NEEV Diamond (2025)

(BOC)
BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

COVALENT BOND & PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds: The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils, dyes, proteins vitamins etc., which
were isolated directly or indirectly from living organisms such as animals and plants were called
organic compounds. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of these compounds is called
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity. The boiling and melting points of the
carbon compounds are low. Forces of attraction between these molecules of organic compounds are not
very strong. As these compound are largely non conductors of electricity hence the bonding in these
compound does not give rise to any ions.

The reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell, that is,
attain noble gas configuration. Element forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing
electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and
needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons-
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C4 anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold onto ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.

(ii) it could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding onto
just two electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements. The shared electrons belong to the outer shell of both the atoms and lead
to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.

Types of carbon and hydrogen atoms: There are four types of carbon atoms:
(i) A primary (1°) carbon atom is bonded to one carbon atom or no carbon atom.
(ii) A secondary (2°) carbon atom is bonded to two other carbon atoms.
(iii) A tertiary (3°) carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms.
(iv) A quaternary (4°) carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms.
The 1°, 2°, 3° and 4° carbon and 1°, 2° and 3° hydrogen atoms are illustrated below:
e.g.

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(a) Some Simple Molecules Formed by the Sharing of Valence Electrons are as Follows:
(i) Hydrogen molecule: This is the simplest molecule formed by sharing of electrons. The atomic
number of hydrogen is 1 and it has only one electron in its outermost K shell. It requires only one
more electron to complete the K shell. So, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other, the
single electron of both the atoms form a shared pair.
This may be represented as:

According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the valence shell are represented by dots and crosses.
This method was proposed by G.N. Lewis and is known as Lewis representation or Lewis structure.
The shared pair of electron (shown x/o) is said to constitute a single bond between the two
hydrogen atoms and is represented by a line between the two atoms. Pictorially, the molecule can
be represented by drawing two overlapping circles around the symbols of the atoms and showing
the shared pair of electrons in the overlapping part.

(ii) Chlorine molecule: Each chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell. When the two
chlorine atoms come close together, an electron of both the atoms is shared between them.

(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule: It may be noted that a covalent bond is not only formed between
two similar atoms, but it may be formed between dissimilar atoms also. For example, hydrogen and
chlorine form a covalent bond between their atoms. In HCl, hydrogen atom (1) has only one
electron in its valence shell and chlorine atom (2,8,7) has seven electrons in its valence shell.
Therefore, by mutual sharing of electron pair between a hydrogen and a chlorine atom, both the
atoms acquire nearest noble gas configuration.

(b) Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds:

Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the formation of a covalent bond. This shared pair is
also called bonding pair of electron.
• If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known as single covalent bond and is represented by
one dash (-).
• If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known as double covalent bond and is represented by
two dashes (=).
• If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known as triple covalent bond and is represented by
three dashes ().

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(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule): Two oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen
molecule by sharing two electron pairs. Each oxygen atom (2,6) has six electrons in the valence
shell. It requires two electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration. Therefore, both the atoms
contribute two electrons each for sharing to form oxygen molecule. In the molecule, two electron
pairs are shared and hence there is a double bond between the oxygen atoms.

(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule): Nitrogen atom has five electrons in its valence
shell. In the formation of a nitrogen molecule, each of the nitrogen atoms provide three electrons to
form three electron pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed between two nitrogen atoms.

(c) Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds:

The important characteristic properties of covalent compounds are:
(i) Covalent compounds consist of molecules: The covalent compounds consist of molecules. They
do not have ions. For example - water, hydrogen chloride, methane consist of H2O, HCl, CH4
molecules respectively.
(ii) Physical state: Weak Vanderwaal's forces are present between the molecules of covalent compounds.
So, covalent compounds are in solid, gaseous or liquid state at normal temperature and pressure.
For example: Hydrogen chloride , methane are gases while carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol,
ether etc. are liquids. Glucose, sugar, urea etc. are some solid covalent compounds.
(iii) Crystal structure - Covalent compounds exhibit both crystalline and non crystalline structure.
(iv) Melting point and boiling point: Energy required to break the crystal is less due to the presence of
weak Vanderwaal's force, so their melting and boiling points are less.
(v) Electrical conductivity - Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity due to the absence
of free electrons or free ions.
(vi) Solubility: Due to the non - polar nature of covalent compounds they are soluble in non - polar
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride etc. and insoluble in polar solvents like water etc.

Solved Examples
Example : "Carbon tetra chloride is not a good conductor of electricity". Give reason to justify this
statement.
Solution : CCl4 is a covalent compound and covalent compounds do not contain any ions. It does not
conduct electricity.

Example : Sulphur dioxide is SO2. If oxygen atom form two covalent bonds, how many bonds does
sulphur form in sulphur dioxide.
Solution : Four.

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VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

About 3 million organic compounds are known today. The main reasons for this huge number of
organic compounds are -
(i) Catenation: The property of self linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long
straight or branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows
maximum catenation in the periodic table due to its small size, electronic configuration and unique
strength of carbon-carbon bonds.
(ii) Tetravalency of carbon: Carbon belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Since the atomic
number of carbon is 6, the electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2,4. It has four electrons in the
outermost shell.
Therefore, its valency is four. Thus, carbon forms four covalent bonds in its compounds. A methane
molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atoms as
shown below.

(iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds: Due to small size of carbon it has a strong tendency to form
multiple bonds (double & triple bonds) by sharing more than one electron pair. As a result, it can
form a variety of compounds. For example -

(iv) Electronegativity and strength of bonds: The electronegativity of carbon (2.5) is close to a
number of other elements like H (2.1) , N(3.0) , P (2.1), Cl (3.0) and O (3.5). So carbon forms
strong covalent bonds with these elements.
(v) Isomerism: It is a phenomenon by the virtue of which two compounds have same molecular
formula but different physical and chemical properties.

VITAL FORCE THEORY OR BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS

Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the laboratory because they require the presence of a
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only in living organisms.

WOHLER’S SYNTHESIS
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea (a well known organic compound) in the laboratory by
heating ammonium cyanate.

(NH 4 )2 SO4  2KCNO 

 2NH 4CNO K 2SO4
Ammonium Potassium Ammonium Potassium
sulphate cyanate cyanate sulphate

Mind it: Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory.

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MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic compounds may be defined as hydrocarbons and their derivatives and the branch of chemistry
which deals with the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives is called ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Organic chemistry is treated as a separate branch because of following reasons-
(i) Organic compounds are large in number.
(ii) Organic compounds generally contain covalent bond.
(iii) Organic compounds are soluble in non polar solvents.
(iv) Organic compounds have low melting and boiling points.
(v) Organic compounds show isomerism .
(vi) Organic compounds exhibit homology.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The organic compounds are very large in number on account of the self -linking property of carbon
called catenation. These compounds have been further classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.

(a) Open Chain Compounds:

These compounds contain an open chain of carbon atoms which may be either straight chain or
branched chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be saturated or unsaturated based upon the
nature of bonding in the carbon atoms. For example.

n-Butane is a straight chain alkane while 2-Methylpropane is branched alkane.

(b) Closed Chain or Cyclic Compounds:

A part from the open chains, the organic compounds can have cyclic or ring structures. A minimum of
three atoms are needed to form a ring. These compounds have been further classified into following types.
(i) Alicyclic compounds: Those carbocyclic compounds which resemble to aliphatic compounds in
their properties are called alicyclic compounds .

e.g.

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(ii) Aromatic compounds: Organic compounds which contain one or more fused or isolated benzene
rings are called aromatic compounds.

e.g.

Mind it: Benzene is the parent compound of majority of aromatic organic compounds.

Complete, Condensed and Bond-line Structural Formulas

Structures of organic compounds are represented in several ways.
(i)The Lewis structure or dot structure
(ii) Condensed structure
(iii) Bond line structural formulas
(i) The Lewis structure or dot structure: can be simplified by representing the two-electron covalent
bond by a dash (–). Such a structural formula focuses on the electrons involved in bond formation.
Single dash represents a single bond, double dash is used for double bond and a triple dash
represents triple bond. Lone pairs of electrons on heteroatoms (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
halogens etc.) may or may not be shown.

(ii) Condensed structure: structural formulas can be further abbreviated by omitting some or all of the
dashes representing covalent bonds and by indicating the number of identical groups attached to an
atom by a subscript. The resulting expression of the compound is called a condensed structural
formula. Thus, ethane, ethene, ethyne and methanol can be written as:

Similarly, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 can be further condensed to CH3(CH2)6CH3.

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(iii) Bond line structural formulas: another way of representing the structures, in which only lines are
used. In this bond-line structural representation of organic compounds, carbon and hydrogen atoms
are not shown and the lines representing carbon-carbon bonds are drawn in a zig-zag fashion. The
only atoms specifically written are oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen etc. The terminals denote methyl (–
CH3) groups (unless indicated otherwise by a functional group), while the line junctions denote
carbon atoms bonded to appropriate number of hydrogens required to satisfy the valency of the
carbon atoms. Some of the examples are represented as follows:

(i) 3-Methyloctane (ii) 2-bromobutane

Solved Examples

Example : What are the two properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon compound, we
see around us?
Solution : Two main reasons why carbon forms a huge number of carbon compounds are
(i) catenation (ii) tetravalency of carbon

Example : Catenation is the ability of an atom to form bonds with other atoms of the same element.
Solution : Carbon exhibits catenation property much more than silicon or any other element due to its
smaller size which makes the C–C bonds strong while the Si–Si bond are comparatively weaker
due to its large size.

ALLOTROPES
Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exists in more than one form and each form has
different physical properties but identical chemical properties. These different forms are called allotropes.
Carbon exists in two different allotropic forms:
(i) Crystalline form.
Examples: diamond, graphite and fullerene.
(ii) Non - crystalline or Amorphous form.
Examples: coal, lampblack and charcoal.
Various allotropic forms of carbon are

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There are three crystalline allotropes of carbon. These are diamond, graphite and fullerene. Diamond
and graphite are familiar allotropes of carbon but fullerene is a recently (1985) discovered allotrope of
carbon. Each one of diamond, graphite and fullerene is composed of carbon atoms. But the C atoms are
arranged in different ways in each allotrope of carbon. Therefore, the three allotropes of carbon have
different crystal structures.

(a) Diamond:
Diamond is a beautiful crystalline allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol is C. The name ‘diamond’ has
been taken from Greek words diaphanes (which means transparent) and adamas (which means
indomitable or invincible) with reference to its extreme hardness.
(i) Structure of Diamond:
In a crystal of diamond, each carbon atom is bonded very strongly to four other carbon atoms in
tetrahedron manner. The valency of each carbon atom is completely satisfied in diamond and there
is no free electron. This arrangement of C-atoms makes diamond very hard, unreactive and bad
conductor of electricity. The given figure depicts a portion of the diamond crystal. Smaller circles
are representing C-atoms.

Figure: A portion of diamond structure

(ii) Properties of Diamond:

(A) Diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.
(B) Suitably cut and polished diamond sparkles brightly because it reflects most of the light
(Refractive index of diamond is 2.45).
(C) The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm3 at 20°C.
(D) Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. Only a diamond can cut another diamond.
(E) It is a bad conductor of electricity.
(F) Diamonds are not attacked by acids, alkalis and solvents like water, ether, benzene or carbon
tetrachloride. But diamond is attacked by fluorine when heated to 750°C. The reaction results
in the formation of carbon tetrafluoride.
0
750 C
C (diamond) + 2F2   CF4

Carbon Fluorine Carbon tetrafluoride

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(iii) Uses of Diamond:

(A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect and refract light.
(B) Diamonds are used in cutting glass and drilling rocks.
(C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to this reason, it is used for
making high precision thermometers.
(D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations and due to this reason it is used for
making protective windows for space probes.
(E) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten wires of diameter less than
one-sixth of the diameter of human hair have been drawn using diamond dies.
(F) Surgeons use diamond knives for performing delicate operations.

(b) Graphite:
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon. Its atomic symbol is C. The name ‘graphite’ has been taken from the
Greek word “graphein” (which means to write) in reference to its use as ‘lead’ in pencils.

(i) Structure of Graphite:

In a crystal of graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal patterns in parallel planes. In a
layer of graphite, each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
Thus, one valence electron of each carbon atom is free in every layer of graphite crystal. The free
electron makes graphite a good conductor of electricity. Any two adjacent layers in graphite are
bonded by comparatively weak forces (shown by dotted lines) which makes graphite soft and
slippery. Fig. shows a portion of graphite crystal.

Figure: A portion of graphite crystal

(ii) Properties of Graphite
Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. It is soft and has a soapy touch. It leaves marks on paper.
Graphite is not attacked by acid, alkali, water or alcohol. It has shine like metals (but graphite is a
nonmetal). Graphite melts at a very high temperature of 3730°C. The density of graphite is 2.26 g
per cm3 at 20°C. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
(iii) Uses of graphite:
(A) It is used for making pencil lead, printer’s ink, black paint etc.
(B) It is used as dry lubricant for heavy machinery.
(C) It is used in making crucibles for melting substances.
(D) It is used as an electrode in batteries and electric furnaces.
(E) It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator to regulate nuclear reactions.
(F) It is also used in making artificial diamonds.

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COMPARISON OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

(c) Fullerene:
Fullerenes represent the recently prepared allotropic form of carbon. These were formed for the first time by
H.W. Kroto, Smalley and Robert Curt by the action of laser beam on a sample of graphite in the vapour
state. They were awarded Noble prize for the same in 1996. Later on, these were prepared by heating
graphite by striking an electric arc in the presence of inert gas such as helium or argon. Fullerenes have also
been found to be present in the chimney where soot gets deposited and in candle flame.
Chemically, fullerenes are formed by the combination of a large number of carbon atoms (Cn). Most
commonly known fullerene contains sixty carbon atoms (C60) with smaller proportion of C70 allotrope
and traces of compounds containing even upto 370 carbon atoms. C60 and C70 fullerenes have been
isolated from the soot by extracting with toluene in which they dissolve to form purple and orange-red
coloured compounds. From the extract, the individual fullerenes can be isolated with the help of
adsorption chromatography carried on the surface of alumina (Al2O3).
Out of the different fullerenes that are known, only the structure of C60 has been established. This is
often called Buckminster Fullerene after the architect Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the Geodesic
dome, which resembles the molecular structure of C60. Its shape resembles that of a soccer ball with six
membered as well as five membered rings as shown in the figure. There are twelve five membered and
twenty six membered rings. These are often called Bucky Balls. Fullerenes represent the purest
allotropic form of carbon since they do not have any free valencies or surface bonds to attract other
atoms. However, such free valencies are present on the surface of diamond and graphite and these are
therefore, not as pure as fullerenes.

Shape of C60 fullerene

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(i) Formula of fullerene

The formula of popular form of fullerene is C60· That is, a molecule of fullerene is composed of 60
carbon atoms.

(ii) Uses of Fullerene

(A) Fullerenes in pure state act as insulators but can be converted to semiconductors and super
conductors under suitable conditions.
(B) Buckyball’s ability of fullerenes to trap different atoms or molecules makes them useful in the
medical field. For example, radioactive C60 can be used in cancer as well as AIDS therapy.
(C) Fullerenes help in improving antiwear and antifriction properties of lubricating oils.

COMPARISON OF GRAPHITE AND FULLERENE

Solved Examples

Example : In what respect does graphite resemble a metal?

Solution : Like metals graphite is a good conductor of electricity, because of the presence of free
electrons.

Example : Name the hardest natural substance.

Solution : Diamond

Example : What is allotropy?

Solution : Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exist in more than one form and each
form has different physical properties but identical chemical properties. These different forms
are called allo tropes.

Example : Which of the following substances are crystalline allotrope of carbon?

(i) Diamond (ii) Charcoal (iii) Graphite (iv) Lamp black
(v) Coal (vi) Fullerene
(A) (i) to (vi) all (B) (i), (ii) & (iv) (C) (i), (iii) & (vi) (D) (iv), (ii), (v)
Solution : (C) Crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond graphite and fullerene.

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HYDROCARBON & HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. These are the
simplest organic compounds and are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other compounds are
considered to be derived from them by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms
or groups of atoms. The major source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.
Types of Hydrocarbons:
The hydrocarbons can be classified as:
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons:
(A) Alkanes: Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only carbon - carbon and carbon -
hydrogen single covalent bonds.
General formula- CnH2n+2 (n is the number of carbon atoms)
e.g. CH4 (Methane)
C2H6 (Ethane)
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
(A) Alkenes: These are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain carbon - carbon double bond.
They contain two hydrogen less than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula - CnH2n
e.g. C2H4 (Ethene)
C3H6 (Propene)
(B) Alkynes: They are also unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain carbon-carbon triple bond.
They contain four hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula - CnH2n–2
e.g. C2H2 (Ethyne)
C3H4 (Propyne)

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly constituted compounds in which the
members possess similar chemical characteristics and the two consecutive members differ in their
molecular formula by - CH2.

(a) Characteristics of Homologous Series:

(i) All the members of a series can be represented by the same general formula.
e.g. General formula for alkane series is CnH2n+2 .
(ii) Any two consecutive members differ in their formula by a common difference of - CH2 and differ
in molecular mass by 14.
(iii) Different members in a series have a common functional group.
e.g. All the members of alcohol family have -OH group
(iv) The members in any particular family have almost identical chemical properties. Their physical
properties such as melting point, boiling point, density etc. show a regular gradation with the
increase in the molecular mass.
(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the identical methods.

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In a homologous series
All the members of a homologous series can also be represented by a general formula. In the case of the
alkanes the general formula is:
CnH2n +2
Where n is the number of carbon atoms present.
As you go up a homologous series, in order of increasing number of carbon atoms, the physical
properties of the compounds gradually change.
For example, the melting and boiling points of the alkanes shown in Table (given below) gradually
increase. This is due to an increase in the intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces) as the size and
mass of the molecule increases
Under normal conditions molecules with up to four carbon atoms are gases, those with between five
and 16 carbon atoms are liquids, while those with more than 16 carbon atoms are solids.
As the chain gets longer- melting and boiling points rise
viscosity increases – the compounds flow less easily
flammability decreases – thecompounds burn less easily.

(b) Homologues:
The different members of a homologous series are known as homologues .
For example:
(i) Homologous series of alkanes
General formula: CnH2n+2
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name
n=1 CH4 Methane
n=2 C2H6 Ethane
n=3 C3H8 Propane
(ii) Homologous series of alkenes
General formula: CnH2n
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name
n=2 C2H4 Ethene Ethylene
n=3 C3H6 Propene Propylene
n=4 C4H8 But-1-ene - Butylene
(iii) Homologous series of alkynes
General formula: CnH2n-2
Value of n Molecular formula IUPAC name Common name
n=2 C2H2 Ethyne acetylene
n=3 C3H4 Propyne methyl acetylene
n=4 C4H6 But -1-yne ethyl acetylene

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Some alkanes and their physical properties.

Alkane Formula Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C Physical state at

room temperature
Methane CH4 −182 −162 Gas
Ethane C2H6 −183 −89 Gas
Propane C3H8 −188 −42 Gas
Butane C4H10 −138 0 Gas
Pentane C5H12 −130 36 Liquid
Hexane C6H14 −95 69 Liquid

Solved Examples

Example : Which two of the following compounds could belong to the same homologous series.
C2H6O2, C2H6O, C2H6, CH4O
Solution : C2H6O and CH4O

Example : Identify the saturated compounds from the following:

Propane, Propene, Nonyne, Hexene, Butane, Octane.
Solution : Propane, Butane, Octane.

Example : Which of the following compounds belongs to the same homologous series as the compound
with the molecular formula C3H8.
Butane , CH3CH=CHCH3, CH3CH=CH2, Pentyne, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
Solution : Butane , CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3, As they belong to general molecular formula CnH2n+2.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that is responsible for the compound’s
characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known as functional group. An organic
compound generally consists of two parts –
(i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group

e.g.

Hydrocarbon radical Functional group

• Functional group is the most reactive part of the molecule.
• Functional group mainly determines the chemical properties of an organic compound.
• Hydrocarbon radical mainly determines the physical properties of the organic compound.

Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (–OH): All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as alcohols.
e.g. Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3 – CH2 – OH) etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (–CHO): All organic compounds containing –CHO group are known as aldehydes.
e.g. Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO) etc.

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(iii) Ketone group (–CO–): All organic compounds containing –CO– group are known as ketones.
e.g. Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group (–COOH): All organic compounds containing carboxyl group are called
carboxylic acids.
e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
CH3CH2COOH(Propanoic acid)
(v) Halogen group (X = F, Cl, Br, I): All organic compounds containing –X (F, Cl, Br or I) group are
known as halides.
e.g. Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br) etc

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

The important chemical properties of organic compounds are discussed below:
(a) Combustion Reactions:
Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and releases energy in
the form of heat and light.
Most carbon compound also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
C + O2 
 CO2 + Heat and light
Carbon Oxygen Carbon
dioxide
CH4 + 2O2 
 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Methane Oxygen Carbon Water
dioxide
C2H4 + 3O2 
 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Ethene Oxygen Carbon Water
dioxide
2C2H2 + 5O2 
 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Ethyne Oxygen Carbon Water
dioxide
CH3CH2OH + 3O2 
 2CO2 + 3H2O + Heat and light
Ethanol Oxygen Carbon Water
dioxide
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will
give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on the surface. However,
limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons giving a
sooty flame.
(b) Oxidation Reactions:
Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The substances which add oxygen to
other substances are called oxidising agents. There are many oxidising agents such as alkaline
potassium permanganate (alk. KMnO4), acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid (HNO3)
etc. which are commonly used in organic chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are -

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(i)

(ii)

(iii) CH3CH2OH 

AlkalineKMnO4 Or
AcidifiedK Cr O
 CH3COOH
2 2 7

Ethanol Ethanoic acid

(iv) CH3CHO 
AlkalineKMnO4 Or
AcidifiedK Cr O
 CH3COOH
2 2 7

Ethanal Ethanoic acid

(c) Substitution Reactions:
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by different
atoms or group of atoms are called substitution reactions. Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive.
For example, chlorine does not react with methane at room temperature. However, in the presence of
sunlight the reaction of chlorine and hydrocarbons is fairly fast. It gives a variety of products.
CH4 + Cl2 
Diffused
Sunlight
 CH3Cl + HCl

Methane Chlorine Chloromethane Hydrogen chloride

In this reaction H – atom of methane has been replaced by a –Cl atom converting CH4 to CH3Cl.
However, if Cl2 is used in excess, all the hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atom one by one.
CH3Cl + Cl2 
Diffused
Sunlight
 CH2Cl2 + HCl

Chloromethane Chlorine Dichloromethane Hydrogen chloride

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 
Diffused
Sunlight
 CHCl3 + HCl

Dichloromethane Chlorine Trichloromethane Hydrogen chloride

(Chloroform)
CHCl3 + Cl2 
Diffused
Sunlight
 CCl4 + HCl

Trichloromethane Chlorine Tetrachloromethane Hydrogen chloride

(Carbon tetrachloride)
Chlorine and methane
The hydrogen atoms can be replaced one by one:
chloromethane CH3Cl
dichloromethane CH2Cl2
trichloromethane CHCl3
tetrachloromethane CCl4
All four are used as solvents. But they can cause health problems, so are being used less and less.
(d) Addition Reactions:
The reactions in which a reactant molecule is added to another reactant molecule to form a product are known
as addition reactions. Unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reactions.
(i) Addition of Hydrogen; Hydrogenation
This reaction is called hydrogenation. The conditions necessary for this reaction to take place are a
temperature of 200 °C in the presence of a nickel or platinum catalyst.
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CH2 = CH2 + H2 

Ni
Heat
 CH3 – CH3
Ethene Hydrogen Ethane
CH  CH + 2H2 
Ni
Heat
 CH3 – CH3
Ethyne Hydrogen Ethane
This process of addition of hydrogen across double or triple bond is known as hydrogenation and
is very useful in daily life. This process is especially useful for the preparation of vanaspati ghee
from vegetable oils, in presence of nickel as discussed below:
Hydrogenation of oils:
Certain vegetable oils such as groundnut oil, cotton seed oil and mustard oil, contain double bonds
(C = C) and are liquids at room temperature. Because of the presence of double bonds, the
vegetable oils undergo hydrogenation, like alkenes, to form saturated products called vanaspati
ghee, which is a solid or a semi-solid at the room temperature.
Vegetable oils + Hydrogen 
Nickelcatalyst
473K
 Vanaspati ghee
(Unsaturated and (Saturated and
in liquid state) in solid state)
You must have seen advertisements stating that some of the vegetable oils are ‘healthy’. But it is
worth mentioning that animal fats, such as ‘Ghee’ and butter contain saturated fatty acids which are
not considered good for health and even doctors discourage their use. On the other hand, oils
containing unsaturated fatty acids are generally used for cooking purposes.
In addition to hydrogenation, some other typical examples of addition reactions are given below:
(ii) Addition of chlorine; Chlorination
Ethene reacts with one molecule of chlorine to give 1, 2-dichloroethane (or ethylene dichloride)
which is a saturated compound.
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 
CCl4
 Cl–CH2–CH2–Cl
Ethene Chlorine 1, 2-Dichloroethane
Similarly, ethyne reacts with one molecule of chlorine to form 1, 2-dichloroethene, which is still
unsaturated and, therefore, adds one more molecule of chlorine to form a saturated compound, i.e.,
1, 1, 2, 2-Tetrachloroethane as given below:
HC CH + Cl2  ClCH = CHCl  Cl2
Cl2CH – CHCl2
Ethyne 1,2-Dichloroethene 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
(iii) Addition of bromine ; Bromination
When bromine water (which is a solution of bromine in water) is added to ethene, it forms 1, 2
dibromoethane and the solution becomes colourless, i.e., the reddish-brown colour of bromine is discharged
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 
CCl4
 Br – CH2 – CH2 – Br
Ethene Bromine water 1, 2-Dibromoethane
(Reddish brown) (Colourless)
This reaction is used as a test for unsaturation.
Similarly, bromine reacts with ethyne to give, 1, 1, 2, 2-Tetrabromoethane which is a saturated
compound

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Test for unsaturation. The addition of bromine water to alkenes or alkynes is also used to test the
unsaturation in the given organic compound. If the reddish - brown colour of bromine water gets
discharged on adding it to the organic compound, the compound must be unsaturated, i.e., it must
be containing a double or triple bond. Similarly, the unsaturation in the organic compound can also
be tested with the help of Baeyer’s test.

(iii) Addition of water; Hydration

Another important addition reaction is the one used in the manufacture of ethanol. Ethanol has
important uses as a solvent and a fuel. It is formed when water (as steam) is added across the
double bond in ethene. For this reaction to take place, the reactants have to be passed over a
catalyst of phosphoric(v) acid (absorbed on silica pellets) at a temperature of 300 °C and pressure
of 60 atm (1 atmosphere = 1 × 105 pascals).

TEST FOR ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES

(a) Alkanes:
(i) Bromine water test: It does not decolourise the bromine water.
(ii) Baeyer’s test: It does not, react with Baeyer’s reagent (alkaline solution of KMnO4).
(iii) Silver nitrate Test: No reaction

(b) Alkenes:
(i) Bromine water test: It decolourises the orange colour of Bromine water.

(ii) Baeyer’s test: It decolourises the purple colour of Baeyer’s reagent.

(iii) Silver nitrate Test: No reaction

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(c) Alkynes:
(i) Bromine water test: It decolourises the Br2 water.

(ii) Baeyer’s test: It also decolourises the purple colour of alkaline KMnO4 .

(iii) Silver nitrate Test: It gives white precipitate

H – C  C – H + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]NO3 
 Ag – C  Ag + 2NH4NO3 + 2NH3
Ethyne Tollen’s reagent White ppt.

Solved Examples

Example : Name the type of hydrocarbon taking part in an addition reaction.

Solution : Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Example : What is the physical state of first four alkanes?

Solution : Gas

Example : Which of the following is not true about lighter alkanes?

(A) Their combusion can be controlled.
(B) They produce large amount of heat per gram.
(C) They are expensive and rare.
(D) They are widely used as fuel.
Solution : (C)

Example : Baeyer’s test is used to test which compounds?

Solution : Unsaturated compounds

IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS

ETHANOL
(a) Properties of Ethanol:
(i) Physical properties
• Ethanol is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
• Ethanol boils at 351 K.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions.
• It is a non-conductor of electricity (it does not contain ions).
• It is neutral to litmus.

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(ii) Chemical properties:

• Combustion: Ethanol burns in air with a blue flame to form CO2 & H2O.
C2H5OH + 3O2 
 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat & light
• Oxidation:
By mild oxidizing agent CrO3 (Chromic anhydride).
CrO
CH3CH2OH 
In glacialaceticacid  CH3CHO + H2O
3

Ethanol Ethanal
By strong oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 or alkaline KMnO4).
AlkalineKMnO 4
CH3CH2OH 
orK Cr O H SO  CH3COOH
2 2 7 2 4

Ethanol Ethanoic acid

• Reaction with sodium: Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium
ethoxide.
2C2H5OH + 2Na 
 2C2H5ONa + H2 ()
Ethanol Sodium ethoxide
• Reaction with carboxylic acids: [ESTERIFICATION] The process of formation of an
ester by the combination of an alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as esterification.

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, ethyl
ethanoate and water are formed .
Esters are sweet smelling substances and thus are used in making perfumes.
• Action with concentrated sulphuric acid: Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid
at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction is known as acidic dehydration of ethanol
because in this reaction, water molecule is removed from ethanol.
Conc.H2SO4
CH3CH2OH 
443K  CH2 = CH2 + H2O

Ethanol Ethene
The concentrated sulphuric acid may be regarded as a dehydrating agent because it
removes water from ethanol.

(b) Some Important Terms:

• Denatured alcohol: To prevent the misuse for drinking purpose, the alcohol supplied for
industrial purpose is rendered unfit by mixing it with some poisonous substances like methanol,
pyridine, copper sulphate etc. It is known as denatured alcohol.
• Rectified spirit: Ethanol containing 5 percent water is known as rectified spirit.
• Absolute alcohol: Rectified spirit is heated under reflux over quicklime for about 5 to 6 hours
and then allowed to stand for 12 hours. On distillation, pure alcohol (C2H5OH = 100%) is
obtained. This is called absolute alcohol.

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• Power alcohol: Alcohol, which is used for generating power is called power alcohol. It
consists of a mixture of absolute alcohol and petrol roughly in the ratio 20: 80. Since alcohol
itself, does not mix with petrol, therefore, a third solvent such as benzene, ether etc. is added as
a co-solvent.

(c) Uses of Ethanol:

• Ethanol is a constituent of beverages like beer, wine, whisky and other liquors.
Beer = 3 – 6% Ethanol
Whisky = 50% Ethanol
Wine = 10 – 20% Ethanol
• Ethanol is used to sterilize wounds and syringes.
• Antifreeze: It is a mixture of ethanol and water which has a much lower freezing point than
that of water. It is used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
• It is used in manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber. Solution of
ethanol prepared in pharmaceutical industry are known as tinctures.

(d) Harmful effects of drinking alcohol:

• If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it may cause serious poisoning and loss of
eyesight.
• It causes addiction (habit forming) and mixes with blood. It damages liver if taken regularly.
• Higher amount of consumption of ethanol leads to loss of body control & consciousness. It may
even cause death.

(e) Test of alcohol:

The presence of ethanol or alcoholic group in an organic compound can be tested by the following
tests:
• Sodium metal test:
Add a small piece of sodium metal to the organic compound (to be tested) in a dry test tube. If
the bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced, it indicates the presence of alcohol.

• Ester formation test:

Warm the organic compound with acetic acid and a few drops of conc. H2SO4. A sweet smell
(due to the formation of ester) indicates the presence of alcohol.

ETHANOIC ACID OR ACETIC ACID

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH

(ii) Structural formula:

(iii) The IUPAC name of acetic acid is ethanoic acid.

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(iv) Occurrence: Ethanoic acid is known as vinegar, from ancient times. Vinegar is essentially a dilute
solution of ethanoic acid in water. The acid is also present in some fruit juice. In the combined
form, it is also present in many perfumed oils. Ethanoic acid was first prepared in the pure state by
Stahl in 1720.
(v) Physical properties:
(A) Ethanoic acid is a colourless, viscous liquid but has a pungent and irritating smell of vinegar.
(B) Its boiling point is 391 K.
(C) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. Its dissolution in water takes place with the evolution of
heat and decrease in volume of the solution.
(D) The melting point of ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold
climates. Therefore, it is named as glacial acetic acid.
(vi) Chemical properties:
(A) Acidic character: Ethanoic acid is a monobasic acid. It has a replaceable hydrogen atom in its
– COOH group. Therefore, it neutralizes alkalies.
(1) It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

Sodium
ethanoate
Sodium ethanoate is an ionic compound which dissolves in polar solvents such as water, but
does not dissolves in non polar solvents such as alcohol, propanone etc. The aqueous solution
of sodium ethanoate is alkaline due to hydrolysis.
H2O
CH3COONa CH3COOH + NaOH

Weak acid Strong base

(B) It reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate with the evolution of CO2 gas.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 

CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 

(C) It reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + 2Na  2CH3COONa + H2 

2CH3COOH + Zn  (CH3COO)2Zn + H2 
(B) Ester formation: When ethanoic acid is heated with ethanol in presence of small quantity of
conc. H2SO4 ethyl ethanoate, a sweet smelling ester, is formed.
H
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

Ethyl ethanoate
This process of ester formation is called esterification.

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(C) Decarboxylation:
When sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime, methane is formed.
CH3COONa + NaOH 
CaO

 CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium Methane
ethanoate
The term ‘decarboxylation’ is used when the elements of carbon dioxide are removed from a molecule.

(vii) Uses:
(A) Dilute aqueous solution (5–8%) of ethanoic acid is called vinegar, which is used to preserve
food (sausage, pickles, etc).
(B) Pure ethanoic acid is used as a solvent and chemical reagent.
(C) As cellulose ethanoate, it is used in making photographic films and rayon.
(D) Ethanoic acid also finds application in the preparation of propanone, chloroethanoic acid,
ethanoates of metals etc.
(E) It is widely used in the manufacture of textiles.
(F) It is used in the preparation of white lead.
(viii) Tests for Carboxylic Acid:
(A) Litmus test: Add small amount of blue litmus solution to the given compound. If the blue
litmus solution turns red, it indicates that the organic compound is acidic in nature.
(B) Sodium bicarbonate test: Take a small portion of the organic compound in a test tube and add
a pinch of solid sodium bicarbonate. Evolution of carbon dioxide with brisk effervescence
shows that the organic compound is acidic in nature.
(C) Ester formation: When a mixture of given compound and ethanol is heated in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid, a fruity smelling ester, ethyl ethanoate, is produced which shows
that the organic compound is acidic in nature.

SOAP AND DETERGENTS

The word ‘detergent’ means’ cleansing agent and so the detergents are substances which remove dirt
and have cleansing action in water. According to this definition of detergents, soap is also a detergent
and has been used for more than two thousand years. There are two types of detergents:
(a) Soapy detergents or soaps
(b) Non - soapy detergents or soapless soaps.
(a) Soap:
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of some long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). Sodium salts
of fatty acids are known as hard soaps and potassium salts of fatty acid are known as soft soaps. A
soap has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic COO– Na+ [Link] structure of soap
can be represented as:

Where represents the hydrocarbon group and represents negatively charged carboxyl
group. Some examples of soaps are sodium stearate, C17H35COO– Na+, sodium palmitate,
C15H31COO– Na+ and sodium oleate, C17H33COO–Na+.

Hard water, which contains salts of magnesium and calcium, reacts with soap to form magnesium
and calcium salts of fatty acid.

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(i) Preparation of soap: Soap is prepared by heating oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin with
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda solution). Hydrolysis of fat takes place
and a mixture of sodium salt of fatty acids and glycerol is formed. Since the salt of fatty acids
thus formed are used as soap so alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as
saponification.

(ii) Limitation of soaps: Soap is not suitable for washing clothes with hard water because of the
following reasons.
(A) Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. When soap is added to hard water,
calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react with soap forming insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts of fatty acids.
 (C17H35COO)2 Mg  + 2NaCl
2C17H35COONa + MgCl2 
Soap (White ppt)
 (C17H35COO)2 Ca  + 2NaCl
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 
(White ppt)
Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.
(B) When hard water is used, soap forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium
salts, which stick to the cloth being washed. Therefore, it interferes with the cleaning
ability of the soap and makes the cleaning process difficult.
(C) These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acid are insoluble in water and separate as
curdy white precipitate.
(b) Detergents:
These are also called synthetic detergents or soapless soaps. A synthetic detergent is the sodium salt
of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
(i) Preparation of Synthetic Detergents: Synthetic detergents are prepared by reacting
hydrocarbons from petroleum with conc. sulphuric acid and converting the product into its
sodium salt.
Examples:

Washing powders available in the market contain about 15 to 30 percent detergents by weight.
Alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.

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(c) Comparison Between Properties of Soaps and Detergents:

(d) Advantages of Synthetic Detergents Over Soaps:

Synthetic detergents are widely used as cleaning agents these days. Some of their advantages over
soaps are:
(i) Synthetic detergents can be used for washing even in hard water. On the other hand, soaps are
not suitable for use with hard water.
(ii) Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic solutions because they are not readily
decomposed in acidic medium. On the other hand, soaps cannot be used in acidic medium
because they are decomposed into carboxylic acids in acidic medium.
(iii) Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.
(iv) Synthetic detergents have a stronger cleaning action than soaps.

(e) Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents:

A molecule of soap is made up of two parts: a non polar part consisting of a long chain of 12-18
carbon atoms and a polar part, –COO–Na+. The polar end is water soluble and is thus hydrophilic
whereas hydrocarbon part is insoluble in water and is thus hydrophobic.
In a soap solution, the hydrocarbon portions of several soap molecules huddle together to form
aggregates of molecules (or ions) called micelles. The soap micelles are negatively charged due to
the presence of carboxylate ions at the surface. Repulsion between similarly charged micelles keeps
them dispersed in the solution.
The hydrocarbon part is however soluble in non-polar solvents and is sometimes called lipophilic.
Cleansing action of soap: Mostly the dirt is held to any surface such as cloth by the oil or grease
which is present there. Now since the oil and grease are not soluble in water, the dirt particles
cannot be removed by simply washing the cloth with water. However, when soap is applied, the
non polar hydrocarbon part of the soap molecules dissolves in oil droplets while the polar – COO–
Na+ groups remain attached to water molecules. In this way, each oil droplet gets surrounded by
negative charge.

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Fig: (a) Arrangement of stearate ions on the surface of water at low concentrations of soap
(b) Arrangement of stearate ions inside the bulk of water (ionic micelle) at critical micelle concentrations of soap

Fig: (a) Grease on cloth (b) Stearate ions arranging around the grease droplet and
(c) Grease droplet surrounded by stearate ions (micelle formed)

These negatively charged oil droplets cannot coalesce and continue breaking into small droplets.
These oil droplets (containing dirt particles) can be washed away with water along with dirt
particles. So, the action of soap or detergents is to emulsify oil or grease, this loosens the solid
particles of dirt and they are removed.
In a soap molecule hydrophilic polar end is water soluble and hydrophobic hydrocarbon part is
insoluble in water.
Soap or detergent helps in cleansing in another way. Not only it emulsifies oil or grease but it also
lowers the surface tension of water. As a result of this water wets things more effectively.
When water is added on to the surface of the cloth then water molecules tend to stay as close to
each other as possible because of the strong forces of attraction (hydrogen bonding) for each other
and do not wet the cloth properly. If some soap solution is added to this water then polar end of
soap dissolves in water and non polar hydrocarbon end remains away from the water. Thus, soap
molecules arrange themselves between the water molecules on the surface of water and decrease
the forces of attraction between the water molecules. Water can now spread on the surface of cloth
and can make it wet effectively.
(f) Synthetic Detergents: A Serious Problem:
It may be noted that in the past, the widespread use of detergents caused pollution of rivers and
other water bodies. Earlier the synthetic detergents were made from long chain of hydrocarbons
having a lot of branched chains in them. These branched chain detergent molecules were degraded
very slowly by the micro organisms present in water bodies like lakes or rivers.
Therefore, they tend to remain in water bodies for a long time and make water unfit for aquatic life.
For example, detergents containing phosphates can cause rapid growth of algae and therefore,
deplete the dissolved oxygen present in the water of lakes and rivers. As a result of lack of oxygen,
fish and other aquatic animals may die. To solve these problems, now-a-days, the detergents are
prepared from hydrocarbons which have minimum branching. These are degraded more easily than
branched chain detergents. Therefore, these are biodegradable and create less problems.

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Solved Examples

Example : Soda lime is used extensively in decarboxylation reaction to obtain alkanes. Soda lime is?
Solution : Mixture of NaOH and CaO

Example : When ethyl alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4 at 170°C it gives
Solution : Ethene

CH3CH2OH 
Conc.H 2SO 4
443K
 CH2 = CH2 + H2O

Ethanol Ethene

Example : Hard water contain which metallic elements?

Solution : Calcium & magnesium

Example : Which type of water produces the greatest lather of bubbles?

Solution : Soft water

Example : IUPAC name of acetic acid is?

Solution : Ethanoic acid

Example : Alkaline hydrolysis of oil and fats is called?

Solution : Saponification

Example : 5–8% aqueous solution of ethanoic acid is known as?

Solution : Vinegar

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EXERCISE # 1

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
COVALENT BOND & PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
1. The nature of linkage in organic compounds is generally -
(A) ionic bond (B) covalent bond
(C) co-ordinate covalent (D) metallic bond

2. Which of the following properties is not true regarding organic compounds?

(A) They are generally covalent compounds.
(B) They have high melting and boiling points.
(C) They are generally insoluble in water.
(D) They generally show isomerism.

3. The values of bond energies of single, double and triple bonds are in the order -
(A) C – C > C = C > C  C (B) C = C > C – C > C  C
(C) C  C > C = C > C – C (D) C = C > C  C > C – C

4. Ethyne is isoelectronic with-

(A) chlorine (B) oxygen (C) nitrogen gas (D) CO2

5. C  C bond length is -
(A) 1.54 Å (B) 1.20 Å (C) 1.34 Å (D) 1.39 Å

6. In a double covalent bond number of electron pairs shared are -

(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6

7. Which of the following compound contain single covalent bond?

(A) Oxygen (B) Nitrogen (C) Methane (D) Carbon dioxide

8. Carbon dioxide molecule contains -

(A) single covalent bond (B) double covalent bond
(C) triple covalent bond (D) ionic bond

9. Covalent bond between atoms is formed by -

(A) loss of electrons (B) gain of electrons
(C) sharing of electrons (D) loss and gain of electrons both

10. Where do the electrons in a covalent bond comes from ?

(A) The highest occupied energy level (B) The lowest occupied energy level
(C) The inner shell (D) From any shell

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11. Covalent compounds are generally-

(A) good conductors of electricity. (B) bad conductors of electricity.
(C) semiconductors of electricity. (D) none of these.

12. How many  and  bond are present in ethylene:

(A) 5 , 1  (B) 3 , 3  (C) 2 ,4  (D) 4 , 2 

13. The number of  and  bonds in the following molecule is respectively:

(A) 19  bonds, 6  bonds (B) 20  bonds, 5  bonds

(C) 19  bonds, 5  bonds (D) 20  bonds, 6  bonds

14. What is the nature of marked carbon atom in the following compounds ?

(A) 3° carbon (B) 2° carbon (C) 4° carbon (D) 1° carbon

15. Find the number of 1°, 2° & 3° hydrogen atoms in the following compounds:

(A) 1° H  9, 3° H  1 (B) 1° H  6, 2° H  2
(C) 1° H  6, 2° H  4 (D) 1° H  9, 2° H  1

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

1. Which of the following is not an example of aromatic compound ?
(A) Benzene (B) Naphthalene (C) Cyclobutane (D) Phenol

2. The first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory was -

(A) urea (B) glucose (C) alcohol (D) None of these

3. The scientist who gave vital force theory was -

(A) Berzelius (B) Avogadro (C) Wohler (D) Lavoisier

4. Which one of the following is not an organic compound ?

(A) Hexane (B) Urea (C) Ammonia (D) Ethyl alcohol

5. Vast number of carbon compounds is due to the fact that carbon has -
(A) variable valency (B) property of catenation
(C) great chemical affinity (D) None of these

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ALLOTROPES
1. Which of the following is a crystalline allotrope of carbon
(A) Charcoal (B) Coal (C) Fullerene (D) Lamp black

2. Structure of diamond is -
(A) linear (B) tetrahedral (C) octahedral (D) hexagonal

3. Diamond is:
(A) Transparent (B) Hard (C) Both A and B (D) Conductor

4. Bond length between carbon-carbon atoms in diamond is:

(A) 1.34 A° (B) 1.40 A° (C) 1.54 A° (D) 1.7 A°

5. Diamond crystals formed in the nature are:

(A) Octahedral (B) Tetrahedral (C) Planar (D) Trigonal

6. Which of the following allotropes of carbon is used in making crucibles ?

(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) Coke

7. Density of graphite is:

(A) 3.5 g/cm3 (B) 2.26 g/cm3 (C) 2.08 g/cm3 (D) None

8. Which of the following is an allotropic form of carbon ?

(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) All of these

9. Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because -

(A) it is very hard. (B) its structure is very compact.
(C) it is not water soluble. (D) it has no free electrons to conduct electric current.

10. Graphite is used in making electrodes because:

(A) It has high melting point (B) It is soft and slippery
(C) It is a good conductor of electricity (D) None of these

11. Carbon-carbon bond length in graphite is:

(A) 1.20 A° (B) 1.54 A° (C) 1.34 A° (D) 1.4 A°

12. Graphite melts at a high temperature of about:

(A) 4236°C (B) 5326°C (C) 3730°C (D) 6326°C

13. Two adjacent layers in graphite are bonded by comparatively ….................… forces.
(A) Strong (B) Weak (C) Both A and B (D) None of these

14. The most stable fullerene is:

(A) C60 (B) C70 (C) C100 (D) C90

15. The most common fullerene is C60. 60 C-atoms are arranged in …… pentagons and …… hexagons:
(A) 12, 20 (B) 16, 26 (C) 12, 40 (D) 16, 40

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HYDROCARBON & HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

1. Any two consecutive members in a homologous series differ in molecular mass by-
(A) 8 (B) 14 (C) 24 (D) 12

2. Which of the following statements is incorrect ?

The members of the homologous series of alkanes
(A) are all straight chain compounds.
(B) have the general formula CnH2n+2.
(C) have similar chemical properties.
(D) show a regular gradation of physical properties.

3. Which of the following forms a homologous series ?

(A) Ethane, Ethylene, Acetylene
(B) Ethane, Propane, Butanol
(C) Methanal, Ethanol, Propanoic acid
(D) Butane, 2-Methylbutane, 2,3-Dimethylbutane

4. Homologous have the same -

(A) empirical formulae (B) molecular formulae
(C) chemical properties (D) physical properties

5. Write down the general formula of homologous series whose third homologue is C4H6 ?
(A) CnH2n–2 (B) CnH2n+2 (C) Cn+1H2n–2 (D) Cn H2n

6. The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons is -

(A) CnH2n (B) CnH2n+2 (C) CnH2n–2 (D) CnH2n+1

7. The third member of methyl ketone homologous series is -

(A) Acetone (B) 2–Butanone (C) 2–Pentanone (D) 3–Pentanone.

8. The general molecular formula of alkynes is -

(A) CnH2n (B) CnH2n–4 (C) CnH2n–2 (D) CnH2n+2

9. Which of the following is not a pair of homologues?

(A) Ethylacetylene and Dimethylacetylene
(B) Methylacetylene and Ethylacetylene
(C) 1-Butyne and 2-Pentyne
(D) 1-Pentyne and 3-Hexyne

10. Which of the following does not belong to homologous series of alkanes ?
(A) C2H6 (B) C3H4 (C) C4H10 (D) C5H12

11. Which of the following is an alkyne?

(A) C4H8 (B) C5H8 (C) C7H19 (D) None of these

12. Propane is an -
(A) acyclic compound (B) open chain compound
(C) alipthatic compound (D) All of these
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

1. Which of the following gives silver nitrate test ?
(A) Methane (B) Ethene (C) Ethyne (D) All

2. Which of the following does not decolourise bromine water ?

(A) Alkanes only (B) Alkenes only (C) Alkynes only (D) (B) and (C) both

3. Substitution reactions are those reactions in which

(A) saturated hydrocarbons replace the cations of an inorganic compound.
(B) one type of atoms or a group of atoms takes the place of another.
(C) alkyl group replaces the anion of an inorganic compound.
(D) are shown by unsaturated hydrocarbons.

4. Sometimes during cooking the bottom of the vessel becomes black from outside. This means that -
(A) food is not cooked properly. (B) fuel is not burning completely.
(C) fuel is burning completely. (D) fuel is dry.

5. Addition Reactions are those reactions in which

(A) the reaction takes place immediately on mixing the reactants.
(B) unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in presence of a catalyst.
(C) hydrogen atom is replaced by a group of atoms containing more than one atom.
(D) two molecules of the same hydrocarbon form a larger molecule.

6. Reaction of halogens (Group -VII) and alkane in presence of sunlight is an example of-
(A) Carbonisation (B) Halogenation (C) Substitution (D) Hydrogenation

7. Which colour of KMnO4 solution is discharged when an alkene is treated with dilute alkaline aqueous
solution of KMnO4
(A) Red (B) Brown (C) pink (D) Orange

IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUND

1. Rectified spirit is -
(A) 50% ethanol (B) 80% ethanol
(C) 95% ethanol (D) 100% ethanol

2. Which of the following gives ethene when heated with conc. sulphuric acid?
(A) CH3CHO (B) CH3COOH (C) CH3OH (D) CH3CH2OH

3. Which of the following will react with sodium metal ?

(A) Ethanol (B) Ethanal (C) Ethene (D) Ethane

4. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives -

(A) CO2 and water (B) acetaldehyde (C) acetic acid (D) acetone

5. When alcohol reacts with sodium metal the gas evolved is -

(A) O2 (B) H2 (C) CO (D) CO2
BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 32
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6. Vinegar is -
(A) 5% aqueous solution of acetic acid (B) 20% alcoholic solution of acetic acid
(C) 100% acetic acid (D) none of these

7. Glacial acetic acid is -

(A) 100% acetic acid free of water. (B) solidified acetic acid.
(C) gaseous acetic acid. (D) frozen acetic acid.

8. When ethanoic acid is heated with NaHCO3 the gas evolved is -

(A) H2 (B) CO2 (C) CH4 (D) CO

9. Which of the following will give a pleasant smell when heated with ethyl alcohol, in presence of
sulphuric acid -
(A) CH3COOH (B) CH3CH2OH (C) CH3OH (D) CH3CHO

10. During decarboxylation of ethanoic acid with soda lime (NaOH + CaO), CO2 is removed as -
(A) CO2 (B) CO (C) Na2CO3 (D) CaCO3

11. A by product of soap industry is -

(A) sodium hydroxide (B) sodium palmitate (C) glycerol (D) Both B & C

12. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about soaps ?

(A) Soaps are biodegradable.
(B) Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids.
(C) Soaps are prepared from natural oils & fats.
(D) Soaps can be used in acidic solutions.

13. Which of the following is not correctly matched ?

(A) Hard soaps - sodium salts of fatty acids.
(B) Soft soaps - potassium salts of fatty acids.
(C) Hydrophilic - water insoluble
(D) None of these

14. Cleansing action of soaps includes:

(A) formation of micelles. (B) emulsification of oil or grease.
(C) lowering of surface tension of water. (D) all of the above.

15. Washing powders contain detergent in the following range -

(A) 10 – 15% (B) 15–30% (C) 50 – 60% (D) 40 – 50%

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EXERCISE # 2

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Alcohols are compounds

(A) containing - OH group attached to alkyl group.
(B) containing - CO- group attached to alkyl groups.
(C) containing - CHO group attached to alkyl group.
(D) containing - COOH group attached to alkyl group.

2. Most carbon allotropes and carbon compounds on complete combustion

(A) give a foul smell
(B) produce a dark mass
(C) release heat and light in addition to liberating CO2
(D) release heat and light in addition to liberating O2

3. Homologous series is a series of compounds in which

(A) The same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
(B) Formulae of successive compounds differ by a -CH3 - unit.
(C) Representation is possible by a any formula.
(D) Is collection of compounds with different functional groups

4. When a sodium piece is added to acetic acid solution, a gas is evolved. The gas is
(A) CH4 (B) CO2 (C) H2 (D) O2

5. When NaHCO3 reacts with acetic acid, a gas evolves. This gas turns
(A) lime water milky.
(B) pure water milky.
(C) zinc sulphate solution green.
(D) acidified K2Cr2O7 solution green.

6. Detergents are salts of -

(A) strong acid and strong base
(B) strong acid and weak base
(C) weak acid and strong base
(D) weak acid and weak base

7. In the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, acetic acid reacts with alcohol to produce -
(A) aldehyde (B) alcohol (C) ester (D) carboxylic acid

8. Which of the following series represent only unsaturated hydrocarbons ?

(A) C2H6, C3H8, C4H10 (B) C2H6, C3H6, C4H10
(C) C2H4 , C3H6, C4H6 (D) C2H4, C3H8, C4H6

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9. 1 mole of a hydrocarbon 'X' undergoes complete saturation with 1 mole of hydrogen in presence of a
heated catalyst. What would be the formula of 'X' ?
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H2 (C) C5H10 (D) C7H16

10. Which of the following may be isomer of aldehyde having general formula CnH2nO?
(A) Alcohol (B) Ether (C) Ester (D) Ketone

11. IUPAC name of the first member of homologous series of ketones is

(A) Ethanone (B) Propanol (C) Methanone (D) Propanone

12. Acetic acid, with the molecular formula CH3COOH has

(A) 8 covalent bonds (B) 7 covalent bonds (C) 9 covalent bonds (D) 10 covalent bonds.

13. Consider the chemical formulae CH3COOH and HCOOCH3 and choose the incorrect statement:
(A) Both have the equal boiling point
(B) Both have the equal molecular weight
(C) Both have the equal number of covalent bonds
(D) Both are not the same compound

14. The total number of electrons and the number of electrons involved in the formation of various bonds
present in one molecule of propanal (C2H5CHO) are respectively:
(A) 32 and 20 (B) 24 and 20 (C) 24 and 18 (D) 32 and 18

15. Which of the following pairs of compounds are chain isomers.

(A) Isobutyl alcohol and s-pentyl alcohol
(B) Isobutyl alcohol and t-butyl alcohol
(C) Secpentyl alcohol and neopentyl alcohol
(D) Ethyl alcohol and ethylene glycol

16. Which of the following pair of compounds are not isomers?

(A) Propyne and cyclopropene (B) Propyne and propadiene
(C) Propene and cyclopropene (D) 1–Propanol and methyoxyethane

17. A position isomer of 2-pentanone is:

(A) 3-Pentanone (B) 3-Methyl-2-butanone
(C) 1-Pentanal (D) 2,2-Dimethylpropanal

18. The number of primary, secondary and tertiary carbons in the following structure are respectively:

(A) 6,3,3 (B) 3,6,3 (C) 3,6,2 (D) 3,2,1

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 NEEV Diamond (2025)

19. Identify the 3° amines?

(A) (B) (C) (D)

20. The number of 1º carbon of following compound is

(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 8 (D) 4

21. Crystalline fullerene has ….........................… properties.

(A) Semiconducting (B) Insulating (C) Both A and B (D) None of these

22. Power alcohol contains -

(A) 50% petrol and 50% ethanol (B) 80 % petrol and 20% ethanol
(C) 25 % petrol and 75% ethanol (D) 70 % petrol and 30% ethanol

23. A student takes about 2 mL ethanoic acid in a dry test and adds a pinch of sodium hydrogen carbonate
to it. He reports the following observations:
(I) Immediately a colourless and odourless gas evolves with a brisk effervescence.
(II) The gas turns lime water milky when passed through it.
(III) The gas burns with an explosion when a burning splinter is brought near it.
(IV) The gas extinguishes the burning splinter that is brought near it.
The correct observations are:
(A) I, II, and III (B) II, III and IV (C) III, IV and I (D) I, II, and IV

24. Which of the following observations is true about dilute solution of acetic acid ?
(A) It smells like vinegar and turns red litmus blue
(B) It smells like onion and turns blue litmus red
(C) It smells like orange and turns red litmus blue
(D) It smells like vinegar and turns blue litmus red

25. Ram adds acetic acid solution to solid sodium hydrogen carbonate. He would osbserve that:
(A) a white precipitate is obtained (B) a blue coloured solution is obtained
(C) a gas is evolved with brisks effervescence (D) the mixture turns milky

26. Ethanoic acid was added to sodium bicarbonate solution and the gas evolved was tested with a burning
splinter. The following four observations were reported that:
I. the gas burns with the pop sound and the flame gets extinguished.
II. the gas does not burn but the splinter burns with a pop burn.
III. the flame extinguishes and the gas does not burn
IV. the gas burns with a blue flame and the splinter burns brightly
The correct observation is reported in:
(A) I (B) II (C) III (D) IV

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 NEEV Diamond (2025)

Answer Key

EXERCISE # 1

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
COVALENT BOND & PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. C
8. B 9. C 10. A 11. B 12. A 13. A 14. B
15. A

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

1. C 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B

ALLOTROPES
1. C 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. B
8. D 9. D 10. C 11. D 12. C 13. B 14. A
15. A

HYDROCARBON & HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

1. B 2. A 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. C
8. C 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. D

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

1. C 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. C

IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUND

1. C 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. A
8. B 9. A 10. C 11. C 12. D 13. C 14. D
15. B

EXERCISE # 2

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A C A C A C C C C D D A A A C C A B D B
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans. B B D D C C

BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 37