November 6, 2024

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Laws are basic analytical tools to obtain the

solutions of current and voltages for any electric circuit.
1 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) - Conservation of charge
2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) - Conservation of energy
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction or node

in an electric circuit is zero
Means, the sum of currents flowing into any junction is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out from the same junction, at
any instant of time.
Reflects the Law of Conservation of Charge.
KCL Sign Convention

Current flowing into the junction is +Ve

Current flowing out from the junction is -Ve
Based on this, I1 , I2 and I3 are flowing into the junction,
therefore, they are considered as +Ve
I4 and I5 are flowing out from the junction, therefore, they are
considered as -Ve
 I1 + I2 + I3 − I4 − I5 = 0
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
Incoming Currents = Outgoing Currents
Example 1

Find the current flowing the 5 Ω resistor in the following circuit

Example 1

Applying KCL at Node A

+I1 -I2 -I3 =0
10-8-I3 =0
Therefore, I3 =2A
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of all voltages in any closed path is zero

Means, the sum of emfs of voltage sources and the sum of
voltage drops or rise in circuit elements in a closed circuit is
zero, at any instant of time.
Reflects the Law of Conservation of Energy.
KVL Sign Convention-For Voltage Sources

Figure: For Voltage Sources

KVL Sign Convention-For Circuit Elements

Figure: For Circuit Elements

KVL-Example

Figure: KVL-Example
KVL-Example

Figure: KVL-Example

E1
−V1 =−IR 1
−V2 =−IR 2
−E2
−V3 =−IR 3
KVL-Example

Figure: KVL-Example

E1 − V1 − V2 − E2 − V3 = 0
E1 − IR1 − IR2 − E2 − IR3 = 0
E1 − E2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Example 2

Find the voltage across the 20 Ω resistor in the following circuit

using KVL

Figure: KVL-Example-2
+10 − (I × 10) − 20 − (I × 5) − (I × 25) − (I × 20) = 0
then, I = −1/6A
-ve Sign shows, the actual current direction is opposite to assumed
direction
Now, voltage across 20 Ω resistor = I × 20 = (−1/6) × 20 = -3.33 V
Star-Delta Transformation
Method to reduce the electrical network or circuit into simple
form so that computations are much easier.
Can be applied for a network containing three resistance of
any value, either connected in star or delta fashion.
Transformation from star to delta or delta to star, help to
reduce the network by introducing more series-parallel
combinations.
Star to Delta Conversion

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3
Delta to Star Conversion

Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rc
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Example 1

3 resistors R1 =30Ω, R2 =60Ω and R3 =10Ω are connected in star.

Obtain equivalent delta circuit.
Given R1 =30Ω, R2 =60Ω and R3 =10Ω
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3
Ra = 90Ω
Rb = 45Ω
Rc = 270Ω
Example 2
3 resistors of 30 Ω are connected in delta, obtain star network.
Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rc
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ans: 10Ω each.

Terminologies in an Electric Circuit

Node: A node or a junction is

a point in an electric circuit
where two or more electric
components are connected
together
Branch: A branch is a
conducting path between two
nodes in an electric circuit
Loop: Any closed path in an
electric circuit
Mesh: A mesh is a loop that
does not have any other loop
inside it, or independent loops
are called mesh
Current and Voltage Division Rule

Voltage Division Rule

It is used to find the voltage across an individual resistor in a
series circuit.
The voltage across any resistance in a series circuit can be
found by multiplying the total voltage by the ratio of the
target resistance to the total resistance.
A series circuit acts as a voltage divider circuit because it
divides the total supply voltage in different voltages across
various component of the circuit.
Voltage Division Rule

V × R1
V1 =
R1 + R2 + R3
V × R2
V2 =
R1 + R2 + R3
V × R3
V3 =
R1 + R2 + R3
Voltage Division Rule - General Equation

V × Rn
Vn =
Req
Where Req = R1 + R2 + R3
Example-1

Find the voltage across the resistors R1 and R2 in the circuit shown
in the following circuit.
Example-1- Solution

Using the voltage division rule, the voltage across the resistor R1
will be
VR1 12 × 6
V1 = = = 4.5V
R1 + R2 6 + 10
VR2 12 × 10
V2 = = = 7.5V
R1 + R2 6 + 10
Current Division Rule

It is used to find the current in each branch of a parallel circuit.

The current divider rule calculates the current through each parallel
path in a circuit, based on the resistances of each path.
A parallel circuit acts as a current divider circuit because it divides
the total circuit current in its all branches.

I × Req
In =
Rn
Example

Find the branch currents in the following circuit .

Solution
1 Total current in the circuit = I=IT
P =V ×I
I = VP =I = 1500
100 =15A
2 Find Req
1
Req = 1 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3
Req =6.667Ω
3 Find branch currents
I × Req
In =
Rn
I × Req I × Req I × Req I × Req
I1 = = = 10A, I2 = = 4A, I3 = =1
R1 R1 R2 R3
Relative Potential
Relative Potential Is the
potential at a node with
respect to another node,
usually the datum node or
reference node.

V(N4−N2) = 100V
V(N4−N1) = V5Ω
V(N1−N3) = V10Ω
V(N1−N2) = V30Ω
V(N3−N2) = V10Ω
V(N3−N2) = V20Ω
Inductance

Property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of

current flowing through it.
If the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced emf is
set up in such a direction so as to oppose the rise of the
current, as per Lenzs Law.
Similarly, if the current in the coil is decreasing, the self
induced emf will be the direction so as to increase the current
as per Lenzs Law.
Unit of inductance is Henry and represented by the symbol H.
Inductance

µN 2 A
L=
l
Where, L=Inductance in Henry
µ= Permeability
N= Number of turns in the coil
A= Area encircled by the coil
l= Length of the coil
The voltage across an inductor is given by the equation:
di
VL = L
dt
V = Instantaneous voltage across inductor
L= Inductance in Henry
di
dt =Instantaneous rate of current change.
VI Relationship

di
VL = L (1)
dt
VL dt = Ldi (2)
VL
di = dt (3)
L
V
Z Z
di = dt (4)
L
1
Z
i= VL dt (5)
L
The energy is stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic field.
1 di
Energy = E = LI 2 Power = P = VL × I = L × I
2 dt
Capacitance

Capacitance is the property by which it oppposes any change

in voltage.
Unit of capacitance is Farad and is represented by the symbol,
F
Q
C= Q= Charge, V= Voltage
V
VI Relationship

dV
i =C (6)
dt
idt = CdV (7)
i
dV = dt (8)
C
i
Z Z
dV = dt (9)
C
1
Z
V = idt (10)
C
dV 1
Power = P = V × i = V × C Energy = E = CV 2
dt 2
The energy is stored in the capacitor is in the form of electric field.
Mesh Analysis

Also known as Maxwell’s mesh current method

This method is used to solve and find currents in complex
network.
Mesh Analysis is a method of circuit analysis using mesh
currents, instead of branch currents in KCL/KVL method
Algorithm / Steps

1 Identify the different meshes in a circuit

2 Assume mesh currents to flow in clockwise direction in each
mesh
3 Apply KVL in each mesh assuming that the mesh considered
carries highest current than others.
4 Solve the equations and find mesh currents
5 Using the mesh currents, find branch currents
Calculate the mesh currents in the following circuit
Step 1: Identify the different meshes in a circuit
Step 2: Assume mesh currents to flow in clockwise
direction in each mesh
Step 3:Apply KVL in each mesh assuming that the mesh
considered carries highest current than others.

Applying KVL in Mesh 1 assuming I1 >I2

28 − 4I1 − 2(I1 − I2 ) = 0 (11)
28 − 6I1 + 2I2 = 0 (12)
6I1 − 2I2 = 28 (13)
Step 3:Apply KVL in each mesh assuming that the mesh
considered carries highest current than others.

Applying KVL in Mesh 2 assuming I2 > I1

−2(I2 − I1 ) − 1(I2 ) − 7 = 0 (14)
−2I2 + 2I1 − 1I2 − 7 = 0 (15)
2I1 − 3I2 = 7 (16)
Step 4: Solve the equations and find branch currents

6I1 − 2I2 = 28
2I1 − 3I2 = 7
By solving I1 =5A , I2 =1A
Use calculator to solve by using EQN function
Step 5- Using mesh currents, find the branch currents

Compute the required quantity from mesh currents

For
ex: Current through R2 = I1 -I2 = 5-1 = 4 A
ex: Voltage across R1 = 4I1 = 4× 5 = 20 V
ex: Power delivered by B1 = V× I1 = 28× 5 = 140W
ex: Power consumed by R3 = (I2 )2 R3 = 12 × 1 = 1 W
Special Case: Circuits with Current Source

Till now, the example circuits contain only voltage sources,

where the specified emf of the voltage source is used for
writing the KVL equation.
In circuits with current sources, instead of emf, the amount of
current supplied by the source will be given, which cannot be
used for writing KVL equation. In KVL equation, all the
quantities are voltages/emfs.
Circuits with current sources helps the solution, by forming
direct relationships with mesh currents.
There are two cases:
1 Case A: Current Sources in outer meshes
2 Case B: Current Sources in inner meshes
Special Case A: Current Sources in Outer Meshes

Applying KVL in Mesh 1 is not possible, since the voltage

across the 1A current source is not available.
Applying KVL in Mesh 3 is not possible, since the voltage
across the 2A current source is not available
Applying KVL in Mesh 2, −2(I2 − I1 ) − 2I2 − 1(I2 − I3 ) = 0
By visual inspection, it is clear that, I1 = 1A and I3 = -2A,
the branch currents is equal to the mesh currents.
So, solution becomes easy with the presence of current
sources.
Special Case B: Current Sources in Inner Meshes (Super
Mesh)

Here, the current source is existing between Mesh 2 and Mesh

3.
Makes it impossible to write KVL equations for Mesh 2 and
Mesh 3.
Now applying KVL in Mesh 1, 50 − 10(I1 − I2 ) − 5(I1 − I3 ) = 0
By visual inspection, it is clear that, 2A current source is in
the direction of I2 and opposite direction of I3. Therefore,
I2-I3 = 2
We have only two equations to solve three unknowns. To
form the third equation, combine the meshes that share the
current source & consider it as Super Mesh. Write the KVL
for Super Mesh
−5(I3 − I1 ) − 10(I2 − I1 ) − 2I2 − 1I3 = 0
Now three equations and three unknowns, can be solved
Node Voltage Method/Nodal Analysis

In Nodal Analysis, instead of mesh, important nodes are

considered
Instead of writing KVL in mesh, KCL at Node is used for
finding the equations to solve
Therefore, the system of equations will be with voltage as
unknown parameters
Reference Node is important so that the voltages at nodes are
represented with respect to reference node
Easier for circuits that carried more current sources
Algorithm/Steps

Step 1: Identify the important nodes (nodes with more than

two interconnection) and assume & mark current directions in
all branches.
Step 2: Select one node as reference node (node with
maximum interconnections). The reference node voltage is set
as ZERO by connecting the node to GROUND. Vref = 0,
Assign unknown voltage for other nodes
Step 3: Apply KCL at each node
Step 4: Rename the branch currents using the node voltages
Step 5:Solve equations to get the node voltages
Step 6: Using the node voltages to find the branch currents
For the following circuit, find Va by nodal analysis.
Steps
Step 1 : Identify the important nodes (nodes with more than two
interconnection) and assume & mark current directions in all
branches.
Step 2 : Select one node as reference node (node with maximum
interconnections). The reference node voltage is set as ZERO by
connecting the node to GROUND. Vref = 0 (here V4 ), Assign
unknown voltage for other nodes
Steps
Step 3: Apply KCL at each node

KCL at Node V1 , Is2 = I1 + I2

KCL at Node V2 , I2 = I3 + Is3
KCL at Node V3 , I1 + Is3 + Is1 = 0
Step 4: Rename the branch currents using the node
voltages

(V1 −V3 )
I1 = 1
(V1 −V2 )
I2 = 5
(V2 −V4 ) (V2 −0) V2
I3 = 4 = 4 = 4
KCL at Node V1 , Is2 = I1 + I2

(V1 − V3 ) (V1 − V2 )
1= +
1 5
V1 V3 V1 V2
1= − + −
1 1 5 5
6V1 V2
− − V3 = 1
5 5
KCL at Node V2 , I2 = I3 + Is3

(V1 − V2 ) V2
= +2
5 4
Step 5:Solve equations to get the node voltages
Solve equations

V1 = 37V, V2 = 12V and V3 = 41 V

Step 6: Calculate the required quantity from node voltages
Va =V2 - V1 = 12 37 = -25 V
Find the node voltage V1 in the following circuit
Elementary Concepts of Magnetic Circuits

Magnetic Circuits
Basic Terminology
MMF,
field strength
flux density
reluctance -
Comparison between electric and magnetic circuits
Series and parallel magnetic circuits with composite materials
(numerical problems not needed)
Magnets

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic

field.
This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most
notable property of a magnet
A force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as
iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, etc.
Attracts or repels other magnets.
Two types
1 Permanent Magnets
2 Electro Magnets
Permanent Magnet

A permanent magnet is an
object made from a material
that is magnetized and
creates its own persistent
magnetic field. Eg. Alnico
Figure: Permanent magnets
Electro Magnets

An electromagnet is made
from a coil of wire that acts
as a magnet when an electric
current passes through it
but stops being a magnet
when the current stops.
Often, the coil is wrapped
around a core of "soft"
ferromagnetic material such
as mild steel, which greatly
enhances the magnetic field
Figure: Electro Magnets produced by the coil.
Basic Terminology
Magnetic Field: The magnetic field is the area around a
magnet in which the effect of magnetism is felt.

Figure: Magnetic Field

Magnetic Flux (Φ)
The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a
magnetic material is called as magnetic flux.
Unit is Weber (Wb)
1 Wb = 108 Lines of Force
Magnetic Flux Density (B)

The total number of magnetic lines of force passing

perpendicular through unit area is called Magnetic Flux
Density
Given by by Wb/m2 = Tesla (T)
Φ
B=
A
Magnetic Circuit

The closed path formed by the magnetic lines of force around

and through the magnetic material, is called as magnetic
circuit
Magneto Motive Force (mmf)

The Magnetomotive force (MMF) is defined as the work done

in moving a unit magnetic pole once around the magnetic
circuit.
It is a magnetic pressure that tends to set up magnetic flux in
a magnetic circuit.
Mathematically, the mmf is the product of current and
number of turns of a coil.
mmf in a magnetic circuit is equivalent to emf in an electric
circuit
mmf

Consider the coil consisting of N turns and an electric current

of I amperes flowing in it. Therefore, the mmf is given by,
MMF = NI
Unit is Ampere Turns (AT)
Magnetic Field Intensity (H)

Magnetic field intensity is a measure of how strong a

magnetic field is in a given area.
It is also known as magnetic field strength or magnetic
intensity.
The force experienced by a unit north pole at any point in a
magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Intensity of a Electro Magnet is given by
NI
H= where N is the No. of Turns, I is the current and L
L
is the length of the coil
Unit is Ampere Tunes/meter, ie, AT /m
Relationship between Magnetic Flux Density (B) and
Magnetic Field Intensity (H)
B is directly proportional to H
B∝H
B = µH
where,µ= permeability of material
Terminologies

Practical B H Curve - Hysteresis Loop

It is due to magnetic saturation, retentivity and coercivity
Terminologies
Permeability (µ)
It means the conductivity of a magnetic material to allow the
passage of magnetic lines of force
µ = µ0 × µr
Absolute Permeability (µ0 )
Permeability of air or vaccum is called as absolute permeability

µ0 = 4π × 10−7
Relative Permeability (µr )
It is the ratio of permeability of a material with respect to absolute
permeability
µ
µr =
µo
µr (Air) = 1
Reluctance (S)

The opposition by the magnetic material for the passage of

magnetic lines of force is called reluctance.
It is equivalent to resistance in electric circuit.
S = mmf /flux = NI/Φ
Unit is AT/Wb

L
S=
Aµo µr
where, L length of the magnetic core
A cross sectional area of the core
Ohms Law in Magnetic Circuit

Magnetic Ohms Law states that the mmf is proportional to the

flux, mmf ∝ Φ
mmf = SΦ, where S is the proportionality constant and is equal to
reluctance
Similarities between magnetic and electric circuits
Differences between magnetic and electric circuits