anthropology class 89 note

anthropology next ias classes, anthropology

[[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]],

aryan invasion
theories for decline of the indus valley civilization
aryan invasion theory
tectonic disturbance theory
climate change theory
anthropogenic climate change theory (alternative view)
decline in trade theory
conclusion
chalcolithic cultures
kayatha culture
ahar culture
malwa culture
early history culture
sunga kushan gupta age
megaliths
megalithic culture
india
features of megalithic cultures -
tool technology
social organization
history of the megalithic trade in india
megalithism is a living tradition
megalithism in central and south indian tribes
megalithic tradition in northeast
nagas

anthropology spreadsheet resource compilation

anthropology notes channel

 tk anthro channel

reader's paradise library

14-10-2023-Sa, 15:28, class start battery level - 15:28 = 96%

aryan invasion
aryan आर्य, Aryan culture, aryan invasion, indo aryan languages, nordic aryans, indo european, thoughts - indo
european conquests and morality

vasant shide's argument

professor martin ?
david reich

theories for decline of the indus valley civilization

aryan invasion theory
 proposed by ram prasad chanda, supported by montimer wheeler, wheeler argued that references in rigveda to
various kinds of fort attacks on walled cities, the epithet purandar (fort destroyer) given to god indra must have
a historical basis and reflects an aryan invasion on harappan cities.
indra is the same as thor in norse mythology
aryan आर्य, Aryan culture, aryan invasion
he identified hariyupia is the same as harappa.
wheeler also pointed to skeletal remains found at mohejodaro as the proof of aryan massacre.
this theory was criticized p.v. kane, geroge dales, b.b. lal, etc on the grounds -
the evidence from rigveda is far from conclusive
the skeletal remains found at mohejodaro do not belong to the same cultural phase and are not connected
to a single event
there is no evidence of any kind of military assault at any harappan site
wheeler later on modified his hypothesis and acknowledged other factors such as floods, decline in trade and
overutilization of natural resources

tectonic disturbance theory

it was supported by m.r. sahni robert raikes, george dales, etc
these scholars argued that mohejodaro gives evidence of repeated episodes of flooding due to the tectonic
movements, as evidenced from several layers of silt.
the tectonic movements might have led to the creation of a gigantic natural dam turning mohejodaro into a
huge lake
mohejodaro was affected by floods while other harappan sites in ghagga hakara valley were affected by
dryness due to the river capture resulting from the tectonic movements
so either yamuna river was captured by the ganga, or sutlej by the indus
#wo_de 16-10-2023-Mo, 05:36 = are the words yamuna and yamnaya culture related ?
the dryness hypothesis was supported by m.r. mughal's study of many harappan sites

such a complex, technologically advanced civilization which was spread in such a vast area could not have
declined just because of the tectonic forces
first civilization from the assassins creed game
toba catastrophe theory

climate change theory

gurdeep singh suggest a connection between the onset of a drier climate and decline of harappan civilization
he studied rajasthan lakes (pollen remains, palynology) and suggested that climate change must have a
connection for the decline of the indus valley civilization
limitations of this theory -
the study of the lunkaran sar (spelling ?) lake indicates that the onset of drier conditions in this area may
have happened well before the emergence of the harappan civilization

anthropogenic climate change theory (alternative view)

environmental change may be connected to overexploitation of the natural resources - overgrazing,
overcultivation, excessive deforestation might have resulted in decrease in the soil fertility, floods and increase
in soil salinity
decline in trade theory
shirin ratnagar argued decline in lapis lazuli trade with mesopotamia was the cause for the decline of the
harappan civilization
criticism - the prime importance of lapis lazuli trade is debatable

conclusion
the archaeological evidences doesn't give direct access to the possible social and political dimensions of the
decline of the harappan civilization but these evidences indicate very clearly that harappan culture underwent a
gradual process of deurbanization i.e. mature harappan phase was followed by late harappan phase.

chalcolithic cultures
copper age
the chalcolithic cultures in india spread over malwa, banas basin of rajasthan and maharashtra in "prakash",
parwara valley. the excavations from these regions reveal a five fold sequence of cultures -

kayatha culture
named after kapitthaka
birthplace of varaha (astronomer and astrologer)
geography
kayatha culture is spread over the malwa region of madhya pradesh
it's watered by the tributaries of the chambal river
time period -
2450 - 2000 bc
characteristics features -
use of both copper and stone tools was found
copper axis moulds were found
stone tools
a specialized blade industry made up of chalcedony had been discovered
ornaments
two bead necklaces have been found
beads were made up of semi precious stones
pottery
chocolate slipped ware is aka known as kayatha ware
types of pottery
bowls
high and short necked storage jars with globular profile and basins were found
it's similar to pre harappan sites
economy and subsistence
the economy was mixed - subsistence farming, livestock raising and hunting and fishing
crops
wheat and barley
domesticated
dogs, sheep and goat
 horse remains have also been found from chalcolithic level at kayatha
habitation and housing
people lived in small huts with well rammed flow and wattle and daub holes suppporting a thatched
roof
no antecedent stage of this culture is found in the malwa region that is why acc to dhavalikar, the
kayatha culture was the earliest chalcolithic culture [[in malwa region]]
reasons for decline
the sudden end of this culture is ascribed to an earthquake
the presence of a sterile layer ??
and succedding ahar culture points to a hiatus between the two.

ahar culture
aka banas culture
the term banas culture is from banas river valley along which most of the sites of this culture are located
the term ahar is derived from the site ahar in udaipur district rajasthan, excavated by h.d. sankalia
geographical distribution
ahar culture is located in the mewar region south eastern plateau region of rajasthan
this region is rich in mineral deposits i.e. why archaeologists postulate that this region supplied copper to
harappan sites
main archaeological sites of ahar -
ahar
balathal
gilund
bagore
time period -
radiocarbon dating suggest 2025 - 1270 bc
features -
balathal
it's located in udaipur on the west bank of katara nadi
excavated by b.n. mishra
mishra had divided the balathal chronology into four phases -
early ahar
it has so far been noticed only at balathal
it's placed at the end of 4th millennium b.c.
main characteristics -
tools
stone tools were mainly found
beads of steatite and terracotta
pottery
includes black and redware which was fired using inverted firing technique
pottery was sturdy
economy
mixed economy
transitional phase
this is identified at balathal and did not had a long time span
mature ahar phase
 at balathal
settlements
large number of settlements were witnessed in mature phase with many satellite sites.
at balathal there was a fortified enclosure located centrally and surrounded by
residential complexes
the houses were made up of stone mud and mud brick
the houses had huts, storage pits, saddle querns (chakki in hindi) and small storage
jars
pottery
black, red wares
red and gray wares
pottery making technology was refined - invention of fast wheel
the pottery have many types of decorations
the ceramics were produced in en masse
industrial activity
mass production of ceramic, metal works and beads is evidenced from balathal
copper quarry
sankalia and his team discovered several copper quarrying sites at ahar / balathal
region - possibly supplied copper to harappans
subsistence
mixed economy
crops
barley, wheat, millets like bajra and johar
evidence of rice as well from ahar
domesticated animals
cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, pig, fowl
hunted animals
sambhar, neel gai, chital, black buck and wild boar
social organization
there was a presence of a specialized classes of craftsmen
some scholars suggest that the ahar society was a chiefdom society - evidenced from
fortifications
the evidence of fortification also suggest that there may have been internecine
conflicts
symbolic features
bull figurines appeared in large numbers from the mature ahar phase may have some
ideological meaning
late ahar phase
the ahar culture declined
it may be associated with the inhospitable climate experienced during the end of the
second millennium b.c. which might have led to termination of farming in south eastern
rajasthan

malwa culture
it's is the most predominant chalcolithic culture of central india with a wide distribution almost all over the
malwa region
it was first identified at maheshwar on narmada river.
maheshwar is same as maheshwati of purana
other sites
navdatoli
nagda
eran, etc
geography
malwa region lie east of banas valley
2 great river systems, i.e. chambal and narmada traverse this region
time period
1900 - 1400 bc
findings at navdatoli
housing / settlements
round and rectangular houses along with pit dwelling in the earlier phases
the huts were found in cluster of two to 3 or four
the floor was rammed hard
a circualar structure in one of the houses was possibly a storage bin
an extensive burnt floor has also been found - possibly used for threshing
there were a number of post holes found near the settlement
material pottery
pottery of malwa was buff or cream slipped where with painted patterns of dark brown color
pottery was coarse
tools
blade tools
copper artifacts
beads of semi precious stones were found
religious beliefs
they are reconstructed from fragmentary evidences - terracotta female figurines, male figurines,
terracotta bull, fire altars, etc
subsistence
the subsistence practice and diet can be reconstructed from the remains of the carbonised grains of
wheat, barley, jowar, rice, legumes, oil seeds, etc
relationship of malwa culture to jorwe culture
malwa culture spread into maharashtra by 1700 bc and some of the malwa sites such as daimabad and
inamgao shows at inamgao 20 houses of malwa period have been identified - they were large rectangular
structures
similarly at daimabad there were several houses of malwa period
decline of malwa period
the malwa culture declined around 1400 bc
dhawelikar suggests climatic deterioration for the end of these cultures
jorwe culture is named after jorwe in ahmadnagar district of maharashtra
it's the characteristics chalcolithic culture of maharashtra (in booklet ahmad nagar is given in gujarat, that
is wrong)
main sites of jorwe culture include
prakash in tapi valley,
daimabad in parvara godavari valley
 inamgaon in bhima valley
features -
housing
dhawelikar excavated 130 houses belonging to early and late jorwe phase
the early jorwe houses were rectangular in plane while the late jorwe ones were circular
dhawelikar ascribes the change in the house plan to deteriorating economic conditions resulting
from the dry climate.

early phase late phase

1. sedentary living --> rectangular housing 1. nomadic and semi nomadic --> circular housing
2. subsistence - agriculture 2. livestock + hunter and gathering
3. crops - jowar, rice, peas, lentils, green and black gram 3.
4. tools - stone blade and flake industry found at inamgao 4.
5. pottery - considerable progress in pottery making is seen 5.

painted pottery which was wheel made and well fired was the characteristics of the jorwe
metal technology was rudimentary whereas lime making was a flourishing industry
political organization -
dhawilkar posited that jorwe culture has a chiefdom society
a unique features of the jorwe culture was the disposal of the dead
a substantial number of burials in inamgaon and daimabad had been studied
many child burials were found in urns laid in pits
in one case of adult burial the portion below the ankles was chopped off
an adult skeleton was buried in four legged urn
decline
climate change

early history culture

? sir forgot ?

sunga kushan gupta age

? sir forgot ?

megaliths
huge stones
monolithic
menhir -
polylithic
cairn
cist
dolmen
megalithic culture
megalithic culture refers to the way of life of the people who erected huge memorial stones or megaliths for
the dead
the term megalithic is derived from the greek word - "megas" = huge and "lithos" = stone
they are the structure built off large or roughly dressed stones erected normally in the memory of the dead and
occur generally above the ground
the beginning of the megalithic culture is traced from neolithic culture and the megalithic cultures continued
through chalcolithic age historical period.
in recent times, this practice is found among many central and northeast indian tribes.
types of megaliths
monolithic type
ex - menhir, cairn, cyst and dolmen
polylithic type
menhir
monolithic stone megalithic standing vertically
the size and shape of menhir may vary
menhirs are widely distributed across europe, africa, asia but most common found in western europe
(great britain and ireland)
polylithic -
cairns
human-made pile of stones often in conical form
the cairns are found on the uplands, on the mountaintops, waterways
cist
was used as an encasement for the dead bodies
it consists of the slabs of stones arranged around the dead
in some cases, cist include ornaments - indicative of wealth of the dead
dolmen
consists of 3 or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone thereby making it a
chambertomb

important sites in india

acc to r.k. mohanti and selva kumar, around 2200 megalithic sites can be found in peninsular india itself
megalithic tradition is a living tradition as it's practised by many indian tribes such as gonds, kurumbas,
mundas, khasis, nagas, etc
sites
brahmagiri
maski
sangankallu (spelling ?)
takal kota (spelling ?) in karnataka
piyampalli in tamil nadu
nagarjunkonda in andhra pradesh
naikund
juna pani, maharashtra
almoda uttarakhand
gufcral, burzahom in kashmir
 balochistan in pakistan

features of megalithic cultures -

subsistence
mixed economy ( agriculture + pastoralism + hunting and gathering)
megaliths were mainly constructed on barren land so that they could not damage the agriculture activity
acc to ravi korisetter, the megalithic culture had a surplus economy
acc to mukund kajale, rabi and kharif crops such as rice, wheat, lentils, black gram, horse gram, pea, etc were
grown

tool technology
the megalithic culture is sometimes described as iron culture of south india because south indian
megalithic people were the first to use iron in india
dravid pride
pottery
representative ceramic was black and red ware (contemporary of painted gray ware of gangetic valley)
the pottery was made by wheel
settlement pattern
the habitation sites were rarely found in association with megaliths except at maski, tekalghat and
piyampalli

social organization
the megalithic society was composed of various groups which besides hunters and agriculturists included
specialized groups of artisans and craftsman such as potters, ironsmiths, goldsmiths, etc
the society was ranked and patriarchical
acc to u.s. murthy, south indians probably had a ranked society dominated by a chief, religious beliefs and
burial rituals
the funerary goods placed systematically along with the dead bodies are indicative of people's faith and a
belief in life after death
the megalithic goods included ceramics, iron and copper artifacts, beads, gold and silver ornaments, terracotta
objects, etc

history of the megalithic trade in india

whether this trait is indigenous or foreign there are no satisfactory answers
early diffusionists proposed that megalithic trade originated in europe during neolithic period and spread /
diffused to india
various scholars provide different timelines for the megalithic cultures, majority of them proposed iron age
1500bc - 500 bc
montimer wheeler says - 2nd bc
haimnendorf - 700 - 400 bc
shashadri - 600th - 100st bc
latest research hints that megalithic tradition in india was an independent tradition

megalithism is a living tradition

 the custom of erecting megalithic is still found among the tribals living in northeastern, eastern, central and
south india

megalithism in central and south indian tribes

megalithism is practiced by gadabas, gonds, kurumbas, marias, mundas, savaras
gonds, kurumbas, marias, savaras plant menhir and sometimes wooden pillars
some of the wooden pillars are curved with a rounded projection at the top to represent human head.
the stone menhirs and wooden posts represents their gods and the spirit of the dead
gonds believe that the spirit of the dead reside in the stone (pagan)
they erect pillars for 3 reasons -
spirit of the dead do not wander after the death
they must not harm the descendants
they must help by bringing rain and driving away harmful spirits
mariyas worship the stone pillar, they sacrifice buffalo, offer rice, apply turmeric and oil on them.
sabarras sacrific animals and present seeds before the pillars to promote fertility of the seeds
kurumbas approach the megaliths of their ancestors to help them tide over the difficulties.
mottur in tamil nadu - a headless anthropomorphic statue has been documented, the local people call the
megalith valiyarwadu (house) and the statue valiyardevam (god)
acc to the valiyar tradition, valiyars were pygmies of 10 - 15 come in stature who used to plow their fields
with the where help of rabbits. on one occasion, they came to know that there be a rain of fire and if they
remain here itself, they will be perished. to escape death, they decided to leave and requested their god to
accompany them. wthen their god refused, they cut off his head and took it with them. that is why the
statue is headless.

megalithic tradition in northeast

the northeastern tribes such as khasis, garos, nagas, karbi, tiwas and marams erect megaliths in honor of the
dead.
some of the northeastern tribes erect a forged wooden curved post of y-shape in front of their houses in
memory of the dead. such structures are consistent with the structures found in indonesia and oceania
the reason for erection of such a y-shaped post --> protection of life from dangers, fertility of the farm and
family and for escaping the god's punishment.

nagas
they erect the megaliths and megaliths among the nagas is related to their social status
haimendor was of the opinion that the ritual associated with megaliths of northeast india are to gain prestige
for the living and to establish links with the soul of the dead
he suggested a unity of the megalithic compl march in the nagaland and in the khasi hills uo to southern
sumatra