increasing. The energy disruptions should be a genuine
concern. It will likely cause chronic energy shortage as early as 2010. It
will eventually evolve into a serious energy crunch. The way to avoid
such a crunch is to expand energy supply and move from oil to natural gas
and, eventually, to hydrogen. Natural gas is the only fuel that is superior
to other energy sources in economic attractiveness and environmental
concerns. At the end of the last century, natural gas took over the position
of coal as the number two energy source behind oil. In 2000, total world
energy consumption was slightly below 400 quadrillion (1015) Btu. Of
this, oil accounted for 39 percent, while natural gas and coal provided 23
percent and 22 percent, respectively. It is a historical imperative that the
transition from oil to natural gas must be made in the early twenty-first
century. This is not only motivated by environmental considerations but
also technological innovations and refinements.
The consumption of natural gas in all end-use classifications (residential,
commercial, industrial, and power generation) has increased rapidly since
World War II. Natural gas is one of the major fossil energy sources. It
provided close to 24 percent of U.S. energy sources over the three-year
period of 2000 to 2002. There has been a huge disparity between
“proven” reserves and potential reserves of natural gases. Even in the case
of the highly mature and exploited United States, depending upon infor-
mation sources, the potential remaining gas reserve estimates varies from
650 Tcf to 5,000 Tcf. Proved natural gas reserves in 2000 are about 1,050
Tcf in the Unites States and 170 Tcf in Canada. On the global scale, it is
more difficult to give a good estimate of natural gas reserves. Major nat-
ural gas reserves are found in the former Soviet Union, Middle East, Asia
Pacific, Africa, North America, Southern and Central America, and
Europe.

xi
xii Preface

Natural gas engineering has supported the natural gas industry since the
birth of the industry. Although the principles of natural gas engineering
have been documented in numerous books, most of them do not reflect
the current practice in the natural gas industry where computer applica-
tions play a crucial role in engineering design and analyses. This book
fills the gap.
This book is written primarily for natural gas production and processing
engineers and college students of senior level. It is not the authors’ inten-
tion to simply duplicate general information that can be found in other
books. This book also gathers the authors’ experiences gained through
years of teaching the course of natural gas engineering at universities. The
mission of the book is to provide engineers a handy guideline to
designing, analyzing, and optimizing natural gas production and pro-
cessing systems. This book can also be used as a reference for college stu-
dents of undergraduate and graduate levels in petroleum engineering.
This book was intended to cover the full scope of natural gas production
engineering. Following the sequence of natural gas production, this book
presents its contents in twelve chapters. Chapter 1 presents a brief intro-
duction to the natural gas industry. Chapter 2 documents properties of
natural gases that are essential for designing and analyzing natural gas
production and processing systems. Chapters 3 through 6 cover in detail
the performance of gas wells. Chapter 7 focuses on the liquid separation
process of natural gases. Chapter 8 describes dehydration processes of
natural gases. Chapter 9 presents principles of gas compression and
cooling. Chapter 10 describes gas-metering techniques. Chapter 11 pres-
ents principles of gas transportation in pipelines. Chapter 12 deals with
special problems in natural gas production operations. Appendix A pres-
ents real gas pseudopressure charts for sweet natural gases. Appendix B
provides charts for determining normalized pressures of sweet natural
gases. Appendix C presents orifice meter tables for natural gases.
Appendix D presents charts for the minimum gas production rates for
water removal in gas wells and Appendix E presents charts for the min-
imum gas production rates for condensate removal in gas wells.
Because the substance of this book is virtually boundless, knowing what
to omit was the greatest difficulty with its editing. The authors believe
that it requires many books to describe the foundation of knowledge in
natural gas engineering. To counter any deficiency that might arise from
the limitations of space, we provide a reference list of books and papers at
 Preface xiii

the end of each chapter so that readers should experience little difficulty
in pursuing each topic beyond the presented scope.
As regards presentation, this book focuses on presenting principles, cri-
teria, basic data, and spreadsheet programs necessary to quickly perform
engineering analyses. Derivation of mathematical models is beyond the
scope of this book. Most example calculations are presented with com-
puter spreadsheets. All the spreadsheet programs are included on the CD
included with this book.
This book is based on numerous documents including reports and papers
accumulated through many years of work at the University of Louisiana
at Lafayette. The authors are grateful to the university for permission to
publish the materials. Special thanks go to the ChevronTexaco and Amer-
ican Petroleum Institute (API) for providing ChevronTexaco Professor-
ship and API Professorship in Petroleum Engineering throughout the
editing of this book. Last but not least, our thanks are due to friends and
colleagues too numerous to mention, who encouraged, assessed, and
made possible our editing this book. On the basis of their collective expe-
rience, we expect this book to be of value to engineers in the natural gas
industry.

Dr. Boyun Guo

ChevronTexaco Endowed Professor
in Petroleum Engineering
University of Louisiana at Lafayette

Dr. Ali Ghalambor

American Petroleum Institute
Endowed Professor
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
This page intentionally left blank
 List of Spreadsheet Programs

Table 2–1 Results Given by MixingRule.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 2–2 Results Given by Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Viscosity.xls. . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 2–3 Results Given by Brill-Beggs-Z.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 2–4 Results Given by Hall-Yarborogh-z.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 2–5 Input Data and Calculated Parameters Given by PseudoP.xls . . . . . 29
Table 2–6 Partial Output Given by PseudoP.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 3–1 The First Section of Theoretical Deliverability.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 3–2 Results Given by Theoretical Deliverability.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 3–3 The First Section of Empirical Deliverability.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 3–4 Results Given by Empirical Deliverability.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 3–5 Input Data Given by Theoretical IPR.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 3–6 Solution Given by Theoretical IPR.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 3–7 Input Data and Solution Given by Empirical IPR.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 3–8 Results Given by Empirical IPR.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 4–1 Input Data and Results Given by AverageTZ.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 4–2 Input Data and Results Given by Cullender-Smith.xls. . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 4–3 Input Data and Results Sections for MistFlow.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 5–1 Solution Given by DryGasUpchoke.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Table 5–2 Solution Given by DryGasDownChoke.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 6–1 Input Data and Results Given by BottomHoleNodal.xls. . . . . . . . . . 100
Table 6–2 Input Data and Solution Given by WellheadNodal.xls . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 6–3 Results Section of WellheadNodal.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Table 11–1 Input Data and Results Given by PipeCapacity.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 11–5 Input Data and Solution Given by LoopedLines.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Table 12–1 Turner Velocity and the Minimum Unloading Gas Flow Rate
Given by TurnerLoading.xls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Table 12–2 Input Data and Solution Given by GasWellLoading.xls . . . . . . . . . . 274
Table 12–4 Glycol Inhibition Input Data Given by GlycolInjection.xls . . . . . . . . . 286
Table 12–5 Glycol Inhibition Calculations and Results Given
by GlycolInjection.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Table 12–6 Methanol Inhibition Input Data and Calculations Given by
MethanolInjection.xls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

xv
 Spreadsheet Programs and Functions
Spreadsheet Namea Function

4-PhaseFlow.xls Four-phase flow in tubing

AverageTZ.xls Gas flow in tubing
BHP-Gas Well.xls Bottom hole pressure in gas wells
BottomHoleNodal.xls Nodal analysis with bottom hole node
Brill-Beggs-z.xls Z-factor with Brill-Beggs correlation
Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Viscosity by Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows
Viscosity.xls correlation
Tubing performance by Cullender-Smith
Cullender-Smith.xls
method
DryGasDownChoke.xls Downstream choke pressure
DryGasUpChoke.xls Upstream choke pressure
Empirical Deliverability.xls Empirical reservoir deliverability
Empirical IPR.xls Empirical IPR curve
GasWellLoading.xls Gas well loading with Guo method
GlycolInjection.xls Glycol requirement for hydrate prevention
Hall-Yarborough-Z.xls Z-factor with Hall-Yarborough correlation
Capacities of series, parallel, and looped
LoopedLine.xls
pipelines
LP-Flash.xls Low-pressure flash
MethanolInjection.xls Methanol requirement for hydrate prevention
MistFlow.xls Mist flow in tubing
MixingRule.xls Mixing rule for gas critical properties
Nodal.xls Nodal analysis with average T and Z method
NormPCharts.xls Normalized gas pressure
PipelineCapacity.xls Single-pipeline capacity
PseudoP.xls Real gas pseudopressure
PseudoPCharts.xls Real gas pseudopressure chart
Theoretical Deliverability.xls Theoretical reservoir deliverability
Theoretical IPR.xls Theoretical IPR curve
TurnerLoading.xls Critical gas rate by Turner’s method
WellheadNodal.xls Nodal analysis with wellhead node
a. All spreadsheet programs are on the CD attached to this book.

xvi
 List of Nomenclature

A = cross-sectional area of flow path, in2

Afb = the total firebox surface area, ft2
Bg = gas formation volume factor, rb/scf
C = parameter in IPR model in Mscf/d-psi2n; choke flow coefficient
Cd = drag coefficient
Cl = clearance, fraction
Cg = gas compressibility, psi–1
Cw = water content of natural gas, lbm/MMscf
C' = orifice flow constant
d = choke diameter, in
D = pipe diameter, non-Darcy coefficient in d/Mscf
Di = diameter of the flow path, ft
di = diameter of the flow path, in
E = gas expansion factor, scf/ft3
Ek = gas-specific kinetic energy, lbf -ft/ft3
Eksl = kinetic energy required to hold liquid drops stationary, lbf -ft/ft3
Ev = volumetric efficiency, fraction
f = Moody friction factor
Fa = orifice thermal expansion factor
Fb = basic orifice factor, cfh
Fg = specific gravity factor
F1 = gauge location factor
Fm = manometer factor for mercury meter
Fpb = pressure base factor
Fpv = supercompressibility factor
Fr = Reynolds number factor
Ftb = temperature base factor
Ftf = flowing temperature factor

xvii
xviii List of Nomenclature

g = 32.2 ft/sec2
gc = gravitational conversion factor = 32.17 lbm ft/lbfsec2
H = elevation above sea level, ft
HpMM = required theoretical compression power, hp/MMcfd
Ht = total heat load on reboiler, Btu/h
hw = differential pressure in inches of water at 60 °F
I100 = pure inhibitor required, lbm/MMscf
K = unit conversion coefficient
k = permeability in md; specific heat ratio
KH = Hammerschmidt constant for inhibitor
ik = liquid-vapor equilibrium ratio of compound i
L = measured depth in ft; latitude in degrees
lw = mechanical energy (loss of work) converted to heat, ft-lbf/lbm
m(p) = real gas pseudopressure, psi2/cp
MWa = apparent molecular weight
MWi = molecular weight of component i
n = parameter in IPR model, polytropic exponent
Nc = number of components
nL = number of moles of fluid in the liquid phase
NRe = Reynolds number
Ns = number of stages required
Nsl = slip speed, rpm
Nt = total operating speed, rpm
nV = number of moles of fluid in the vapor phase
n(p) = real gas normalized pressure
P = pressure at depth, lb/ft2
pcf = casing pressure, psia
pci = critical pressure of component i, psia
pf = absolute static pressure, psia
Phf = pressure at surface, lb/ft2
phf = pressure at surface, psia
pmf = pressure at middepth, psia
 List of Nomenclature xix

ppc = pseudocritical pressure, psia

ppr = pseudoreduced pressure
ptf = tubing pressure, psia
pwf = pressure at bottom hole, psia
q = gas production rate, Mscf/d
qd = desired gas capacity, cfm
Qgc = critical gas production rate, MMscf/day
qG = glycol circulation rate, gal/hr
Qgm = minimum required gas flow for liquid removal, MMscf/day
qmsc = gas production rate, MMscf/day
qs = sand production rate, ft3/day
qo = oil production rate, stb/day
Qsc = gas production rate, scf/day
qsc = gas production rate, Mscf/day
qw = water production rate, bbl/day
Re = Reynolds number
r = cylinder compression ratio
Rh = differential pressure range, in
Rp = static pressure range, psi
rw = wellbore radius, ft
s = skin factor
Sg = specific gravity of gas, air = 1
t = temperature, °F
T = temperature at depth, °R
Tav = average temperature at depth, °R
Tci = critical temperature of component i, °R
Thf = temperature at wellhead, °R
tm = temperature during orifice boring, °F
Tmf = temperature at middepth, psia
Tpc = pseudocritical temperature, R
Tpr = pseudoreduced temperature
Twf = temperature at bottom hole, psia
xx List of Nomenclature

V = volume, ft3
v = velocity, ft/s
Vdis = displacement, ft3/revolution
vgc = critical gas velocity, ft/s
Vs = required settling volume in separator, gal
w = theoretical shaft work required to compress the gas, ft-lbf/lbm
vgm = minimum gas velocity required to transport liquid drops, ft/s
vsl = terminal settling velocity, ft/s
vtr = liquid transport velocity, ft/s
WG = water removed from gas stream, lbm/MMscf
Wh = weight of pure inhibitor in liquid water phase, %
Win = concentration of inhibitor in inlet inhibitor stream, wt %
Wout = concentration of inhibitor in outlet inhibitor stream, wt %
Wr = water to be removed, lbm/hr
ix = mole fraction of compound i in the liquid phase
iy = mole fraction of compound i in the vapor phase
z = gas compressibility factor
Z = vertical depth, ft
zav = average gas compressibility factor
iz = mole fraction of compound i in the system
ε = tubing wall roughness, in
γg = gas-specific gravity, air = 1
γo = oil-specific gravity, fresh water = 1
γs = sand-specific gravity, fresh water = 1
γw = water-specific gravity, fresh water = 1
νg = gas dynamic viscosity, cp
θ = inclination angle, degrees
ρ = density, lbm/ft3
ρg = gas density, lbm/ft3
ρl = liquid density, lbm/ft3
σ = interfacial tension, dynes/cm
νg = gas kinetic viscosity, cs
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 What Is Natural Gas?

Natural gas is a subcategory of petroleum that is a naturally occurring,

complex mixture of hydrocarbons, with a minor amount of inorganic
compounds. Geologists and chemists agree that petroleum originates from
plants and animal remains that accumulate on the sea/lake floor along
with the sediments that form sedimentary rocks. The processes by which
the parent organic material is converted into petroleum are not under-
stood. The contributing factors are thought to be bacterial action; shearing
pressure during compaction, heat, and natural distillation at depth; pos-
sible addition of hydrogen from deep-seated sources; presence of cata-
lysts; and time (Allison and Palmer 1980).
Table 1–1 shows composition of a typical natural gas. It indicates that
methane is a major component of the gas mixture. The inorganic com-
pounds nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are not desirable
because they are not combustible and cause corrosion and other problems
in gas production and processing systems. Depending upon gas composi-
tion, especially the content of inorganic compounds, the heating value of
natural gas usually varies from 700 Btu/scf to 1,600 Btu/scf.
Natural gas accumulations in geological traps can be classified as reser-
voir, field, or pool. A reservoir is a porous and permeable underground
formation containing an individual bank of hydrocarbons confined by
impermeable rock or water barriers and is characterized by a single nat-
ural pressure system. A field is an area that consists of one or more reser-
voirs all related to the same structural feature. A pool contains one or
more reservoirs in isolated structures. Wells in the same field can be clas-
sified as gas wells, condensate wells, and oil wells. Gas wells are wells
with producing gas-oil-ratio (GOR) being greater than 100,000 scf/stb;

1
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