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Phased Arrays for Radio Astronomy, Remote Sensing,
and Satellite Communications

Discover a modern approach to the analysis, modeling and design of high sensitivity
phased arrays. Network theory, numerical methods and computational electromagnetic
simulation techniques are uniquely combined to enable full system analysis and design
optimization. Beamforming and array signal processing theory are integrated into the
treatment from the start. Digital signal processing methods such as polyphase filter-
ing and RFI mitigation are described, along with technologies for real time hardware
implementation. Key concepts from interferometric imaging used in radio telescopes
are also considered. A basic development of theory and modeling techniques is accom-
panied by problem sets that guide readers in developing modeling codes that retain
the simplicity of the classical array factor method while incorporating mutual cou-
pling effects and interactions between elements. Combining current research trends
with pedagogical material suitable for a first-year graduate course, this is an invaluable
resource for students, teachers, researchers, and practicing RF/microwave and antenna
design engineers.

Karl F. Warnick is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

at Brigham Young University, and a Fellow of the IEEE.
Rob Maaskant is an Associate Professor at Chalmers University of Technology and the
Eindhoven University of Technology.
Marianna V. Ivashina is a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at
Chalmers University of Technology.
David B. Davidson is the Director of Engineering at the International Centre for Radio
Astronomy Research and the Chair of Radio Astronomy Engineering, both at Curtin
University, and Professor Extraordinary at the University of Stellenbosch. He is a Fellow
of the IEEE.
Brian D. Jeffs is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
at Brigham Young University
EuMA High Frequency Technologies Series

Series Editor
Peter Russer, Technical University of Munich

Homayoun Nikookar, Wavelet Radio

Thomas Zwick, Werner Wiesbeck, Jens Timmermann, and Grzegorz Adamiuk (Eds),
Ultra-wideband RF System Engineering
Er-Ping Li and Hong-Son Chu, Plasmonic Nanoelectronics and Sensing
Luca Roselli (Ed), Green RFID Systems
Vesna Crnojević-Bengin, Advances in Multi-band Microstrip Filters
Natalia Nikolova, Introduction to Microwave Imaging
Karl F. Warnick, Rob Maaskant, Marianna V. Ivashina, David B. Davidson, and
Brian D. Jeffs, Phased Arrays for Radio Astronomy, Remote Sensing, and
Satellite Communications

Forthcoming
Peter Russer, Johannes Russer, Uwe Siart, and Andreas Cangellaris, Interference and
Noise in Electromagnetics
Maurizio Bozzi, Apostolos Georgiadis, and Ke Wu, Substrate Integrated Waveguides
Luca Pierantoni, Fabio Coccetti, and Davide Mencarelli, Radiofrequency
Nanoelectronics Engineering
Alexander Yarovoy, Introduction to UWB Wireless Technology and Applications
Philippe Ferrari, Rolf Jakoby, Onur Karabey, Gustavo Rehder, and Holger Maune,
Reconfigurable Circuits and Technologies for Smart Millimeter-Wave Systems
Luca Roselli, Enabling Technologies for The Internet of Things
Costas Sarris and Andrew Austin, Uncertainty Quantification in Computational
Electromagnetics
Nuno Borges Carvalho, Alessandra Costanzo, Apostolos Georgiadis, and Franco
Mastri, Wireless Power Transfer
“Anyone interested in phased arrays should read this book - it provides an excellent
insight into this technology and while aimed at principally at the imaging community
has widespread application. The treatment of noise in a mutual coupled array is partic-
ularly useful.”
Professor Tony Brown,
Manchester University

“Many headline discoveries in radio astronomy are products of phased arrays. This
book deals with new-generation arrays born of the revolution in information process-
ing systems and enabled by contemporary electromagnetic design tools. Covering real
exemplar instruments, the book is broad in scope and detailed in its presentation of array
design theory, allied signal processing and practical implementations. The authors’
cross-disciplinary approach extends to remote sensing and satellite applications, and
they provide much-needed links to mainstream antenna engineering. Aimed at research
engineers, the book is also invaluable to graduate students and professionals seeking an
overview of leading-edge practice.”
Peter J. Hall,
Emeritus Professor of Radio Astronomy Engineering,
Curtin University
Phased Arrays for Radio
Astronomy, Remote Sensing,
and Satellite Communications
K A R L F. WA R N I C K
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA

ROB MAASKANT
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, and Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands

M A R I A N N A V. I VA S H I N A
Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

D AV I D B . D AV I D S O N
University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, and Curtin University, Perth, Australia

BRIAN D. JEFFS
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108423922
DOI: 10.1017/9781108539258
© Cambridge University Press 2018
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2018
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Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
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and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Notation and Units xv

1 Phased Arrays for High-sensitivity Receiver Applications 1

1.1 Contemporary Design Methods for Phased Arrays 2
1.2 Phased Arrays in Radio Astronomy 4
1.3 Phased Arrays for Passive Remote Sensing 18
1.4 Phased Arrays for Satellite Communications 22
1.5 System Requirements, Figures of Merit, and Antenna Terms 24
1.6 Summary 32

2 Active Antenna Receivers 39

2.1 Voltage, Current, and Field Phasors 39
2.2 Coordinate Systems 40
2.3 Transmitting Antennas 42
2.4 Receiving Antennas 51
2.5 Equivalent Circuit Models 53
2.6 Spectral Output Noise Power 57
2.7 Single Active Antenna SNR Model 70
2.8 Summary 76

3 Antenna Examples 80
3.1 Isotropic Radiator 80
3.2 Hertzian Dipole 81
3.3 Linear Antenna 83
3.4 Loop Antenna 86
3.5 Comparison of Dipole and Loop Antennas 89
3.6 Patch Antennas 92
3.7 Aperture Antennas 96
3.8 Summary 103

4 Transmitting Arrays, Network Analysis, and Pattern Overlap Integrals 106

4.1 The Array Factor and Classical Array Analysis 107
viii Contents

4.2 Network Analysis Methods for Phased Arrays 120

4.3 Transmitting Array Model 122
4.4 Network Theory Model and the Impedance Matrix Representation 123
4.5 Active Impedances 124
4.6 Embedded Element Patterns 125
4.7 Beamformer Weight Vector 130
4.8 Pattern Overlap Integrals 132
4.9 Directivity Optimization 137
4.10 The Overlap Matrix and Mutual Resistance 141
4.11 Antenna Losses and Radiation Efficiency 143
4.12 Gain for Transmitting Arrays 144
4.13 Modeling Antenna Arrays in the Network Theory Framework 145
4.14 The Lossless, Resonant, Minimum Scattering Approximation 146
4.15 Summary 149

5 Array Receiver Theory and Modeling 154

5.1 Receiving Array Network Model 154
5.2 Receiving Pattern Directivity and Reciprocity for Active Arrays 161
5.3 Signal and Noise Correlation Matrices 163
5.4 Signal and Noise Model for Receiving Arrays 166
5.5 Fundamental Noise Theorem for Phased Arrays 175
5.6 Active Receiving Array SNR Model 175
5.7 Summary 176

6 Figures of Merit for Active Receiving Arrays 179

6.1 Array Gain (SNR Gain) 181
6.2 Antenna Terms for Active Receiving Arrays 185
6.3 Isotropic Noise Response 186
6.4 Active Antenna Available Gain 189
6.5 Active Antenna Available Power 190
6.6 Receiving Efficiency 191
6.7 Active Antenna Effective Area 194
6.8 Antenna Efficiency and Aperture Efficiency for Active Receiving Arrays 196
6.9 Reciprocity for Receiving Arrays and the Equivalent Transmitting Array 196
6.10 Active Antenna Noise Temperature 197
6.11 Receiver Noise Temperature and Noise Figure 199
6.12 Noise Matching Efficiency 202
6.13 Minimization of Receiver Noise 204
6.14 Sensitivity Model for an Active Receiving Array 207
6.15 Array Y-factor Measurement Technique 208
6.16 LRMSA Example: Half-Wave Dipole Array 211
6.17 Summary 217
 Contents ix

7 Design and Optimization of Phased Array Antennas 221

7.1 General Considerations for Aperture Arrays 222
7.2 System and Design Considerations for Aperture Arrays 226
7.3 Phased Array Feed Design Aspects 235
7.4 Design Optimization Methods 244

8 Numerical Modeling of Phased Array Antennas 253

8.1 Numerical Methods and Full Array System Modeling 254
8.2 The Standard Method of Moments (MoM) Approach 255
8.3 Surface Impedance Formulation of Imperfect Conductors 259
8.4 Fast Direct MoM Methods – Macro Basis Function Approaches 262
8.5 Fast Iterative MoM Methods 273
8.6 Physical Optics Approximation 278
8.7 Feed–reflector Interaction Analysis 280
8.8 Differential Equation Based Methods – FDTD and FEM 285
8.9 System SNR Modeling in the Noise Wave Representation 286
8.10 Comments and Caveats on Numerical Modeling 290

9 Analog Front End, Array Elements, and Receiver Electronics 300

9.1 Frequency and Bandwidth 300
9.2 Resonant Antennas 301
9.3 Broadband Antennas 302
9.4 Electrically Small Antennas and Bandwidth Limitations 307
9.5 Baluns and Feeding 309
9.6 Planar Arrays and Microstrip Patch Antennas 310
9.7 Receiver Electronics 313
9.8 Low Noise Amplifiers for Astronomical Arrays 313
9.9 Cryogenic PAFs 314
9.10 Front End to Back End Signal Transport 318
9.11 Downconversion and Sampling 319

10 Array Signal Processing, Calibration, and Beamforming 325

10.1 Beamforming 325
10.2 Array Calibration 333
10.3 Beamformer Weight Calculation Algorithms 336
10.4 Relationships Among Beamforming Algorithms 355
10.5 Array Sensitivity Map 356
10.6 Polarimetric Calibration and Beamforming 359
10.7 RFI Mitigation with Array Receivers 369
10.8 Analog and Digital Beamforming Implementations 389

11 Interferometric Arrays and Synthesis Imaging 396

11.1 Introduction 396
11.2 The Classical Theory of Interferometry: Overview and Literature Survey 397
x Contents

11.3 Radio Interferometry Measurement Equation (RIME) 412

11.4 Recent Developments and Open Challenges 415
11.5 Summary 416

12 Real Time Digital Signal Processing 420

12.1 Introduction 420
12.2 Interferometry and Spectroscopy – Frequency Domain 421
12.3 Beamformers 425
12.4 Polyphase Filters 427
12.5 Hardware Implementations 431
12.6 Summary 441
Index 444
Preface

Many excellent books on phased array antennas are already in print. The theoretical
and mathematical content commonly found in books on this topic has stabilized in the
last decade or two, but the past ten years has seen a dramatic departure from classical
analytical tools in the methodologies used to design and optimize phased arrays. Our
goal is to gather in one place recent advances in the mathematical framework for phased
array analysis and create a book for which the theoretical treatment reflects the state-of-
the-art in the academic literature and is equal to the task of designing antenna arrays for
applications with demanding performance requirements.
One of the themes of this book is the design of phased arrays based on computer
simulation. The last few decades have seen enormous progress in computational electro-
magnetics (CEM), which has revolutionized our ability to analyze antennas rigorously.
The framework developed in this book can be used either with analytical approxima-
tions for the antenna response, or with computational electromagnetics tools for more
accurate results.
Another theme is the dedicated analysis of active receiving arrays using network
theory and the signal correlation matrix formulation. Most antenna textbooks focus
almost exclusively on the antenna as a transmitting system, and then mention that the
reciprocity theorem extends this analysis to receiving systems. Modern phased array
systems involve active front ends, with low noise amplifiers in close proximity to the
antenna or even integrated into the antenna feed. The system in this case is nonre-
ciprocal, and some conventional antenna concepts no longer apply. Many systems use
digital beamforming, which provides additional degrees of freedom when compared to
classical analog beamformers. These systems require a new vocabulary and new figures
of merit to properly describe them; where possible, we reconcile these with traditional
antenna terms.
The authors have been closely involved in modern developments in phased arrays,
computational electromagnetics, and array signal processing for applications in chal-
lenging fields such as radio astronomy for many years. This text represents the first
synthesis of these modern design methods as a book; this is complemented by a review
of classical methods such as the array factor approximation. Big-picture array design
considerations, types of antenna elements, and components in the analog front end
are reviewed. Both aperture type arrays and phased array feeds, used in conjunction
with a reflector, are covered. Array signal processing is considered in detail and the
theory of interferometric arrays (widely used in radio astronomy) is outlined. The book
xii Preface

concludes with some selected topics on real time digital signal processing. While many
of the methods presented in this book were developed in the astronomical phased array
community, the set of tools presented is equally applicable to other fields requiring
high performance phased arrays. In particular, we outline remote sensing and satellite
communications applications.
This book is inherently interdisciplinary. Some of the most far-reaching insights
in the phased array community have come from exploring the connection between
antenna design, microwave network analysis, and signal processing theory. Modern
systems require joint optimization of all subsystems, from the antenna elements to
the analog electronics and digital signal processing. This conjunction of disciplines is
readily apparent in the table of contents and material in this book. Bringing together
disciplines in new ways always brings uncomfortable collisions of notation, terminol-
ogy, and mindset. We have, with just a few not easily avoidable exceptions, ironed
out these inconsistencies in the material. As the book was conceived, we purposefully
declined the easier path of an edited collection, as we hoped for a more pedagogically
streamlined and logically organized treatment than collections of papers generally can
achieve. The highest purpose of this book is to present a seamless synthesis of antenna
theory, network analysis, signal processing theory, and application-specific concepts.
Finally, this is also a textbook. Most chapters include problem sets suitable for a
course in phased array design and modeling. Many of the problems build on each other
to aid the reader in creating a simple but powerful software tool that uses the overlap
matrix formulation, network analysis, and correlation matrix framework to implement
the array modeling and design methods covered in this book. It will help the reader
in comprehending the content of the book to understand that there are two ways to
use the analytical framework: (1) with analytical approximations for antenna element
patterns, based on the lossless, resonant, minimum scattering approximation (LRMSA),
and (2) using numerical simulations based on computational electromagnetics tools for
the antenna array. These two approaches yield an equivalent network source for the
array. The equivalent source from either approach can be used to initialize the network
theory, overlap matrix, and correlation matrix formulations for the array system’s signal
response, external noise, antenna loss noise, and receiver noise by which the full array
system is modeled.
We hope that this book inspires a new generation of researchers to combine tech-
niques from the different disciplines brought together in the book in new and creative
ways, and to continue to push forward the frontier of research in phased array receivers
and other multiantenna systems in an expanding range of applications.

Karl F. Warnick
Rob Maaskant
Marianna V. Ivashina
David B. Davidson
Brian D. Jeffs
Acknowledgements

We acknowledge support from our families while pursuing the research upon which
much of this book is based, the outstanding students we have been privileged to work
with and who have contributed many key ideas and innovative developments, and the in-
credible working environment provided by our colleagues at Brigham Young University
and its sponsoring organization, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
We gratefully recognize Michael A. Jensen for pioneering work on the network
analysis of multiantenna systems, his personal mentoring and friendship, and for many
formative and enlightening conversations with him over the years.
The work upon which this book is based has been supported by nearly 20 years of
continuous funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation. We thank the program
managers we have worked with during this time for their courtesy, hard work, and
professionalism.

Karl F. Warnick and Brian D. Jeffs

I gratefully acknowledge support from my family during my research career, as well

as the contributions of many excellent students, and the support of my colleagues and
research administrators at Stellenbosch University.
I would specifically like to recognize Johannes H. Cloete, with whom I worked for
around 25 years at Stellenbosch University, for his dedication to research in antenna
systems, metrology and electromagnetic analysis, and for bringing radio astronomy into
my field of interest.
The South African National Research Foundation has supported my work for over
two decades, most recently via a generous grant for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA)
Research Chair, and I acknowledge this support, as well as many very useful interactions
with the engineers and scientists of the South African SKA project.

David B. Davidson
xiv Acknowledgements

We are grateful to our remarkably knowledgeable colleagues at ASTRON for involv-

ing us in their unique radio astronomy instrumentation building practice as well as for
the many inspiring discussions which crossed the boundaries of multiple disciplines. We
greatly thank ASTRON’s management and Wim van Cappellen in particular for offering
us the opportunity to carry out world-leading research in our science field for almost a
decade, and for three years after leaving ASTRON by financially supporting Ivashina’s
VINNMER Fellowship jointly with Onsala Space Observatory. We further thank our
students for their dedication and hard work, as well as our international colleagues
within the SKA consortium. As always, there are so many people to thank, but special
mention must go to: Professors Anton Tijhuis, Raj Mittra, the late Per-Simon Kildal,
Christophe Craeye, Arnold van Ardenne, and John Conway; Drs. Kees van ’t Klooster,
Bert Woestenburg, Jan-Geralt bij de Vaate, Tobia Carozzi, and Miroslav Pantaleev; our
former roommate Michel Arts; our former PhD students Oleg Iupikov, André Young,
and David Prinsloo; and MSc student Bill Yang. Special thanks go to TICRA (Cecilia
and Knud), DTU-Space (Niels), and ESA (Kees and Benedetta) for a very pleasant
recent collaboration on the SKA-inspired array antenna research for Earth observation
applications.
We also acknowledge the financial support of our funding agencies: the Nether-
lands Organisation for Scientific Research NWO, the Swedish VINNOVA Agency, the
Swedish Research Council VR, the Swedish National Space Board, the European Space
Agency, and the European Commission.
A cooperation lasting over a decade with the expert co-authors of this book has been a
key source of inspiration and driving source of many scientific endeavors; it has resulted
in a life-proven friendship which is of great value to us!
Last but not least, we mention our lovely children Daniëlla (2004) and Anton (2014)
for – as it appears – accepting our peculiar domestic working culture and inheriting our
passion for research and innovation.

Rob Maaskant and Marianna V. Ivashina

Notation and Units

Throughout this book, the following notation is used. Spatial vectors are indicated as E
(in this case, the electric field). Vectors in the linear algebra sense are indicated as x, and
matrices as A, using bold lower and upper case roman font respectively. The individual
elements of a vector or matrix are indicated as xi or Ai j respectively. Otherwise, the
notation is as generally encountered in engineering books on this topic. A summary is
presented below.
The time convention used for phasor quantities is e jωt , hence, the phasor wave e− jkr
propagates in the direction of increasing r. (Physics books often adopt the e−iωt con-
vention, in which case the sign changes in the wave’s phasor representation.) Phasors
represent peak values.

∇× the curl operation

∇· divergence operation
× vector cross product of two vectors
E three-dimensional (field) vector E
ǫ0 permittivity of free space (≈ 8.854 × 10−12 F/m)
ǫr relative permittivity of a dielectric material (dimensionless)
μ0 permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 H/m)
μr relative permeability of a magnetic material (dimensionless)
c the speed of light in free space (≈ 2.9979 × 108 m/s)
r compact vector notation for the point (x, y, z), in rectangular
coordinates, r = x x̂ + yŷ + z x̂
r̂ unit vector in the direction r, equivalent to the spherical point (θ, φ)
k electromagnetic wavenumber (rad/m)
k electromagnetic wave vector
λ electromagnetic wavelength
O(M n ) of the order of M n , formally,
N = O(M n ) ⇒ lim log N/ log M = n
M→∞
(u, v, w) orthogonal coordinates normalized to wavelength
in the easterly, northerly, and source directions respectively
(l, m, n) direction cosines
E[ · ] statistical expected value operation
Ω Solid angle, or an alternate notation for the spherical point (θ, φ)
dΩ differential solid angle, in spherical coordinates, dΩ = sin θ dθ dφ
xvi Notation and Units

dr differential volume element, surface element, or line element

(depending on the domain of integration)
dS differential area element
dA differential area element with unit vector, n̂ dS
v, y, etc. N-dimensional vector quantity (e.g., array output signals)
R, A, etc. N × N matrix, bold upper case roman font
vH , RH complex conjugate transpose of vector v and matrix R respectively
v T , RT conventional transpose of vector v and matrix R respectively
v⊙y Hadamard element-wise array product, v ⊙ y = [v1 y1 , . . . , vN yN ]T
A⊗B matrix Kronecker product
vec{A} matrix to vector operator. In a = vec{A}, a is a vector formed by
stacking (column-ordered scanning) all the columns of A
unvec{a} vector to matrix operator. unvec{vec{A}} = A

||y|| Conventional L2 vector norm, ||y|| = 2
i |yi |
≈, ∝, ≡ respectively “approximately equal to,” “proportional to,” and “is
defined as”
CN N-dimensional complex vector space
∪, ∩ set (or vector space) union and intersection operations respectively
v ∈ CN vector v is an element of CN
S ⊂ CN vector space S is a subset (subspace) of N-dimensional vector space
CN
S⊥ vector subspace perpendicular (complementary) to S . If S and S ⊥ ⊂
CN then S ∩ S ⊥ = φ, the empty set, and S ∪ S ⊥ = CN

This book uses the SI system of units.

Name Symbol Unit Equivalent units or notes

Electric field intensity E V/m
Magnetic field intensity H A/m
Brightness B W m−2 Hz−1 rad−2
Spectral flux density S W m−2 Hz−1 1 Jansky (Jy) = 10−26 Wm−2 Hz−1
Poynting flux density S W m−2 In one polarization
Temperature T K Physical or equivalent temperature
Temporal frequency f Hz ( f is also reflector focal length)
Angular frequency ω rad s−1 2π f
Bandwidth B Hz Typically for one filterbank output
1 Phased Arrays for High-sensitivity
Receiver Applications

Phased arrays date back to the very earliest days of radio. The German physicist Karl
Ferdinand Braun constructed a three element, switchable array in 1909 to enhance
radio transmission in one direction. Early phased arrays achieved beam steering through
applying a progressive phase to each element of a one- or two-dimensional array; the
concept may be found in almost every book on antenna theory, e.g. [1]. The contempo-
rary usage extends to include control of both the amplitude and phase (or time-delay)
excitations of each radiating element in a multiantenna system [2].
While the analytical tools covered in this book are applicable to phased array antennas
for all applications, the concepts and examples in the book are organized around the
design and optimization of high-sensitivity radio frequency and microwave receivers.
Radio astronomy is an especially challenging application of this technology, and will
feature strongly in this book. Although parabolic dishes have dominated antenna tech-
nology since the early 1960s, to the point where dishes have become largely synony-
mous with radio telescopes in the popular imagination,1 many early discoveries in radio
astronomy were made using phased arrays [3]. The same is true for the large dishes
(often over 30 m in diameter) used by telecommunication ground stations and for deep
space tracking in the same timeframe; but again, phased arrays were far from forgotten,
playing an important role in the first Approach and Landing System (ALS) and post-
WWII early warning systems.
Parabolic dishes have probably reached the apogee of their design in recent years,
and since they are fundamentally large mechanical systems, their cost is dominated by
the cost of materials and labour – neither of which is likely to change dramatically
in the foreseeable future. In the radio astronomy community, the currently accepted
guideline is that the cost of a dish scales as D2.7 [4]; since the area only increases as D2 ,
building ever-larger steerable dishes is clearly not a viable method for increasing sensi-
tivity, which is directly proportional to collecting area. Additionally, steerable dishes in
particular involve moving parts, bringing significant maintenance requirements. Phased
arrays, on the other hand, are fundamentally electronic systems, whose cost is increas-
ingly dominated by processing. Moore’s Law provides the prospect of continuing – and
dramatic – reductions in processing costs.

1 The iconic Arecibo dish has a spherical, not parabolic surface. Arecibo was the largest single aperture
radio telescope in the world, until supplanted in 2016 by the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical
Telescope (FAST) in China.
2 Phased Arrays for High-sensitivity Receiver Applications

Whilst dishes may continue to dominate some applications, there has been a resur-
gence of interest in phased arrays for radio astronomy since the 1990s, with a number
of systems currently deployed or in an advanced state of design. In radio astronomy,
these are generally known as either aperture arrays (AAs) or phased array feeds (PAFs),
depending upon whether the array views the sky directly, or is placed at the focal plane
of a dish. PAFs blend the most attractive features of both phased arrays and dishes;
however, these are very challenging systems to design, and the accurate analysis of
PAF-fed dishes has driven the development of state-of-the-art design methods. Overall,
technological advances in areas such as signal processing, digital electronics, computing
and data storage mean that this new generation of radio astronomy phased arrays is quite
unlike its predecessors.
Beyond radio astronomy, highly sensitive receiving arrays find application as satellite
communications ground terminals for mobile and airborne platforms, and in passive
and active remote sensing applications. The common thread is that the external noise
environment viewed by the receiver is primarily the cool microwave sky, which at L
band has a brightness temperature of only 4–5 K. When the external noise environment
has a low brightness temperature, the incremental gains of improving the receiver noise
figure and reducing antenna losses are much more significant than for terrestrial commu-
nication and radar applications, for which the external noise environment is closer to the
ambient temperature (280 K) or is dominated by interference from other transmitters.
Traditional methods for antenna analysis and design are often insufficiently accurate
to realize phased array antennas that can compete with reflector-based receivers. The
goal of this book is to develop a modern approach to phased array design suitable for
high-performance applications.

1.1 Contemporary Design Methods for Phased Arrays

The traditional approach to array design uses the element pattern and array factor ap-
proach. As we discuss in Chapter 4, for high performance receiving arrays, the approxi-
mate factorization of the array radiation pattern into an element pattern and array factor
is not accurate enough to use when designing for stringent performance requirements.
Mutual coupling causes element radiation patterns to differ across the array, and this
must be taken into account in the design process from the beginning. Whilst we review
classical array factor analysis, the focus of this book is on more sophisticated methods
based on overlap integrals and network theory. This is particularly important for small
to moderate sized arrays, such as the phased array feeds which are currently being
deployed to replace single feeds on parabolic dishes.
The array factor method certainly has value, and for some receiving array applications
considered in this book, such as large, dense, aperture arrays for radio astronomy, it
is still a useful method, especially when combined with numerical simulations using
infinite array analysis (which do incorporate mutual coupling, albeit in the infinite
array environment). For other applications, the array factor method is only useful for
rough designs, and the more advanced approach using the overlap integral and network
 1.1 Contemporary Design Methods for Phased Arrays 3

theory approach which will be presented in this book is needed. This approach is fully
integrated with numerical methods and optimization tools from the ground up. For
the core material, network analysis of phased array antennas, problems are included
to guide the reader in understanding and implementing the techniques outlined in the
book, making it suitable for use as a textbook in a graduate level course on phased array
antennas.
The design of highly sensitive receiving systems requires leveraging modern simu-
lation methods. Key tools ubiquitously applied in the current design of phased arrays
are computational electromagnetic (CEM) simulation codes. The ability to rigorously
numerically simulate antenna performance is an important enabling technology for this
contemporary approach. Both basic numerical techniques and advanced, highly efficient
algorithms are surveyed in this book. Array design based on computer simulation is
embedded in much of the treatment, and Chapter 8 specifically discusses CEM as it
applies to numerically modeling phased arrays.
Regarding numerical simulation methods as used in the design of modern phased
array antenna systems, there are two parallel threads in the book. The first is the loss-
less, resonant, minimum scattering approximation, which allows antenna elements with
simple, analytically known radiation patterns to be combined into an array and modeled
with mutual coupling effects accounted for with a simple, easily written software code,
not requiring sophisticated or expensive software packages. This method represents a
natural next step beyond the classical array factor approximation.
The second thread is the use of full-wave, highly accurate and powerful CEM tools to
model the antenna array, as described in Chapter 8. CEM simulations can be combined
with the overlap integral and network theory formulation to embed the antenna array
model into a full system model. The full system model includes the antenna array, a
reflector in the case of a phased array feed, receiver electronics, and calibration, beam-
forming and imaging algorithms in the digital back end or analog beamforming network,
and allows the antenna array design and electronics to be optimized to maximize overall
system level figures of merit, such as sensitivity, scan range or field of view, bandwidth,
and survey efficiency in the case of an astronomical imaging receiver. Figures of merit
are dealt with in brief later in this chapter (Sec. 1.5) and in more detail in Chapter 6.
Beamforming is a fundamental function of receiving arrays, and Chapter 10 considers
this is detail. Since this implies spatial filtering capability, arrays have some capability
to reject or at least mitigate radio frequency interference (RFI). In applications where
the source power is fixed, and often very small due to extremely long distances (as
encountered in remote sensing and even more acutely in radio astronomy), RFI is an
ever-increasing problem. RFI mitigation is also addressed in this chapter.
Most contemporary radio astronomy telescopes comprise large, very sparse, arrays,
using interferometry to synthesize a very large aperture and produce high-resolution
images of the sky. Each element (or station in radio astronomy parlance) may be a dish,
or a beamformed array. Whilst for dishes, interferometry may be considered a mature
field, the same is not true for aperture arrays. In particular, the behaviour of the primary
beam (or the station beam) in the presence of mutual coupling means that this is a topic
4 Phased Arrays for High-sensitivity Receiver Applications

of current interest. Again, the availability of modern computer simulation tools plays an
important role in this, which we consider in Chapter 11.
A contemporary high-sensitivity receiving array requires attention not just to the
antenna elements and the front-end receivers, but also high-speed digital signal pro-
cessing. Some fields, such as radio astronomy, require very fine frequency channelisa-
tion; methods to do this are addressed in Chapter 12, along with a discussion of field
programmable gate array (FPGA) and graphics processing unit (GPU) hardware.
In this book, we sometimes use the term receiver to mean the antenna plus the front-
end receiving system; this usage is widely encountered in active antenna systems. Some
practitioners use the term receptor to denote this combination, but this term has also
been used in some radio astronomy projects to denote the complete antenna, receiver,
pedestal and control system.

1.2 Phased Arrays in Radio Astronomy

One of the most important motivating applications for advances in the techniques used
to model and design phased arrays, both historically and in recent years, has been the
field of radio astronomy. In this section, we cover the foundations of radio astronomical
observations and survey applications of arrays as astronomical receivers.

1.2.1 Basics of Radio Astronomy

Radio astronomy, the study of electromagnetic radiation at radio frequencies from cel-
estial objects, has a history of over 80 years, since Jansky’s 1931 discovery of radio
emission from the Milky Way. The discovery of radio emissions from celestial sources
was unexpected at the time. Optical astronomy mainly addresses the surfaces of stars,
or nearby gas ionized by stars, where the temperatures bring thermal radiation into the
visible spectrum. As such, little radiation was expected in the radio spectrum, if stars
were indeed the principal source of radiation. Jansky’s discovery, and pioneering work
by Grote Reber, of course changed this, but it was only in the 1950s and 1960s with
the discovery of the 21 cm hydrogen line, quasars, pulsars and the cosmic microwave
background, that this work was fully appreciated.

Astronomical sources
There are two absorption windows in the earth’s atmosphere, through which electro-
magnetic radiation can propagate with minimal absorption. These are clearly visible
in Fig. 1.1. The optical window is both well known and relatively narrow, with the
ultraviolet end blocked by firstly ozone and then oxygen and nitrogen absorption, and
the infrared end by water vapor and carbon dioxide absorption. The blockage at the
ultraviolet end is so complete that ultraviolet and X-ray work must be carried out above
the atmosphere. There are some windows in infrared wavelengths, permitting ground-
based observations from high, dry mountain sites, but generally infrared observations
must be done from air- or spaceborne platforms.
 1.2 Phased Arrays in Radio Astronomy 5

For radio, the window extends over some five decades, from approximately 15 MHz
(λ ≈ 20 m) to around 1.5 THz (λ ≈ 0.2 mm); however, above microwave frequen-
cies, the millimeter regime is characterized by several bands of poor transmittance.
At this higher frequency end, the cut-off occurs due to absorption by primarily water
vapour and O2 ; millimeter wave observatories (such as the Atacama Large Millime-
ter/submillimeter Array, ALMA) also require high, dry sites (for ALMA, the Atacama
desert). The lower frequency end is due to presence of free electrons in the Earth’s
ionosphere, and is given by the plasma (or critical) frequency

f p = 9 Ne (1.1)
with the plasma frequency f p in Hz and Ne the electron density in electrons/m3 . The
value of Ne varies between day and night time, depending on the electron density;
a typical value is around 1012 electrons per cubic meter, corresponding to a plasma
frequency of 9 MHz. It can be as low as around 4.5 MHz at night, and is typically
around 11 MHz in the day, but this depends both on location on Earth and on solar
activity. Radio astronomy below the plasma frequency must be done from space, as
below this frequency, the wave is totally reflected by the ionosphere.

Figure 1.1 A sketch of Earth’s atmospheric opacity at various wavelengths of electromagnetic

radiation, including visible light. Image credits: NASA, public domain.

Radio astronomical signals are very weak. Received signals are often 30–50 dB or
more below the system noise floor. The signals are noise-like, and can be narrowband
spectral lines or broadband. The polarization states of the radiated electromagnetic
fields vary from random to strongly polarized and are usually characterized by Stokes
parameters [5]. This contrasts with manmade transmissions such as those of communi-
cation and radar systems, which are fully polarized, coherent emissions, from carefully
modulated currents in the transmitting antenna, which are designed to use their allocated
radio spectrum as efficiently as possible, and generally carry appreciable signal power.
Astronomical signals in the radio band originate mainly in the incoherent emissions
from huge clouds of faintly emitting atoms, molecules, or energetic electrons whose
intensity is a collective effect arising from their large numbers. The radiated powers,
except in a few cases, are added incoherently. Astronomical signals in general are well
represented by stochastic or Gaussian noise [6].
As with optical astronomy, radio astronomical observations are generally either con-
tinuum (broadband) or spectral line (narrowband). From continuum observations, one
6 Phased Arrays for High-sensitivity Receiver Applications

obtains the general shape of the spectrum, characterized by the brightness (to be defined
shortly) versus frequency. Typical continuum non-thermal sources are bremsstrahlung
and synchrotron radiation. Bremsstrahlung, or free-free, radiation is broadband elec-
tromagnetic radiation produced by the acceleration of a free electron in the field of
an ion [7, p. 133]. Synchrotron radiation arises from electrons with large relativistic
energy accelerating through magnetic fields [7, p. 127]. In spectral line observations,
the radiation is detected in small frequency intervals, and the shapes of the spectral
lines determined. The neutral hydrogen (HI) emission line epitomizes a spectral line.
The HI line is due to the hyperfine transition in the ground state of the hydrogen atom;
a photon is emitted at 21 cm wavelength (1420.406 MHz) when the atom flips from the
parallel to antiparallel spin configurations of the proton and electron [7, p. 175].
Astronomical objects of interest may be either effectively point sources, or have
extended structure on the sky. An example of the former is a pulsar; an example of the
latter is a galaxy close to our own. When the resolution of the telescope is significantly
smaller than the source extent, the source is resolved; conversely, for very small sources,
they are unresolved.

Sky brightness and source flux density

Measuring the sky brightness, B, as a function of angle, is the basic aim of observations.
Sky brightness (also known as surface brightness, or simply brightness, and also often
conflated with intensity, which has the same units) is defined as infinitesimal power dW
per unit area per solid angle dΩ per unit frequency, with units Wm−2 Hz−1 rad−2 ; see
Fig. 1.2.
Brightness is a function of position and frequency. In astronomy, the position of ob-
jects is usually described using declination (δ) and right ascension (RA) (or equivalently
hour angle), the celestial equivalents of terrestrial latitude and longitude respectively.
Later, it will be seen that in radio interferometry, direction cosines provide an appro-
priate angular reference system, although the imaging software will usually provide the
images in the conventional RA–δ system.
The angular integral of the brightness distribution gives the source flux density:

S= B(θ, φ) dΩ (1.2)

The SI units are Wm−2 Hz−1 , but in recognition of the very low fluxes of typical celestial
sources, and honouring Karl Jansky’s contributions, the Jansky (Jy) is extensively used
nowadays. One Jy is 10−26 Wm−2 Hz−1 , and the flux densities of the most powerful cel-
estial radio sources are typically on the order of tens of Janskys. Brightness is sometimes
given in the radio astronomy literature as Jy/beam area or often Jy/beam.2
The source flux density is generally used for randomly polarized signals radiated by
wideband, continuum sources, and includes power in two orthogonal polarizations. In
electromagnetic modeling and antenna analysis, it is common to analyze systems with
2 One should be aware that this is not a proper spectral brightness as it depends on the synthesized beam
solid angle and not just on the radio source. For a more detailed discussion, including the definition of the
beam area, see [8, §10.6].
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