UNDERSTANDING
EMOTIONS
© Michael E. Baker, Ph.D., 2025
DEFINING EMOTIONS
For the next four weeks, we will be covering
the first pillar of Positive Psychology: Positive
Experiences. We will explore emotions,
happiness, meaning, purpose, and finally self-
esteem. This also relates to Seligman’s first
principle of happiness: The Pleasurable Life.
Emotions are an important aspect of positive
psychology, and understanding emotions will
be our first topic.
Emotions involve conscious experience,
physiological arousal, and expressive behaviors.
They usually focus on specific events or
situations, and they are likely to be strong but
short lived.
DEFINING EMOTIONS
Researchers focus on affectivity, which is defined as the extent to which an individual
experiences positive or negative emotions.
Emotions are shaped by experience, so the same event will bring about different
emotional responses due to differences in our history, culture, and background. These
differences are termed our affective style.
These differences tend to remain stable over time, and research has found resilient
individuals have less activity in areas of the brain the deal with worry.
BASIC EMOTIONS
Emotion researcher Paul Ekman, suggested there are six basic human emotions found
throughout the world. These include: anger, fear, disgust, sadness, joy, and surprise.
Why do we experience emotions? The evolutionary benefits of negative emotions
are clear. They suggest we hold on to behaviors that best promoted our ancestors’
survival in life-threatening situations: Fear makes us want to run, and anger makes us
want to retaliate against an aggressor.
Humans and animals have a tendency towards attending to negative rather than
positive stimuli. Although once useful, this attention can lead us to focus on what is
wrong rather than what is right with ourselves and the world around us.
BROADEN AND BUILD
Positive psychologist Barbara Fredrickson’s has repeatedly
tested the broadening effects of positive emotions. She
suggests when we experience one of the main positive
emotions, our minds tend to open up, or broaden, and we are
able to think more creatively.
This is important because when we broaden our thinking
patterns we tend to get a more complete view of our situation,
which can help us generate alternative solutions to the tasks at
hand. We also become more creative.
THE BUILDING EFFECT
Positive emotions not only broaden and open our minds to alternative strategies,
research has shown that the experience of positive emotions coupled with the
broadening effect has the ability to build personal resources.
These include intellectual resources like
problem solving skills, physical resources
like improved health, social resources like Transform people and produce
upward spiral
building relationships, and psychological
resources like resilience and optimism.
As these develop, they induce more
positive emotions that continue building Build enduring personal
resources
the resources in an upward spiral.
Broaden momentary thought
action repertoires
Experience positive emotions
THE UNDOING EFFECT
Fredrickson also developed the undoing effect which suggests positive emotion can
undo cardiovascular after-effects of negativity. Thus, when we feel anxiety, stress, or
any other negative emotions, experiencing positive emotions can help our bodies
return to normal physiological functioning faster than any other types of emotion.
POSITIVE EMOTIONS
Ten positive emotions are the most widely
researched and experienced in daily life:
1. Joy
2. Gratitude
3. Serenity
4. Interest
5. Hope
6. Pride
7. Amusement
8. Inspiration
9. Awe
10. Love
POSITIVE EMOTIONS
Other positive emotions include:
1. Elevation 9. Admiration
2. Altruism 10. Enthusiasm
3. Satisfaction 11. Eagerness
4. Relief 12. Euphoria
5. Affection 13. Contentment
6. Cheerfulness 14. Enjoyment
7. Surprise 15. Optimism
8. Confidence 16. Happiness
NEUROSCIENCE
Relatively speaking, psychology is a new science, and positive psychology is very new
in comparison to the other well-established schools of thought. One of the biggest
criticisms of psychology is that it relies too much on self-reports as a measure of
reality.
However, since the 1990s psychology has made great advances in accessing the brain
and its functioning. Today, psychologists can determine which parts of the brain are
being used, or which cells are firing, through the use of functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI).
The fMRI and the electroencephalogram allow psychologists and neuropsychologists
access to the brain in an attempt to understand cognitions, emotions, and behaviors.
NEUROSCIENCE
Two key areas in the brain involved in experiencing positive emotions appear to be
the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala. The PFC is central to emotions and
emotional regulation, and enables us to set goals and plan how to achieve those
goals.
Researchers have discovered a link between the anterior left-side PFC and positive
affect. Specifically, when we experience positive affect, this section of the brain is
activated, and it is inactive when we feel anxiety or depression. Therefore, our brain
is divided into two systems – the behavioral approach system, BAS (positive affect)
and the behavioral inhibition or avoidance system, BIS (negative affect).
These systems and emotions are directly linked to goal attainment. When we engage
in behavior that is bringing us towards a goal we will feel increased positive affect.
NEUROSCIENCE
Multiple theories exist as to what makes the brain develop a certain affective style,
including the impact of social influences. Scientists have found that rodents raised in a
nurturing environment have significant changes to the circuitry of their PFC and
amygdala (emotion and emotion regulation areas).
Evidence also suggests that changes in this area do not have to happen from birth.
Enriching environments later on in life can also have a significant impact on the
circuitry of the emotion and regulation areas of the brain.
DISCREPENCY THEORY
Charles Carver and Michael Scheier
researched goals and self-regulation and their
effects on emotional well-being. Their control
theory perspective is based on behavior and
self-regulation. When we set a goal, it
becomes our reference point. We then engage
in what is known as a discrepancy loop, trying
to minimize the distance between where we
are and where we want to be.
DISCREPENCY THEORY
Carver and Scheier suggest we often think and behave in relation to a goal. As we
move through our day, we are constantly assessing our current state in relation to our
goals. If there is discrepancy between where we are and where we want to be, our
reference value, we will adjust our behavior in hopes of getting closer to the reference
value.
Progress, rather than outcome, determines whether we experience positive or negative
emotions. Negative emotions come from inadequate progress towards a goal, while
positive emotions come from progress.
POSITIVE EMOTIONS AND OTHERS
When we feel positive emotions, we feel more
connected to other people. This has a
tremendous impact on personal relationships
with others. Not only do we see others as part
of our self-concept, but we are also more
likely to understand other people’s
complexities and perspectives, which in turn
will enhance the relational bond.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Researchers define emotional intelligence (EI)
as the ability to understand our own and other
people emotions and feelings, and to use this
information to guide thinking and behavior.
Currently, there are two groups of models of
emotional intelligence, the ability models and
mixed models.
ABILITY MODELS
According to this model, EI is a set of mental skills that include four stages:
• Perceiving Emotions
• Using Emotions
• Understanding Emotions
• Managing Emotions
ABILITY MODELS
Perceiving Emotions
This is the ability to recognize emotions either in yourself or in others. Questions to ask
yourself include: How do you feel? How do others feel? By recognizing these subtle
emotional cues, individuals are better equipped to deal with social circumstances.
Using Emotions
This is is the ability to use emotions to facilitate your mood. Questions to help develop
this include: How does your mood influence thinking? How is it affecting your decision-
making?
ABILITY MODELS
Understanding Emotions
This is the ability to understand that emotions are highly complex, and people may
feel multiple emotions at the same time. You can ask yourself: Why are you feeling
this? What do these emotions mean? What has caused that for you? Where is that
going to go?
Managing Emotions
Finally, the ability to manage, or self-regulate, your emotions. to develop this area,
ask yourself: What can you do about it? How can these emotions be regulated?
MIXED MODELS
EI has defined as the ability to adaptively perceive, understand, regulate, and harness
emotions in the self and others. Therefore, mixed models view EI as a combination of
perceived emotional skills and personality. According to this theory, there are five
main areas including:
• Managing emotions, where one engages in reframing anxiety and attempting to
dismiss feelings of distress.
• Using emotion for self-motivation, where one becomes proficient in delaying
gratification for future success.
• Recognizing emotions in others, where one has the ability to exhibit empathy, which
is important for social relationships.
• Managing emotions in others, where one is able to help others with their distress or
encourage motivation.
• Emotional self-awareness, where one is able to understand and identify one’s own
emotions.
ATTENUATION
People who experience positive emotions and have resilient tendencies are still able to
feel sadness and anxiety, like anyone else. However, that they are able to draw on
resources to help them recover much more quickly than those who do not experience
positive emotions.
Positive attenuation (recovery) is essential in protecting against depressive symptoms.
Resilient individuals have the ability to maintain and regulate positive emotions. People
who are generally happy or unhappy react to emotions in same way. However, it
appears that there is a difference in the ability to regulate emotions rather than in the
ability to react in the first place.
PERSONALITY
Personality can be defined as distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. Most psychologists use the Big Five traits perspective to
understand personality, and research shows a strong correlation between positive
affect and extroversion.
Secure versus insecure attachment has also been associated with higher levels of
positive affect in romantic relationships. Neuroticism, on the other hand, is consistently
linked to lower levels of well-being.
Other links to personality traits and enhanced well-being include optimism,
assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-esteem. However, despite the interesting
links, positive psychology has yet to show a clear-cut causal relation between
personality and positive life outcomes.
VIDEOS
Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson
[Link]
The Positive Effects of Positive Emotions
[Link]
STUDY GUIDE
1. Seligman
2. Pillars of positive psychology
3. Definition of emotion
4. Broaden and build
5. Undoing effect
6. Regions of the brain involved in positive emotion
7. Discrepancy loop
8. Emotional intelligence
9. Big Five
