République du Cameroun Republic of Cameroon

********** **********
Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur Ministry Of Higher Education
********** **********
Société Civile NANFAH Civil Society NANFAH
************* ***********
Institut Universitaire Des Bâtisseurs University Institute Of Builders
********* **********
Direction des Affaires Académiques et de la Coopération Academic and Cooperation Affairs Office
*************** **************
B.P.: 5816 Douala -Cameroun P.O Box: 5816 Douala –Cameroun
****************** ***************
Tél. (237) 694 24 83 67 / 677 44 25 12/ 698492051 Tel. (237) 694 24 83 67 / 677 44 25 12/ 698492051
************ ***************
iubatisseurs222@[Link] iubatisseurs222@[Link]

Autorisation N° 23-05792/MINESUP/SG/DDES/ESUP/SDA/bol du 02/10/2023

INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DES SCIENCES ET TECHNOLOGIES NANFAH (ISSTN)

COURSE: Mathematics III

CLASSES: CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (CET), URBAN PLANNING (URP),
ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM (EPS).
LECTURER: [Link] NZIFACK Jean Romaric
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER 1. Linear systems
CHAPTER 2. Complex numbers
CHAPTER 3. Polynomials functions and rational fraction
CHAPTER 4. Vector spaces and Euclidean vector spaces
CHAPTER 5. Linear applications
CHAPTER 6. Matrices

CHAPTER I: Systems of Linear Equations

1 Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Graphing
2 Solving Systems of Equations by Using the Substitution Method
3 Solving Systems of Equations by Using the Addition Method
4 Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables and Applications
INTRODUCTION

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

1
A linear system is a group of linear equations involving the same variables.
There is no limit to the number of equations a linear system can have.

These linear systems are an important aspect of mathematics that can be

used to describe real-world scenarios as well as more abstract problems such
as in linear algebra. In this course, you'll learn how to solve such systems and,
how to use linear equations to build linear systems.
Definition Systems of Two Linear Equations in Two Variables
Given the linear system
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
We will consider three methods of solving such systems: graphing
substitution, and elimination by addition. Each method has its advantages,
depending on the situation.

NB:In this chapter we solve systems of linear equations in two and three
variables.
1 Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Graphing
a. Solutions to Systems of Linear Equations

A linear equation in two variables has an infinite number of solutions that

form a line in a rectangular coordinate system.
Two or more linear equations form a system of linear equations. For
example:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

2
 A solution to a system of linear equations is an ordered pair that is a solution
to each individual linear equation
Exemple1: Determining Solutions to a System of Linear Equations
Determine whether the ordered pairs are solutions to the system.

Section 1 Solving Systems of Linear Equations by Graphing

A solution to a system of two linear equations may be interpreted
graphically as a point of intersection between the two lines.
Notice that the lines intersect at (Figure 1).

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

3
 2. Dependent and Inconsistent Systems of Linear Equations
When two lines are drawn in a rectangular coordinate system, three
geometric relationships are possible:

If a system of linear equations has one or more solutions, the system is said
to be a consistent system. If a linear equation has no solution, it is said to
be an inconsistent system. If two equations represent the same line, then all
points along the line are solutions to the system of equations. In such a case,
the system is characterized as a dependent system. An independent system
is one in which the two equations represent different lines.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

4
 Exemple2: Solve the system by graphing both linear equations and
finding the point(s) of intersection.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

5
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

6
 TIP: In Example 2, the lines could also have been graphed by using the x-
and y-intercepts or by using a table of points. However, the advantage of
writing the equations in slope-intercept form is that we can compare the
slopes and y-intercepts of each line.
1. If the slopes differ, the lines are different and nonparallel and must cross
in exactly one point.
2. If the slopes are the same and the y-intercepts are different, the lines are
parallel and do not intersect.
3. If the slopes are the same and the y-intercepts are the same, the two
equations represent the same line.
Exemple:3
Solve the system by graphing.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

7
 Skill Practice

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

8
 Example 4

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

9
 Because the lines have the same slope but different y-intercepts, they are
parallel (Figure 3-4).Two parallel lines do not intersect,which implies that
the system has no [Link] system is inconsistent.
Skill Practice

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

10
 Example 5
Solve the system by graphing.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
 [Link] Systems of Equations by Using the

Substitution Method
Graphing a system of equations is one method to find the solution of the
system. In this section and Section 3, we will present two algebraic methods
to solve a system of equations. The first is called the substitution
[Link] technique is particularly important because it can be used to
solve more advanced problems including nonlinear systems of equations.
The first step in the substitution process is to isolate one of the variables
from one of the equations. Consider the system

[Link] a System of Equations by the Substitution

Method

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

12
 1. Isolate one of the variables from one equation.
2. Substitute the quantity found in step 1 into the other equation.
3. Solve the resulting equation.
4. Substitute the value found in step 3 back into the equation in step 1 to
find the value of the remaining variable.
5. Check the solution in both equations, and write the answer as an ordered
pair.
Example 1
Using the Substitution Method to Solve a Linear Equation
Solve the system by using the substitution method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

13
 Skill Practice
Solve the system by using the substitution method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

14
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

15
 Skill Practice
2. Solve by the substitution method.

2. Solving Inconsistent Systems and Dependent Systems

Example 3
Solve the system by using the substitution method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

16
 Skill Practice
3. Solve by the substitution method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

17
 Example 4 Solving a Dependent System
Solve by using the substitution method.

Skill Practice
4. Solve the system by using substitution.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

18
 [Link] 3: Solving Systems of Equations by Using the

Addition Method
The next method we present to solve systems of linear equations is the
addition method (sometimes called the elimination method).With the
addition method, begin by writing both equations in standard form

Then we create an equivalent system by multiplying one or both equations

by appropriate constants to create opposite coefficients on either the x- or
the [Link] the equations can be added to eliminate the variable
having opposite [Link] process is demonstrated in Example 1.
Example 1
Solve the system by using the addition method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

19
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

20
 The steps to solve a system of linear equations in two variables by the
addition method is outlined in the following box.

Solving a System of Equations by the Addition Method

1. Write both equations in standard form: Ax+By=C
2. Clear fractions or decimals (optional).
3. Multiply one or both equations by nonzero constants to create opposite
coefficients for one of the variables.
4. Add the equations from step 3 to eliminate one variable.
5. Solve for the remaining variable.
6. Substitute the known value found in step 5 into one of the original
equations to solve for the other variable.
7. Check the ordered pair in both equations.
Example 1
Solve the system by using the addition method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

21
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

22
 Example3
Solve the system by using the addition method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

23
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

24
 2. Solving Inconsistent Systems and Dependent Systems
Example 4
Solve the system by using the addition method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

25
 Example5 Solving an Inconsistent System
Solve the system by using the addition method.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

26
 Section 4: Systems of Linear Equations in Three

Variables and Applications

1. Solutions to Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables

In Sections 1–3, we solved systems of linear equations in two variables. In

this section, we will expand the discussion to solving systems involving
three variables.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

27
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

28
 2. Solving Systems of Linear Equations in Three

Variables

To solve a system involving three variables, the goal is to eliminate one

variable. This reduces the system to two equations in two variables. One
strategy for eliminating a variable is to pair up the original equations two at
a time.
Solving a System of Three Linear Equations in Three Variables
1. Write each equation in standard form Ax +By +Cz =D
2. Choose a pair of equations, and eliminate one of the variables by using
the addition method.
3. Choose a different pair of equations and eliminate the same variable.
4. Once steps 2 and 3 are complete, you should have two equations in two
variables. Solve this system by using the methods from Sections 2 and 3.
5. Substitute the values of the variables found in step 4 into any of the three
original equations that contain the third variable. Solve for the third
variable.
6. Check the ordered triple in each of the original equations.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

29
 Example 1
Solve the system.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

30
 TIP: It is important to note that in steps 2 and 3, the same variable is
eliminated.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

31
 Example 2
Solve the system. If there is not a unique solution, label the system as either
dependent or inconsistent.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

32
 Exemple 3:
Solve the system. If there is not a unique solution, identify the system as
either dependent or inconsistent.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

33
 Example 4
Applying Systems of Linear Equations to Nutrition
Doctors have become increasingly concerned about the sodium intake in
the U.S. diet. Recommendations by the American Medical Association
indicate that most individuals should not exceed 2400 mg of sodium per
day. Liz ate 1 slice of pizza, 1 serving of ice cream, and 1 glass of soda for
a total of 1030 mg of sodium. David ate 3 slices of pizza, no ice cream, and
2 glasses of soda for a total of 2420 mg of sodium. Melinda ate 2 slices of
pizza, 1 serving of ice cream, and 2 glasses of soda for a total of 1910 mg
of sodium. How much sodium is in one serving of each item?

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

34
Chapter2: Complex numbers

1 Overview

2. Imaginary numbers
Square root of a negative number is called an imaginary number., for example,
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

35
Solution

[Link] powers of i

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

36
 [Link] numbers

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

37
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

38
[Link] & subtraction of complex numbers

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

39
Solution

Exercise

6 .Multiplication of complex numbers

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

40
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

41
Solutions

[Link] conjugate number

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

42
Solutions

[Link] one complex number by another

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

43
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

44
[Link] Plane

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

45
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

46
[Link] the modulus of a complex number

[Link] form of a complex number

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

47
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

48
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

49
 [Link]'s theorem

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

50
[Link] form of a complex number

[Link] of a quadratic equation

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

51
EXAMPLE

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

52
CHAPTER 3. Polynomials functions and rational fraction

A polynomial function is a function that involves only non-negative integer

powers or only positive integer exponents of a variable in an equation like the
quadratic equation, cubic equation, etc. For example, 2x+5 is a polynomial
that has exponent equal to 1.
A polynomial function, in general, is also stated as a polynomial or polynomial
expression, defined by its degree. The degree of any polynomial is the highest
power present in it. In this article, you will learn polynomial function along
with its expression and graphical representation of zero degrees, one degree,
two degrees and higher degree polynomials.

Polynomial Function Definition

A polynomial function is a function that can be expressed in the form of a

polynomial. The definition can be derived from the definition of a polynomial
equation. A polynomial is generally represented as P(x). The highest power of
the variable of P(x) is known as its degree. Degree of a polynomial function is
very important as it tells us about the behaviour of the function P(x) when x
becomes very large. The domain of a polynomial function is entire real
numbers (R).

If P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1+.……….…+a2 x2 + a1 x + a0, then for x ≫ 0 or x ≪

0, P(x) ≈ an xn. Thus, polynomial functions approach power functions for very
large values of their variables

Polynomial Function Examples

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

53
A polynomial function has only positive integers as exponents. We can even
perform different types of arithmetic operations for such functions like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Some of the examples of polynomial functions are here:

 x2+2x+1
 3x-7
 7x3+x2-2

All three expressions above are polynomial since all of the variables have
positive integer exponents. But expressions like;

 5x-1+1
 4x1/2+3x+1
 (9x +1) ÷ (x)

are not polynomials, we cannot consider negative integer exponents or fraction

exponent or division here.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

54
Types of Polynomial Functions

There are various types of polynomial functions based on the degree of the
polynomial. The most common types are:

 Constant Polynomial Function: P(x) = a = ax0

 Zero Polynomial Function: P(x) = 0; where all ai’s are zero, i = 0, 1, 2,
3, …, n.
 Linear Polynomial Function: P(x) = ax + b
 Quadratic Polynomial Function: P(x) = ax2+bx+c
 Cubic Polynomial Function: ax3+bx2+cx+d
 Quartic Polynomial Function: ax4+bx3+cx2+dx+e

The details of these polynomial functions along with their graphs are explained
below.

Graphs of Polynomial Functions

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

55
The graph of P(x) depends upon its degree. A polynomial having one variable
which has the largest exponent is called a degree of the polynomial.

Let us look at P(x) with different degrees.

Constant Polynomial Function

Degree 0 (Constant Functions)

 Standard form: P(x) = a = a.x0, where a is a constant.

 Graph: A horizontal line indicates that the output of the function is
constant. It doesn’t depend on the input.

E.g. y = 4, (see Figure 1)

Zero Polynomial Function

A constant polynomial function whose value is zero. In other words, zero

polynomial function maps every real number to zero, f: R → {0} defined by

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

56
f(x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ R. For example, let f be an additive inverse function, that is,
f(x) = x + ( – x) is zero polynomial function.

Linear Polynomial Functions

Degree 1, Linear Functions

 Standard form: P(x) = ax + b, where a and b are constants. It forms a

straight line.
 Graph: Linear functions have one dependent variable and one
independent which are x and y, respectively.

In the standard formula for degree 1, a represents the slope of a line, the
constant b represents the y-intercept of a line.

E.g., y = 2x+3(see Figure 2)

here a = 2 and b = 3

Figure 2: y = 2x + 3

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

57
Note: All constant functions are linear functions.

Quadratic Polynomial Functions

Degree 2, Quadratic Functions

 Standard form: P(x) = ax2+bx+c , where a, b and c are constant.

 Graph: A parabola is a curve with one extreme point called the vertex.
A parabola is a mirror-symmetric curve where any point is at an equal
distance from a fixed point known as Focus.

In the standard form, the constant ‘a’ represents the wideness of the parabola.
As ‘a’ decreases, the wideness of the parabola increases. This can be
visualized by considering the boundary case when a=0, the parabola becomes
a straight line. The constant c represents the y-intercept of the parabola. The
vertex of the parabola is given by

(h,k) = (-b/2a, -D/4a)

where D is the discriminant and is equal to (b2-4ac).

Note: Whether the parabola is facing upwards or downwards, depends on the

nature of a.

 If a > 0, the parabola faces upward.

 If a < 0, the parabola faces downwards.

E.g. y = x2+2x-3 (shown in black color)

y = -x2-2x+3 (shown in blue color)

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

58
(See Figure 3)

Graphs of Higher Degree Polynomial Functions

 Standard form– P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1+.……….…+ a0, where

a0,a1,………,an are all constants.
 Graph: Depends on the degree, if P(x) has degree n, then any straight
line can intersect it at a maximum of n points. The constant term in the
polynomial expression, i.e. a0 here represents the y-intercept.
 E.g. y = x4-2x2+x-2, any straight line can intersect it at a maximum of 4
points (see fig. 4)

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

59
Using Factoring to Find Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Recall that if f is a polynomial function, the values of x for which f(x)=0 are
called zeros of f.

If the equation of the polynomial function can be factored, we can set each
factor equal to zero and solve for the zeros. (Also, any value x=a that is a zero
of a polynomial function yields a factor of the polynomial, of the form
x−a).(We can use this method to find x-intercepts because at the x-intercepts
we find the input values when the output value is zero. For general
polynomials, this can be a challenging prospect. While quadratics can be
solved using the relatively simple quadratic formula, the corresponding
formulas for cubic and fourth-degree polynomials are not simple enough to
remember, and formulas do not exist for general higher-degree polynomials.
Consequently, we will limit ourselves to three cases in this section:

The polynomial can be factored using known methods: greatest common

factor, factor by grouping, and trinomial [Link] polynomial is given in

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

60
factored form.
Technology is used to determine the intercepts.

Given a polynomial function f, find the x-intercepts by factoring.

1. Set f(x)=0

[Link] the polynomial function is not given in factored form:

a. Factor out any common monomial factors.

[Link] any factorable binomials or trinomials.

[Link] each factor equal to zero and solve to find the x-intercepts.

Example 3.4.2 : Finding the x-Intercepts of a Polynomial Function by

Factoring

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

61
Example 3.4.3: Finding the x-Intercepts of a Polynomial Function by
Factoring

Example 3.4.4: Finding the y- and x-Intercepts of a Polynomial in Factored

Form

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

62
Example 3.4.5: Finding the x-Intercepts of a Polynomial Function Using a
Graph

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

63
Understanding the Relationship between Degree and Turning Points

In addition to the end behavior, recall that we can analyze a polynomial

function’s local behavior. It may have a turning point where the graph changes
from increasing to decreasing (rising to falling) or decreasing to increasing
(falling to rising). Look at the graph of the polynomial function

in Figure 3.4.12. The graph has three turning points.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

64
Using the Intermediate Value Theorem

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

65
Using Local and Global Extrema

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

66
Roots of Polynomials Formula

The polynomials are the expression written in the form of:

anxn+an-1xn-1+……+a1x+a0

The formula for the root of linear polynomial such as ax + b is

x = -b/a

The general form of a quadratic polynomial is ax2 + bx + c and if we equate

this expression to zero, we get a quadratic equation, i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0.

The roots of quadratic equation, whose degree is two, such as ax2 + bx + c = 0

are evaluated using the formula;

x = [-b ± √(b2 – 4ac)]/2a

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

67
The formulas for higher degree polynomials are a bit complicated.

Roots of three-degree polynomial

To find the roots of the three-degree polynomial we need to factorise the given
polynomial equation first so that we get a linear and quadratic equation. Then,
we can easily determine the zeros of the three-degree polynomial. Let us
understand with the help of an example.

Example: 2x3 − x2 − 7x + 2

Divide the given polynomial by x – 2 since it is one of the factors.

2x3 − x2 − 7x + 2 = (x – 2) (2x2 + 3x – 1)

Now we can get the roots of the above polynomial since we have got one linear
equation and one quadratic equation for which we know the formula.

Also, read:

Finding Roots of Polynomials

Let us take an example of the polynomial p(x) of degree 1 as given below:

p(x) = 5x + 1

According to the definition of roots of polynomials, ‘a’ is the root of a

polynomial p(x), if
P(a) = 0.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

68
Thus, in order to determine the roots of polynomial p(x), we have to find the
value of x for which p(x) = 0. Now,

5x + 1 = 0

x = -1/5

Hence, ‘-1/5’ is the root of the polynomial p(x).

Questions and Solutions

Example 1: Check whether -2 is a root of polynomial 3x3 + 5x2 + 6x + 4.

Solution: Let the given polynomial be,

p(x) = 3x3 + 5x2+ 6x + 4

Substituting x = -2,

p(-2) = 3(-2)3+ 5 (-2)2 + 6(-2) + 4

p(-2) = -24 + 20 – 12 + 4 = -12

Here, p(-2) ≠ 0

Therefore, -2 is not a root of the polynomial 3x3 + 5x2 + 6x + 4.

Example 2: Find the roots of the polynomial x2 + 2x – 15

Solution: Given x2 + 2x – 15

By splitting the middle term,

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

69
x2 + 5x – 3x – 15

= x(x + 5) – 3(x + 5)

= (x – 3) (x + 5)

⇒ x = 3 or x =−5

Factor Theorem

According to factor theorem, if f(x) is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and ‘a’ is

any real number, then, (x-a) is a factor of f(x), if f(a)=0.

Also, we can say, if (x-a) is a factor of polynomial f(x), then f(a) = 0. This
proves the converse of the theorem. Let us see the proof of this theorem along
with examples.

Proof of Factor Theorem

Consider a polynomial p(x) that is being divided by (x – b) only if p(b) = 0.

Given Polynomial can be written as,

Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

By using the division algorithm,

p(x) = (x – b) q(x) + remainder

where,

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

70
p(x) is the dividend (x – b) is the divisor

q(x) is the quotient

What is a Factor Theorem?

Factor theorem is commonly used for factoring a polynomial and finding the
roots of the polynomial. It is a special case of a polynomial remainder theorem.

As discussed in the introduction, a polynomial f(x) has a factor (x-a), if and

only if, f(a) = 0. It is one of the methods to do the factorisation of a polynomial.

Problems and Solutions

Factor theorem example and solution are given below. Go through once and
get a clear understanding of this theorem. Factor theorem class 9 maths
polynomial enables the children to get a knowledge of finding the roots of
quadratic expressions and the polynomial equations, which is used for solving
complex problems in your higher studies.

Consider the polynomial function f(x)= x2 +2x -15

The values of x for which f(x)=0 are called the roots of the function.

Solving the equation, assume f(x)=0, we get:

x2 +2x -15 =0
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

71
x2 +5x – 3x -15 =0

(x+5)(x-3)=0

(x+5)=0 or (x-3)=0

x = -5 or x = 3

Because (x+5) and (x-3) are factors of x2 +2x -15, -5 and 3 are the solutions
to the equation x2 +2x -15=0, we can also check these as follows:

If x = -5 is the solution, then

f(x)= x2 +2x -15

f(-5) = (-5)2 + 2(-5) – 15

f(-5) = 25-10-15

f(-5)=25-25

f(-5)=0

If x=3 is the solution, then;

f(x)= x2 +2x -15

f(3)= 32 +2(3) – 15

f(3) = 9 +6 -15

f(3) = 15-15

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

72
f(3)= 0

If the remainder is zero, (x-c) is a polynomial of f(x).

Long Division of Polynomials

When attempting to find the roots of a polynomial, it will be useful to be able

to divide that polynomial by other polynomials. Here we'll learn how.

Long division of polynomials is a lot like long division of real numbers. If the
polynomials involved were written in fraction form, the numerator would be
the dividend, and the denominator would be the divisor. To divide polynomials
using long division, first divide the first term of the dividend by the first term
of the divisor. This is the first term of the quotient. Multiply the new term by
the divisor, and subtract this product from the dividend. This difference is the
new dividend. Repeat these steps, using the difference as the new dividend
until the first term of the divisor is of a greater degree than the new dividend.
The last "new dividend" whose degree is less than that of the divisor is the
remainder. If the remainder is zero, the divisor divided evenly into the
dividend. In the example below, f (x) = x4 +4x3 + x - 10 is divided by g(x) = x2
+ 3x - 5.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

73
Tangent line to a Polynomial

1. Introduction

Consider a function f (x) such as that shown in Figure 1. When we calculate

the derivative, f ′, of the function at a point x = a say, we are finding the
gradient of the tangent to the graph of that function at that point. Figure 1
shows the tangent drawn at x = a. The gradient of this tangent is f ′(a).

Figure 1. The tangent drawn at x = a has gradient f ′(a).

We will use this information to calculate the equation of the tangent to a curve
at a particular point, and then the equation of the normal to a curve at a point.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

74
Calculating the equation of a tangent

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

75
Division Algorithm for Polynomials Statement

The division algorithm for polynomials states that, if p(x) and g(x) are any two
polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find polynomials q(x) and r(x) such
that

p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x)

where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).

Here,

p(x) represents the dividend polynomial

g(x) represents the divisor polynomial

q(x) represents the quotient polynomial

r(x) represents the remainder polynomial

Division Algorithm for Polynomials Example

Go through the below-provided example to understand the division algorithm

for polynomials, which is given in step by step procedure.

Example 1:
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

76
Divide the cubic polynomial 3x3+x2+2x+5 by the quadratic polynomial
1+2x+x2.

Solution:

Given:

Dividend = 3x3+x2+2x+5

Divisor = 1+2x+x2

Step 1: Arrange the terms of the dividend and divisor polynomial in the
decreasing order of their degrees.

Therefore, dividend = 3x3+x2+2x+5, divisor = x2+2x+1.

Step 2: To get the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of
the dividend (3x3) by the highest degree term of the divisor (x2), which results
in the quotient 3x, and carry out the division process. Hence, the remainder
obtained in the first step of the division process is -5x2-x+5.

Step 3: Now, to get the second term of the quotient, divide the first term of
the new dividend (i.e) -5x2-x+5, by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e.,
x2). Hence, the second term of the quotient obtained is -5 and continues the
division process with -5x2-x+5. Hence, the remainder obtained in the second
step of the division process is 9x+10. Since the degree of the remainder
(9x+10) is less than the degree of the divisor ( x2+2x+1), we cannot continue
the division process further.

Hence, quotient = 3x-5 and remainder is 9x+10.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

77
Rational Function

A rational function is a ratio of polynomials where the polynomial in the

denominator shouldn't be equal to zero. Isn't it resembling the definition of a
rational number (which is of the form p/q, where q ≠ 0)? Did you know
Rational functions find application in different fields in our day-to-day life?
Not only do they describe the relationship between speed, distance, and time,
but also are widely used in the medical and engineering industry.

Let us learn more about rational functions along with how to graph it, its
domain, range, asymptotes, etc along with solved examples.

What is a Rational Function?

A rational function is a function that is the ratio of polynomials. Any function

of one variable, x, is called a rational function if, it can be represented as f(x)

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

78
= p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials such that q(x) ≠ 0. For
example, f(x) = (x2 + x - 2) / (2x2 - 2x - 3) is a rational function and here, 2x2
- 2x - 3 ≠ 0.

We know that every constant is a polynomial and hence the numerators of a

rational function can be constants also. For example, f(x) = 1/(3x+1) can be a
rational function. But note that the denominators of rational functions cannot
be constants. For example, f(x) = (2x + 3) / 4 is NOT a rational function, rather,
it is a linear function.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

79
Domain and Range of Rational Function

Any fraction is not defined when its denominator is equal to 0. This is the key
point that is used in finding the domain and range of a rational function.

Domain of Rational Function

The domain of a rational function is the set of all x-values that the function
can take. To find the domain of a rational function y = f(x):

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

80
  Set the denominator ≠ 0 and solve it for x.
 Set of all real numbers other than the values of x mentioned in the last
step is the domain.

Example: Find the domain of f(x) = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).

Solution:

We set the denominator not equal to zero.

3x - 2 ≠ 0
x ≠ 2/3

Thus, the domain = {x ∈ R | x ≠ 2/3}

Range of Rational Function

The range of a rational function is the set of all outputs (y-values) that it
produces. To find the range of a rational function y= f(x):

 If we have f(x) in the equation, replace it with y.

 Solve the equation for x.
 Set the denominator of the resultant equation ≠ 0 and solve it for y.
 Set of all real numbers other than the values of y mentioned in the last
step is the range.

Example: Find the range of f(x) = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2).

Solution:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

81
Let us replace f(x) with y. Then y = (2x + 1) / (3x - 2). Now, we will solve this
for x.

(3x - 2) y = (2x + 1)
3xy - 2y = 2x + 1
3xy - 2x = 2y + 1
x (3y - 2) = (2y + 1)
x = (2y + 1) / (3y - 2)

Now (3y - 2) ≠ 0
y ≠ 2/3

So the range = {y ∈ R | y ≠ 2/3}

Asymptotes of Rational Function

A rational function can have three types of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical,

and slant asymptotes. Apart from these, it can have holes as well. Let us see
how to find each of them.

Holes of a Rational Function

The holes of a rational function are points that seem that they are present on
the graph of the rational function but they are actually not present. They can
be obtained by setting the linear factors that are common factors of both
numerator and denominator of the function equal to zero and solving for x.
We can find the corresponding y-coordinates of the points by substituting the
x-values in the simplified function. Every rational function does NOT need to

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

82
have holes. Holes exist only when numerator and denominator have linear
common factors.

Example: Find the holes of the function f(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6) / (x2 + x - 2).

Solution:

Let us factorize the numerator and denominator and see whether there are any
common factors.

f(x) = [ (x + 2)(x + 3) ] / [ (x + 2) (x - 1) ]
= [ ̶(̶x̶ ̶+̶ ̶2̶)̶(x + 3) ] / [ ̶(̶x̶ ̶+̶ ̶2̶)̶ (x - 1) ]
= (x + 3) / (x - 1)

Since (x + 2) was striked off, there is a hole at x = -2. Its y-coordinate is f(-2)
= (-2 + 3) / (-2 - 1) = -1/3.

Thus, there is a hole at (-2, -1/3).

Vertical Asymptote of a Rational Function

A vertical asymptote (VA) of a function is an imaginary vertical line to which

its graph appears to be very close but never touch. It is of the form x = some
number. Here, "some number" is closely connected to the excluded values
from the domain. But note that there cannot be a vertical asymptote at x =
some number if there is a hole at the same number. A rational function may
have one or more vertical asymptotes. So to find the vertical asymptotes of a
rational function:

 Simplify the function first to cancel all common factors (if any).
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

83
  Set the denominator = 0 and solve for (x) (or equivalently just get the
excluded values from the domain by avoiding the holes).
 Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of the function f(x) = (x 2 + 5x +
6) / (x2 + x - 2).
 Solution:
 We have already seen that this function simplifies to f(x) = (x + 3) / (x -
1).
 Setting the denominator to 0, we get
 x - 1 = 0
x=1
 Thus, there is a VA of the given rational function is, x = 1.
 Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function
 A horizontal asymptote (HA) of a function is an imaginary horizontal
line to which its graph appears to be very close but never touch. It is of
the form y = some number. Here, "some number" is closely connected
to the excluded values from the range. A rational function can have at
most one horizontal asymptote. Easy way to find the horizontal
asymptote of a rational function is using the degrees of the numerator
(N) and denominators (D).
 if N < D, then there is a HA at y = 0.
 If N > D, then there is no HA.
 If N = D, then the HA is y = ratio of the leading coefficients.

Example: Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of the function f(x) = (x 2 +
5x + 6) / (x2 + x - 2).

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

84
Solution:

Here the degree of the numerator is, N = 2, and the degree of the denominator
is, D = 2.

Since N = D, the HA is y = (leading coefficient of numerator) / (leading

coefficient of denominator) = 1/1 = 1.

Thus, the HA is y = 1.

Slant (Oblique) Asymptotes of a Rational Function

A slant asymptote is also an imaginary oblique line to which a part of the graph
appears to touch. A rational function has a slant asymptote only when the
degree of the numerator (N) is exactly one greater than the degree of the
denominator (D). Its equation is y = quotient that is obtained by dividing the
numerator by denominator using the long division.

Example: Find the slant asymptote of the function f(x) = x2/(x+1).

Solution:

Here the degree of numerator is 2 and that of denominator = 1. So it has a slant

asymptote.

Let us divide x2 by (x + 1) by long division (or we can use synthetic division

as well).

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

85
Thus, the slant asymptote is y = x - 1.

Graphing Rational Functions

Here are the steps for graphing a rational function:

1. Identify and draw the vertical asymptote using a dotted line.

2. Identify and draw the horizontal asymptote using a dotted line.
3. Plot the holes (if any)
4. Find x-intercept (by using y = 0) and y-intercept (by x = 0) and plot them.
5. Draw a table of two columns x and y and place the x-intercepts and
vertical asymptotes in the table. Then take some random numbers in the
x-column on either side of each of the x-intercepts and vertical
asymptotes.
6. Compute the corresponding y-values by substituting each of them in the
function.
7. Plot all points from the table and join them curves without touching the
asymptotes.

Example: Graph the rational function f(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6) / (x2 + x - 2).

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

86
Solution:

We have already identified that its VA is x = 1, its HA is y = 1, and the hole

is at (-2, -1/3). We use dotted lines for asymptotes so that we can take care that
the graph doesn't touch those lines. Note that, the simplified form of the given
function is, f(x) = (x + 3) / (x - 1). Now, we will find the intercepts.

 For x-intercept, put y = 0. Then we get 0 = (x + 3) / (x - 1) ⇒ x + 3 = 0

⇒ x = -3. So the x-intercept is at (-3, 0).
 For y-intercept, put x = 0. Then we get y = (0 + 3) / (0 - 1) ⇒ y = -3. So
the y-intercept is at (0, -3).

We have the VA at x = 1 and x-intercept is at x = -3. Let us construct a table

now with these two values in the column of x and some random numbers on
either side of each of these numbers -3 and 1.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

87
Inverse of a Rational Function

To find the inverse of a rational function y = f(x):

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

88
  Replace f(x) with y.
 Interchange x and y.
 Solve the resultant equation for y.
 The result would give the inverse f-1(x).

Example: Find the inverse of the rational function f(x) = (2x - 1) / (x + 3).

Solution:

The given function can be written as:

y = (2x - 1) / (x + 3)

Interchanging x and y:

x = (2y - 1) / (y + 3)

Now, we will solve for y.

x(y + 3) = 2y - 1

xy + 3x = 2y - 1

3x + 1 = 2y - xy

3x + 1 = y (2 - x)

Important Notes on Rational Function:

 A rational function equation is of the form f(x) = P(x) / Q(x), where Q(x)
≠ 0.
 Every rational function has at least one vertical asymptote.
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

89
  Every rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote.
 Every rational function has at most one slant asymptote.
 The excluded values of the domain of a rational function help to identify
the VAs.
 The excluded values of the range of a rational function help to identify
the HAs.
 The linear factors that get canceled when a rational function is simplified
would give us the holes.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

90
CHAPTER 4. Vector spaces and Euclidean vector spaces
2: Vectors in Euclidean Space
In single-variable calculus, the functions that one encounters are functions of a variable
(usually x or t) that varies over some subset of the real number line (which we denote by
R). For such a function, say, y=f(x), the graph of the function f consists of the points
(x,y)=(x,f(x)). These points lie in the Euclidean plane, which, in the Cartesian or
rectangular coordinate system, consists of all ordered pairs of real numbers (a,b). We
use the word ``Euclidean'' to denote a system in which all the usual rules of Euclidean
geometry hold. We denote the Euclidean plane by R2; the "2'' represents the number of
dimensions of the plane. The Euclidean plane has two perpendicular coordinate axes: the
x-axis and the y-axis.
In vector (or multivariable) calculus, we will deal with functions of two or three variables
(usually x,y or x,y,z, respectively). The graph of a function of two variables, say, z=f(x,y),
lies in Euclidean space, which in the Cartesian coordinate system consists of all ordered
triples of real numbers (a,b,c). Since Euclidean space is 3-dimensional, we denote it by
R3. The graph of f consists of the points (x,y,z)=(x,y,f(x,y)). The 3-dimensional coordinate
system of Euclidean space can be represented on a flat surface, such as this page or a
blackboard, only by giving the illusion of three dimensions, in the manner shown in
Figure 1.1.1 . Euclidean space has three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes (x,y and
z), and three mutually perpendicular coordinate planes\index{plane!coordinate}: the xy-
plane, yz-plane and xz-plane (Figure 1.1.2 ).

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

91
The coordinate system shown in Figure 1.1.1 is known as a right-handed coordinate
system, because it is possible, using the right hand, to point the index finger in the positive
direction of the x-axis, the middle finger in the positive direction of the y-axis, and the
thumb in the positive direction of the z-axis, as in Figure 1.1.3

Definition 1.1.2 Two nonzero vectors are equal

if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. Any vector with zero magnitude
is equal to the zero vector.
By this definition, vectors with the same magnitude and direction but with different initial
points would be equal. For example, in Figure 1.1.5 the vectors u
, v and w all have the same magnitude 5–√ (by the Pythagorean Theorem). And we see
that u and w are parallel, since they lie on lines having the same slope 12, and they point
in the same direction. So u=w, even though they have different initial points. We also see
that v is parallel to u but points in the opposite direction. So u≠v.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

92
So we can see that there are an infinite number of vectors for a given magnitude and
direction, those vectors all being equal and differing only by their initial and terminal
points. Is there a single vector which we can choose to represent all those equal vectors?
The answer is yes, and is suggested by the vector w in Figure 1.1.5
.
Unless otherwise indicated, when speaking of "the vector" with a given magnitude and
direction, we will mean the one whose initial point is at the origin of the coordinate
system.
Recall the distance formula for points in the Euclidean plane:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

93
Vector Algebra
A scalar is a quantity that can be represented by a single number.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

94
Dot Product
You may have noticed that while we did define multiplication of a vector by a scalar in
the previous section on vector algebra, we did not define multiplication of a vector by a
vector. We will now see one type of multiplication of vectors, called the dot product.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

95
Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar, not a vector. So the associative law
that holds for multiplication of numbers and for addition of vectors (see Theorem 1.5
(b),(e)), does not hold for the dot product of vectors. Why? Because for vectors u, v, w,
the dot product u⋅v is a scalar, and so (u⋅v)⋅w is not defined since the left side of that dot
product (the part in parentheses) is a scalar and not a vector.
For vectors v=v1i+v2j+v3k and w=w1i+w2j+w3k in component form, the dot product is
still v⋅w=v1w1+v2w2+v3w3
Also notice that we defined the dot product in an analytic way, i.e. by referencing vector
coordinates. There is a geometric way of defining the dot product, which we will now
develop as a consequence of the analytic definition.

Two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if the angle between them is 90∘. Since cos90∘=0,
we have the following important corollary to Theorem 1.6:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

96
Cross Product
In Section 1.3 we defined the dot product, which gave a way of multiplying two vectors.
The resulting product, however, was a scalar, not a vector. In this section we will define

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

97
a product of two vectors that does result in another vector. This product, called the cross
product, is only defined for vectors in R3. The definition may appear strange and lacking
motivation, but we will see the geometric basis for it shortly.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

98
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

99
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
0
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
1
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
2
Lines and Planes

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

10
3
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
4
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
5
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
6
Surfaces

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

10
7
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
8
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
10
9
Curvilinear Coordinates

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
0
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
11
1
Exercises

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
2
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
11
3
Chapter 5: MATRICES
After studying this chapter you will acquire the skills in
knowledge on matrices
Knowledge on matrix operations.
Matrix as a tool of solving linear equations with two or three unknowns.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
4
Chapter I: Introduction of Matrices
1.1 Definition 1:
A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers, in m rows and n columns and enclosed within a
bracket is called a matrix. We shall denote matrices by capital letters as A,B, C etc.

Remark: A matrix is not just a collection of elements but every element has assigned a definite position in a
particular row and column
1.2 Special Types of Matrices:
1. Square matrix:
A matrix in which numbers of rows are equal to number of columns is called a square matrix.

2. Diagonal matrix:

3. Identity Matrix

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
5
5. Lower Triangular Matrix:

. Skew- Symmetric Matrix:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
6
8. Zero Matrix:

9. Row Vector
A matrix consists a single row is called as a row vector or row matrix.

10. Column Vector

A matrix consists a single column is called a column vector or column matrix.

Equality of two matrices:

Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if
(i) They are of same order.
(ii) Their corresponding elements are equal.

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
7
2.2. Scalar multiple of a matrix

Addition of two matrices:

Multiplication of two matrices:

2.5. Integral power of Matrices:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
8
2.6. Properties of the Matrices

2.7. Transpose:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

11
9
Determinant, Minor and Adjoint Matrices

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

12
0
3.2 Singular Matrix

3.3. Minor and Cofactors:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

12
1
Inverse of a Matrix and Elementary Row Operations
4.1 Inverse of a Matrix
Definition 4.1:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

12
2
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
12
3
5.2 Using Elementary row operations: (Gaussian Elimination)

Eigen values and Eigenvectors:

[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259

12
4
[Link] NZIFACK JEAN ROMARIC 679894259
12
5