Chapter 1

Fluid Properties and Manometry

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Shear and Normal Stresses ☞ Coefficient of Volume Expansion

☞ Fluid Properties ☞ Capillarity
☞ Variation of Viscosity of Fluids with Temperature ☞ Pressure
☞ Velocity Gradient ☞ Atmospheric, Absolute and Gaugepressure
☞ Aliter ☞ pressure Varying with Elevation or Depth
☞ Classification of Fluids (for Static Fluids)
☞ Ideal Fluid or Perfect Fluid ☞ Pressure Varying Horizontally (for Static Fluids)
☞ Real Fluid ☞ Pascal’s Law
☞ Newtonian Fluid ☞ Manometry (Some Cases to Measure the Gauge
Pressure)
☞ Non-Newtonian Fluid
☞ Simple Manometers
☞ Time Independent Non-newtonian Fluids
☞ Piezometer
☞ Time Dependent Non-newtonian Fluids
☞ U-tube Manometer
☞ Apparent Viscosity
☞ Vertical Single Column Manometer
☞ Kinematic Viscosity
☞ Differential Manometers
☞ Vapour Pressure

Introduction resistance, i.e., it offers negligible resistance towards an

applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change the
Fluid Mechanics is defined as the science that deals with
shape of the fluid body.
a fluid’s behaviour, when it is at rest for in motion, and the
fluid’s interaction with other fluids or solids at the bound- Shear and Normal Stresses
aries. Fluid Statics deals with fluids at rest while Fluid
Dynamics deals with fluids in motion. Fluid statics is gener- Stress is defined as force per unit area (area upon which the
ally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is a liquid. force acts). Let us consider a small area dA, on the surface
of a fluid element, on which a force F acts as shown in the
What is a Fluid? figure below.
If the tangential and normal components of the force F
Matter can be primarily classified as: (a) Solids (b) Liquids
are respectively Ft and Fn, then
and (c) Gases
Inter–molecular Normal to the surface
Matter
Space Cohesive forces
Solids Small Large
Fn F
Liquids Large Small q
Tangent to the
Gases Very large Very small Ft surface
d
Fluid element surface
Liquids and gases (including vapours) are commonly
referred to as fluids. A fluid is defined as a substance that
deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress
Shear stress (τ) at the surface of the fluid element
of any magnitude, i.e., when subjected to an external shear
F F cos θ
force, of any magnitude, a fluid will deform continuously = t =
as long as the force is applied. A fluid has negligible shear dA dA

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 3.390 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

Normal stress at the surface of the fluid element Solution:

Fn F sin θ Pressure is an example for a normal stress. In static fluids,
= =
dA dA the pressure at a given position is equal to the normal stress
at that position.
Normal stress and shear stress are vector quantities Example 3: On an area of 0.1 cm2 at the surface of a static
fluid element, a force of 40 N is observed to act in the
outward direction. If the force acts at an angle a from the
For a static fluid body, i.e., a body of fluid that is at rest
tangential plane at the point of application of the force, and
or has zero velocity, the shear stress is always zero. Also
the fluid still remains Static then the value of a is
for static fluids, the normal stress is always positive.
(A) 0° (B) 30°
(C) 45° (D) 90°
Solved Examples Solution:
Example 1: A force F1 (=20 N) is applied on an area A1 F cos α
(=0.1 cm2) at the surface of a fluid element in the outward Shear stress acting on the given area =
A
direction. The force F1 acts at an angle of 60° from the
tangential plane at the point of application of the force. F sin α
Another force F2 (=60 N) is applied, in the same manner as
the force F1, on an another area A2 (=0.2 cm2) at the surface
of the same fluid element. The ratio of the normal stress at ∝
area A1 to the shear stress at area A2 is
F cos α
(A) 2 : 3 (B) 2 : 3 3 Area d A
(C) 2 : 3 (D) 1 : 3
For a static fluid element, Shear stress = 0
Solution:
Area A1: F cos α
⇒ =0
F 1 sin 60° A
F1
or cos a = 0 ( ∵ F ≠ 0, A ≠ ∞)
\ a = 90°

q = 60°
F 1 cos 60°
Fluid Properties
Normal stress acting on area A1
Density (Mass Density or Specific Mass)
F1 sin 60° 20 3 N Density is defined as mass per unit volume. If m is the mass of
= = × = 3 × 106 2
A1 0.1 × 10 −4 2 m a fluid body having a volume V, then the density of the fluid,
m
Area A2: denoted by r, is ρ = . The S.I., unit of density is kg .
V m3
F 2 sin 60°
F2
For practical calculations, the density of water is taken to be
kg g Kg
the density of water at 4°C which is1000 3 or 1 3 or 1 .
m cm L
q = 60° For most gases, density is inversely proportional to the tem-
F 2 cos 60°
perature and proportional to pressure. For liquids, variations in
Shear stress acting on area A2 pressure and temperature induce a small (negligible) variation
in the density.
F2 cos 60° 60 × 1 N
= = = 1.5 × 106 2
A2 −
0.2 × 10 × 2
4 m Example 4: A gas behaves like a real gas at temperature
Ratio of the normal stress at area A1 to the shear stress at area A2 T1 and pressure P1. The gas can be made to behave
approximately like an ideal gas by either changing the
3 × 106 2 temperature from T1 to T2 or by changing the pressure from
= = or = 2 : 3
1.5 × 10 6
3 P1 to P2. One may then conclude that

Example 2: An example for a normal stress is (A) T2 > T1 and P2 < P1 (B) T2 < T1 and P2 < P1
(A) Volume (B) shear stress (C) T2 > T1 and P2 > P1 (D) T2 < T1 and P2 > P1
(C) Pressure (D) temperature

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Solution: ρA gA
= (1)
Real gases have been experimentally observed to behave ρB g B
like ideal gases at low densities. ω A 12 g 4
The density of most gases can be reduced by increasing the It is given that = and A =
ωB 1 gB 1
⎛ 1⎞
temperature ⎜ as ρα ⎟ or by decreasing the pressure (as ρA 3
⎝ T⎠ From equation (1), we have =
r a P). ρB 1
\ T2 > T1 and P2 < P1 Specific gravity of fluid A
⎛ρ ⎞
Specific Volume   = specific gravity of fluid B × ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ ρB ⎠
Specific volume is defined as volume per unit mass. The   = 1.2 × 3 = 3.6.
reciprocal of a fluid’s density (r) is its specific volume (v), Density of fluid A = (specific gravity of fluid A) × (density
1 V M3 of pure water at 4°C)
i.e., ν = ρ = m . The S.I unit of specific volume is .
kg g
= 3.6 × 1 = 3.6 3 .
cm
Specific Weight (weight Density) Example 6: When two immiscible liquids A and B are poured
Specific weight is defined as weight per unit volume. The into a cylindrical container, then these separate out into two
W mg distinct layers of different heights as shown in the following
specific weight of a fluid, ω = = = ρ g , where g figure. The specific gravity of liquid A is thrice that of the
V V
liquid B. If the ratio h1 : h2 is 2 : 1, then the ratio of the mass
is the acceleration due to gravity and W, V, m and r are of the liquid A to the mass of the liquid B in the container is
respectively the weight, volume, mass and density of the
kg N
fluid. The S.I. unit of specific weight is or . For
m 2 s 2 m3
practical calculations, the specific weight of water is taken B h1
kN
to be 9.81 .
m3
A h2
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
Specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid (A) 1 : 6 (B) 2 : 3 (C) 6 : 1 (D) 3 : 2
to the density of a standard fluid. The standard fluid is taken
to be pure water at 4°C. Sometimes for gases, the standard Solution:
fluid is taken to be air at standard temperature and pressure. If mA and mB are the masses of the liquids A and B
Specific gravity of a fluid, respectively in the container, then m A = SG AVA , where
mB SGBVB
ρfluid ω fluid
SGfluid = = SG is the fluid’s specific gravity and V is the volume of the
ρstandard fluid ω standard fluid
fluid. Since the specific gravity of liquid A is greater than
Where w is the specific weight? Specific gravity is a dimen- that of liquid B (SGA = 3 × SGB), liquid A is denser. Hence,
sionless quantity, i.e., it has no units. For practical calcula- the height h2 corresponds to the liquid A, i.e., VA = h2 × a,
tions, the specific gravities of water and mercury are taken where a is the area of the container base and VB = h1 × a
to be 1 and 13.6 respectively.
Example 5: The specific weight of a body of fluid A is m A SG A h2 3
∴ = = .
twelve times that of a body of fluid B. The acceleration due mB SGB h1 2
to gravity acting on the fluid A is four times that acting on
the fluid B. If the specific gravity of fluid B is 1.2, then the Viscosity
⎛ g ⎞ Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which
density of fluid A: ⎜ in 3 ⎟ is it resists fluid flow, i.e., viscosity represents the inter-
⎝ cm ⎠
nal resistance (fluid friction) of a fluid to motion (or the
(A) 57.6 (B) 3.6 (C) 14.4 (D) 0.4 ­fluidity) or to shearing stresses. The S.I. unit of viscosity
Solution: kg Ns
is or or Pa.s. Another unit (in C.G.S. units) for
Specific weight of fluid A ω A ms m2
= viscosity is poise.
Specific weight of fluid B ω B

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 3.392 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

where
Ns
1 poise = 0.1 m = viscosity at absolute temperature T
m2 m0 = viscosity at absolute temperature T0
Viscosity of water, for practical calculations, is taken to be 1 S = Sutherland temperature of the gas (in Kelvin)
centipoise or 0.01 poise. The device that measures viscosity
is called a viscometer. Velocity Gradient
Variation of Viscosity of Fluids with Consider the flow of a fluid over a solid surface as shown in
Temperature the figure below. Consider in this fluid flow, two fluid lay-
ers which are at a distance ‘dy’ apart. The upper fluid layer
The cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer (at y + dy) is assumed to move at a velocity of u + du while the
result in viscous forces in fluids. lower fluid layer (at y) is assumed to move at a velocity of u.
Since temperature affects the cohesive forces and molec-
y
ular momentum transfer, viscosity of fluids are affected by
variations in temperature.
Upper
y + dy u + du
For Liquids dy
layer
Lower
As liquids have a closely packed molecular structure (com- y u
layer
pared to gases), cohesive forces dominate over the molecu-
lar momentum transfer. With increase in temperature, the
u
cohesive forces decrease in liquids, which in turn decreases
the viscosity? Solid Surface
Hence viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in tem-
Then, the velocity gradient
perature and vice versa.
The relation between viscosity and temperature in
(u + du ) − u du
­liquids is: = =
( y + dy ) − y dy
⎡ 1 ⎤
μ = μ0 ⎢ ⎥,
⎣1 + α t + β t ⎦
2
du Δu u y = y2 − u y = y1
where ≈ =
dy Δy y2 − y1
m = viscosity of liquid at t°C, in poise
m0 = viscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise This equation is valid when y2 is very close to y1 or for a
a, b = constants for the liquid linear velocity profile.
The viscosity of water at 1°C is 1 centipoise. Now consider a fluid layer between two very large paral-
Liquids with increasing order of viscosity are gasoline, lel plates, separated by a distance  , as shown in the follow-
water, crude oil, castor oil etc. ing figure.
Upper plate u = Vu
Gases y=
Force F
In the case of gases, the molecular momentum transfer Velocity Vu
dominates over the cohesive forces. As the temperature
increases, molecular momentum transfer also increases.

Hence the viscosity of gases increases with increase in
temperature and vice versa. y
The relation between viscosity and temperature for gases is: y=0 x

m = m0 + at - bt2 Lower plate Velocity

u = V
where V
m = viscosity of gas at t°C, in poise (Vu > V)
m0 = viscosity of gas at 0°C, in poise Let a constant parallel force F be applied to the upper plate
a, b = constants for the gas which would move it at a constant speed Vu, after the initial
The relation between absolute temperature (T) and dynamic dynamics. This force would move the fluid layer in contact
viscosity of an ideal gas is given by Sutherland equation, with the upper plate at the same speed Vu in the direction
of motion of the upper plate (due to no-slip condition).
3
μ ⎛ T ⎞ 2 (T0 + S ) Similarly, if the lower plate moves with a velocity V ) the
Which is = , fluid in contact with the lower plate would move with the
μ0 ⎜⎝ T0 ⎟⎠ (T + S )
same velocity V in the direction of motion of the lower plate.

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.393

If the fluid flow between the plates is steady and laminar, Example 7: The viscosity of the fluid is
then a linear velocity profile is seen to develop in the fluid (A) 0.2 poise (B) 2 poise
layer. That is, the fluid velocity between the plates varies (C) 0 poise (D) 0.1 poise
linearly between V and Vu.
For the linear velocity profile, the velocity gradient Solution:
Let the parabolic velocity distribution be
du Vu − V Vu − V
= =
dy −0  u ( y) = ay 2 + by + c(1)
y
The linear velocity profile is given by u( y ) = (Vu − V )

Case 1: When the lower plate is held fixed
Vertex of the
In this case, V = 0. Therefore, the velocity gradient parabola
(u = 1.5 m/s)
du Vu y 10 cm
=
dy 
Case 2: When the lower plate moves in the direction oppo- Solid surface
site to that of the upper plate motion
At y = 0, u = 0 (no slip condition)
In this case, velocity gradient \ From equation (1), we have c = 0
\ u ( y) = ay 2 + by(2)
du Vu − ( −V ) Vu + V
= = m
dy   At y = 0.1 m(10 cm), u = 1.5
s
For a fluid element, it can be shown that the velocity gradi- \ From equation (2), we have:
ent is equivalent to the rate of deformation or the rate of 150 = a + 10 b (3)
angular displacement or the rate of shear strain.
At the vertex of the parabolic velocity distribution, i.e., at
du
y = 0.1 m (10 cm), we have, =0
Newton’s Law of Viscosity dy
When two fluid layers move relative to each other, the vis- Hence, from equation (2), we have,
cosity and the relative velocity causes a shear stress to act 2a + 10b = 0 (4)
between the fluid layers. The top fluid layer causes a shear Solving equations (3) and (4), we get a = -150 and b = 30
stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower fluid layer
\ u( y) = -150 y 2 + 30 y(5)
causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. Newton’s law
of viscosity states that the shear stress acting on a fluid layer At y = 0.05 m (5 cm),
is directly proportional to the rate of deformation or the N
velocity gradient, i.e., τ = 30
m2
du du ⎛ du ⎞
τα or τ=μ i.e., 30 = μ ⎜ ⎟ (6)
dy dy ⎝ dy ⎠ y = 0.05
where m is known as the coefficient of viscosity or the ∵ Fluid follows Newton’s law of viscosity.
dynamic viscosity or the absolute viscosity or simply as vis- Inserting the differential of equation (5) in equation (6)
cosity. Fluids which follow this law are generally referred to and substituting the value of y by 0.05, we get
as Newtonian fluids.
For most fluids, shear stress is directly proportional to Ns
μ=2 = 0.2 poise
the velocity gradient or the rate of deformation or the rate of m2
angular displacement or the rate of shear strain. Example 8: The shear stress at the solid surface is
Direction for questions 7 and 8: A fluid flowing over a flat N N
(A) 30 (B) 10
solid surface develops a parabolic velocity distribution. The m2 m2
vertex of the parabolic distribution is situated 10 cm away N N
from the solid surface, where the fluid velocity is 1.5 m/s. (C) 60 2 (D) 0
m m2
The shear stress at a point 5 cm from the solid surface is
N Solution:
determined to be 30 . The fluid follows Newton’s law du
m 2 Now, shear stress τ = μ
of viscosity. dy

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 3.394 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

du Fluid Plate
From equation (5), = −300 y + 30
dy
At the solid surface, y = 0
\ Shear stress at the wall 60°
⎛ du ⎞ N W cos 60° W sin 60°
= μ⎜ ⎟ = 2 × 30 = 60 2 . W 60°
⎝ dy ⎠ y = 0 m

Example 9: A square thin plate, of length 80 cm and mass \ Constant force to be applied
30 kg, slides parallel to a solid plane surface inclined at = 384 - W sin 60°
an angle of 60° to the horizontal. A Newtonian fluid layer 3
of thickness 2 mm is present in between the plate and the = 384 − 30 × 9.81 × = 129.13 N
2
plane surface. Had the plane been horizontal, a constant
Example 10: In a journal bearing of length 500 mm,
force of 192 N would have been required to move the plate
a 200 mm diameter shaft is rotating at 1000 r.p.m. The
at a constant velocity of 3 m/s. If the fluid’s velocity profile
uniform space between the shaft and the journal bearing
can be assumed to be linear, then the constant force to be
is completely filled with an oil (Newtonian fluid) having a
applied, parallel to the inclined plane, on the plate to make
viscosity of 900 centipoise. If energy is being dissipated as
it slide at a instant velocity of 6 m/s is
(A) 254.87 N (B) 129.13 N kJ
heat at the rate of 15.5 , while overcoming friction and
(C) 384 N (D) 89.7 N sec
the velocity profile in the oil is linear, then the thickness of
Solution: the oil layer between the shaft and the bearing is
When the plane is horizontal (A) 5 mm (B) 1 mm
(C) 2 mm (D) 3 mm
u=V
Plate (area = A) Force F Solution:
Velocity V The rate of energy dissipation as heat, while overcoming
friction, can be considered to be the power dissipated as heat
or the power utilized (or lost) to overcome the resistance
 imparted by the fluid viscosity.
y 

δ
Stationary plane
d
F du
Here, shear stress τ = = μ
A dy
∵ Fluid is Newtonian
du V Oil (viscosity = µ)
Since the velocity profile is linear, =
dy 
If the shaft is rotating at N rpm., then the tangential velocity
μ AV
∴ F= (1) π dN
 of the shaft, u = , where d is the diameter of the
60
Given F = 192 N, V = 3 m/s,
A = 0.8 × 0.8 m2 and l = 0.002 m. Substituting these values π × 0.2 × 1000 m
shaft ∴ u = = 10.472
Ns 60 s
in equation (1), we get μ = 0.2 2 .
m We have F = μ A dϑ
When the plane is inclined: Constant force to be applied on dy
the plate to make it slide down with a constant velocity of
6 m/s, ⎛ 10.472 ⎞
0.9 × 0.2 × 0.5 ⎜ (1)
μ AV 0.2 × 0.8 × 0.8 × 6 ⎝ δ ⎟⎠
F= = = 384 N
 0.002 But F × u = P = 15500
Part of this constant force to be applied will be taken care of 15500
F= = 1480.14,
by the component of the weight of the plate in the downward 10.472
direction parallel to the inclined plane surface, i.e., by W sin 60° \ From (1) δ = 2 mm.

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Example 11: A solid cylinder of diameter d, length  and Aliter: At the condition of terminal velocity force of the
density rc falls due to gravity inside a pipe of diameter D. drag is the weight. Force of drag
The clearance between the solid cylinder and the pipe is filled F = 6pam v
with a Newtonian fluid of density r and m. For this clearance Where m = the Coeff of viscosity
fluid, the terminal velocity of the cylinder is determined to \ FD a mv
be V, assuming a linear velocity profile. However, if the \ m v1 = m2 v2
clearance fluid was changed to a Newtonian fluid of density μv μv v1
2r and viscosity 2m, then for an assumed linear velocity v2 = 1 1 = 1 1 =
μ2 2 μ1 2
profile, the terminal velocity of the cylinder was determined v1
to be V1. From the results of these experiments, one may v2 = .
2
write that
(A) V1 = V (B) V = 2 V1 Example 12: A vertical gap, of width 5 cm and of an infinite
(C) 2 V = V1 (D) V = 4 V1 Ns
extent, contains a Newtonian fluid of viscosity 3 and
m2
Solution: specific gravity 0.5. A metal plate (1.5 m × 1.5 m × 0.5 cm)
Resolving the forces acting on the cylinder, F = W - Fd or with a weight of 50 N is to be lifted with a constant velocity
ma = W - Fd , of 0.5 m/s as shown in the following figure.

Metal plate

Viscous drag (Fd )

W
Vertical gap
containing a fluid

F = ma If the plate is lifted such that the plate is parallely apart from
where m, W and a are the mass, weight and acceleration the left side of the gap by a distance of 2 cm always, then the
respectively of the solid cylinder. force required to pull the plate, neglecting buoyancy effects
When the cylinder attains terminal velocity, a = 0 and assuming linear velocity profiles, is
(A) 468.81 N (B) 929 N
\ W – Fd = 0 (1) (C) 353.75 N (D) 390.25 N
Now Fd = t A
Solution:
Since the fluid is Newtonian, The shear force acting on the left side of the metal plate,
μV ⎛ V − 0 ⎞ where A is the surface area of the
Fd = × π dl (2) F = A × μ × ⎜ ,
D−d ⎝ d ⎟⎠
2 plate, m is the fluid viscosity, V is the constant velocity with
for the first experiment which the plate moves and d  is the distance of the plate
Now the weight of the cylinder, from the left side of the vertical gap.

d2 0.5
∴ F = 1.5 × 1.5 × 3 × = 168.75 N
W = ρc × g × π ×  (3) 0.02
4
The shear force acting on the right side of the metal plate,
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1) and
⎛ V − 0 ⎞ where d is the distance of the plate
rearranging, we get: Fr = A × μ × ⎜ ,
⎝ d r ⎟⎠
r

ρc g × d ( D − d ) from the right side of the vertical gap.

V=
8μ Here, dr = 0.05 - 0.02 - 0.005 = 0.025 m
\ The terminal velocity of the cylinder does not depend on 0.5
= 135 N.
∴ Fr = 1.5 × 1.5 × 3 ×
the density of the fluid. 0.025
V1 μ If buoyancy effects were not neglected, then an upward
Hence = or V = 2V1 . thrust experienced by the metal plate due to buoyancy
V 2μ
should be accounted for in the calculations to follow.

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 3.396 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

F The density of Newtonian fluids can be constant or vari-

able (i.e., they can be compressible or incompressible).
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid: These are real fluids in which
the shear stress is not equal to rate of shear strain i.e.,
Shear force Shear force
(F) (Fr )
these fluids do not obey the Newton’s law of viscosity.
du
i.e., τ ≠ μ for non-Newtonian fluids.
FB upward dy
thrust by The relation between shear stress and velocity
n
gradient
W buoyancy ⎛ du ⎞
(weight) (neglected) for non-Newtonian fluid is τ = A ⎜ ⎟ + B, where A
⎝ dy ⎠
\ Force required to lift the plate and B are constants that depend upon type of fluid and
= F + Fr + W - FB condition of flow.
= 168.75 + 135 + 50 ( ∵ FB is neglected)   The non-Newtonian fluids can further be classified
= 353.75 N. as shown below:
Time independent non-Newtonian fluids These are of two
Classification of Fluids
types. The first type of fluids start flowing as soon as a shear
Fluids can be classified into the following types. stress is applied and do not require any minimum shear
1. Ideal fluid (hypothetical fluid) or perfect fluid. stress to cause flow. Dilatent fluids and Pseudoplastic flu-
2. Real fluid (practical fluids). ids belong to this category.
3. Newtonian fluid. For Dilatent fluids, n > 1, A = m and B = 0
4. Non-Newtonian fluid. For example, Butter, Quick sand

These an explained as follows: For Pseudoplastic fluids, n < 1, A = m and B= 0

For example, Lipsticks, paints, blood, paper pulp, rubber
1. Ideal Fluid or Perfect fluid: These fluids have zero solution, polymeric solutions etc.
viscosity (i.e., inviscid) and are incompressible (ie The second type of time independent non-Newtonian
constant density). These fluids do not offer shear resist- fluids are called Ideal plastics or Bingham plastic fluids.
ance when the fluid is set in motion. Though ideal flu- For these fluids, the flow occurs only when the shear stress
ids are hypothetical (i.e., they do not exist in reality), exceeds the yield stress. Once this yield stress is exceeded,
this concept is used in mathematical analysis of flow increase in shear stresses is proportional to the velocity gra-
problems. dient. Hence for Bingham plastic fluids, n = 1, A = m and B
2. Real Fluid: Real fluids have non-zero viscosity and ≠ 0 but independent of time.
hence they offer resistance when set in motion. Real E.g., Tooth paste and gel, drilling mud, sewage sludge etc.
fluids have variable density and hence they have some
compressibility. There is surface tension also for real Time dependent non-Newtonian f luids For these fluids,
fluids. flow occurs only when the shear stress exceeds the yield
3. Newtonian Fluid: These are real fluids. These fluids stress.
obey Newton’s law of viscosity i.e., the shear stress in
For Thixotropic fluids, n < 1, A = m and B ≠ 0. Also B is
the fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear
a function of time (t). Hence, shear stress is of the form
strain (which is also known as velocity gradient). For n
such fluids, the graph of shear stress versus velocity ⎛ du ⎞
τ = μ ⎜ ⎟ + f (t ).
gradient is a straight line passing through the origin ⎝ dy ⎠
(point of zero shear stress and zero velocity gradients). E.g., Printer ink, enamels.
The slope of the graph is constant and represents the
Viscosity increases with time for such fluids.
constant viscosity of the fluid at a given temperature.
For Rheopectic fluids, n > 1, A = m and B ≠ 0 and B is a
Air, water, light oils, gasoline etc are examples function of time (t).
of Newtonian fluids.
n
du ⎛ du ⎞
τ=μ ∴ τ = μ ⎜ ⎟ + f (t )
dy for Newtonian fluids, where: ⎝ dy ⎠

t = fluid shear stress Viscosity decreases with time for such fluids.
m = viscosity of fluid and For example, Gypsum solution in water, Bentonite solution
du velocity gradient (or rate of shear strain) For non-Newtonian fluids also, the density may be con-
= stant or variable, hence non-Newtonian fluids can be incom-
dy
pressible or compressible.

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.397

The variation of shear stress with velocity gradient for γ μρo μ ⎛T⎞
various types of fluids is shown below. Now = =
γ o ρμo μo ⎜⎝ To ⎟⎠
Thixotropic 5
Elastic soild

Ideal plastic
γ ⎛ T ⎞ 2 ⎛T + S⎞
(Bingham plstic) ∴ =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ o ,
Rheopectic γ o ⎝ To ⎠ ⎝ T + S ⎟⎠

Shear Where S = 110.4°K, T = 323.15°K,

stress
m 2 and g is the kinematic
B To = 343.15°K , γ o = 2.11 × 10 −5
Pseudo plastic s
Newtonian fluid
viscosity.
\ Kinematic viscosity of air at
Initial Dilatent fluid
m2
stress 50°C = γ = 1.8996 × 10 −5 .
s
Ideal fluid
du
Example 14: Between two large fixed parallel plane
→ (Velocity gradient) surfaces, a thin plate is pulled, parallel to the lower plane
dy
surface, with a constant force. The space between the plate
Apparent Viscosity The slope of the shear stress versus and the plane surface is filled with two types of oil where
velocity gradient curve at a point is the apparent viscosity the top oil (oil at the top side of the plate) and the bottom oil
of the respective fluid at that point. (oil at the bottom side of the plate) have different kinematic
viscosities. The distance between the plate and the lower
Kinematic Viscosity Kinematic viscosity(γ )of a fluid is plane surface is one fourth the distance between the two
the ratio of the dynamic viscosity (m) to the density (r) of plane surfaces. In this horizontal position, the force required
μ to drag the plate is the minimum compared to that required
the fluid, i.e., γ = . The S.I. unit of kinematic viscosity is for any other horizontal positions. If the ratio of the specific
ρ
mass of the top oil to that of the bottom oil is 1: 3, then the
m2
. Another unit (in C.G.S. units) for kinematic viscosity corresponding ratio of their kinematic viscosities, should be
s (A) 27 : 1 (B) 9 : 1
1cm 2 m2
is stoke 1stoke = = 10 − 4 (C) 3 : 1 (D) 1 : 3
s s
Solution:
Example 13: The kinematic viscosity of air at 70°C is For a thin plate, it can be assumed that the plate thickness
m 2 . If the Sutherland temperature for air is is negligible
2.11 × 10 −5
s Top oil
110.4° K, then the kinematic viscosity of air at 50°C is
Viscocity = m1
2 Density = ρ 1
(A) 2.11 × 10 −5 m .
2
(B) 1.9 × 10 −5 m
s s Upper fixed plane surafce

(C) 1.5 × 10 −5 m2 (D) 3 × 10 −5 m 2

s s Thin plate (area = A)

Solution: h
Sutherland equation relating absolute temperature and the Velocity = V
y
dynamic viscosity of an ideal gas is
3 Lower fixed plane surafce
μ ⎛ T ⎞ 2 ⎛ To + S ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
μo ⎜⎝ To ⎟⎠ ⎝ T + S ⎠
Bottom oil
Viscocity = µ 2
Density = ρ 2
m → Viscosity at absolute temperature T
mo → viscosity at absolute temperature To
ρ1 1 y 1
S → Sutherland temperature. Given = and = .
ρ To ρ2 3 h 4
For air, = ( ∵ air is assumed as an ideal gas at
ρ0 T The oils are assumed to be Newtonian fluids. A linear
constant pressure.) velocity profile is assumed to be present in the oils.

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 3.398 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

Shear force on the top side of the plate, When the pressure above the liquid free surface is less
du V than or equal to the vapour pressure of the liquid at that
Ft = Aμ = Aμ1 temperature, there is continuous escape of liquid molecules
dy h− y
from the free surface into the space above the liquid surface.
Similarly shear force on the bottom side of the plate, This process is called boiling.
v
Fb = Aμ 2
y Bulk Modulus (K)
Total force required to drag the plate, It is also known as bulk modulus of elasticity, coefficient of
compressibility or bulk modulus of compressibility.
⎡ μ μ ⎤
= Ft + Fb = AV ⎢ 1 + 2 ⎥
⎣h − y y ⎦ ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎛ ∂P ⎞
K = −V ⎜ = ρ⎜ ⎟
For the required force to be minimum for a given horizontal ⎝ ∂V ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠
∂F
position of the plate , =0 N
∂y The SI unit of the bulk modulus is or Pascal. It is also
m2
μ1 −μ defined as the ratio of the compressive stress to the volu-
⇒ − 22 = 0
( h − y)2 y metric strain. Bulk modulus increases for gases as pressure
2 and temperature increases. As temperature increases bulk
⎛ 3⎞ modulus decreases for liquids.
μ1 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
4 Lower the value of the bulk modulus of a fluid, more
∴ = =9
μ2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 compressible is the fluid considered to be. For a truly incom-
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ pressible fluid (i.e., fluid whose volume cannot be changed),
4
K = infinity. Liquids are usually considered to be incom-
Ratio of Kinematic viscosities pressible, i.e., they have a large value of bulk modulus.
r1 μ1 ρ2 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called as the com-
= = 9 × 3 = 27
r2 ρ1 μ 2
pressibility (a), i.e., α = 1
y 1 μ k
Since = , from equation (2) we get 1 = 9
h 4 μ2 Gases are usually considered to be compressible, i.e.,
they have a large value of compressibility.
kinematic viscosity of the top oil Isothermal bulk modulus,
kinematic viscosity of thhe bottom oil ⎛ ∂P ⎞
µ1 ρ2 KT = V ⎜ (i.e., at constant temperature T)
= × = 9 × 3 = 27 or = 27 :1. ⎝ ∂V ⎟⎠ T
ρ1 µ2
Adiabatic bulk modulus
Vapour Pressure ⎛ ∂P ⎞
K s = −V ⎜ (i.e., at constant entropy S).
Vapour pressure of a liquid, at a particular temperature, is the ⎝ ∂V ⎟⎠ S
pressure exerted by its vapour in phase equilibrium (when
the vapour is saturated) with the liquid at that temperature. Isothermal Compressibility,
As the temperature increases, vapour pressure also increases. −1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
αT = ⎜ ⎟ (i.e., at constant temperature T)
When the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the external V ⎝ ∂P ⎠ T
environmental pressure, the liquid will start to boil.
This property plays a role in the phenomenon called Adiabatic Compressibility,
cavitation. Cavitation, which is highly undesirable due to −1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
its destructive properties, is the formation and collapse of αs = ⎜ ⎟ (i.e., at constant entropy S)
V ⎝ ∂P ⎠ S
vapour bubbles in liquid flow systems. Vapour bubbles are
formed at locations where the pressure in the liquid flow Example 15: In a piston cylinder arrangement containing
system is below the vapour pressure of the liquid. gas A, it is found that to reduce is othermally the volume of
the gas to 75% of its original volume, an additional pressure
Difference Between Vaporisation and Boiling of 2 atm is required. In another piston cylinder arrangement
⎛ kg ⎞
The translational momentum of some surface molecules of containing gas B ⎜ density = 1.5 3 ⎟ , it is found that the
the liquid enable them to overcome the molecular attractive ⎝ m ⎠
kg
force and these molecules escape into the free space above density of the gas can be increased by 1.5 3 at a constant
the liquid surface to become vapour. This process is vapori- m
sation and it can occur at all temperatures. Vaporisation can temperature, if a pressure change of 6 bar is provided. From
be minimized by increasing the pressure over the free sur- these observations, one can state that
face of liquid.

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.399

(A) Gas A and gas B have equal isothermal compressibility.

⎛ dV ⎞
(B) Gas A is 1.2 times more isothermally compressible fractional change in the volume ⎜ of the fluid for a
⎝ V ⎟⎠
than gas B.
(C) Gas B is 1.35 times more isothermally compressible change in temperature (dT) and change in pressure (dP) is
than gas A. equal to.
(D) Enough information is not available for the comparison (A) aTdT – b dP
of the isothermal compressibility of the two gases. (B) bdT – aTdP
(C) aTdT + b dP
Solution: (D) aTdP + bdT
For gas A, let V1 and V2 be the original volume and the
volume of the gas after compression respectively. Solution:
Given, V2 = 0.75 V1 The volume of the fluid (V) is a function of temperature (T)
and pressure (P). This can be written as V = V(T, P)
ΔV V2 − V1 Differentiating, we get
⇒ = = −0.25
V V1
⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
DP = 2 at m = 2 × 1.01325 bar dV = ⎜ dT + ⎜ dP (1)
⎝ ∂T ⎟⎠ P ⎝ ∂P ⎟⎠ T
⎛ ∂P ⎞
KTA = −V ⎜
⎝ ∂V ⎟⎠ T 1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
Now αT = − ⎜ ⎟ and β = ⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ V ⎝ ∂P ⎠ T V ⎝ ∂T ⎠ P
⎜ ΔP ⎟
≅ −⎜ Substituting the above relations for aT and b in equation (1)
V⎟ and rearranging, we get
⎜Δ ⎟
⎝ V ⎠T
dV
2 × 1.01325 = β dT − αT dP
≅− ≅ 8.106 bar V
− 0.25
Surface Tension
For gas B, The layer of molecules at the surface of a liquid, in contact
kg with a gas (or another immiscible liquid), tends to behave
ρ = 1.5 3
m like a stretched membrane (membrane on which a tensile
kg force is exerted).
ΔP = 1.5 3
m Gas
Δρ Surface molecules
=1
ρ
Inward pull
DP = 6 bar
⎛ ∂P ⎞ 6
∴ KTB = ρ ⎜ ⎟ ≅ ≅ 6 bar Liquid
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ T 1

KTA 8.106 This behaviour is a result of the inward pull, arising due
∴ = = 1.35
KTB 6 to the cohesive forces (intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules of the same liquid), experienced by the
\ gas B is 1.35 times more isothermally compressible than
liquid’s surface molecules.
gas A.
At the liquid surface, the tensile force dF acting paral-
Coefficient of Volume Expansion ( b) lely to the plane of the surface (or tangentially to the sur-
face) over a surface length d  is given by the equation,
It is also known as volume expansivity.
df = σ d  , where s is called as the (coefficient of) surface
1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ρ ⎞ tension of the liquid. Hence, surface tension is equal to the
β= ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = − ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ . The S.I unit of the co- magnitude of the (tensile) force acting tangentially at the
V ∂T P ρ ∂T P
surface per unit length of the surface. The S.I. unit of sur-
⎛ 1 ⎞ N
efficient of volume expansion is ⎜ ⎟ . face tension is .
⎝ °K ⎠
m
Example 16: If the isothermal compressibility and volume Imagine a metallic frame in which a liquid film is main-
expansivity of a fluid are aT and b respectively, then the tained as shown in the following figure.

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 3.400 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

If q is the angle that the force F makes with the vertical,

Liquid film then writing a force balance on the needle gives:
W = F cos q + F cos q
New area = 2 s L cos q(1)
If d and r are the diameter and density of the needle, then
Rod
from equation (1) we can write

d2
When the rod is slightly pulled down, the liquid film gets π Lρ g = 2σ L cos θ
4
stretched over a larger area. The work done for creating the
new area is the surface energy. 8σ cos θ
d=
Surface energy πρ g
= Surface tension
New area created The maximum value of d (dmax) is obtained when q = 0°
\ Surface Energy per unit area = surface tension (provided all other parameters are fixed).

(
Surface tension in
N
m
or
J
m2 )
thus also represents ∴ dmax =
8σ
πρ g
the amount of (stretching) work required to increment the
surface area by an unit amount. Surface tension of a liquid 8 × 0.073
= 1 dyne = 10 −5 N
decreases with temperature and becomes zero at the critical 3.14 × 7800 × 9.81
point. The effect of pressure on the surface tension of a liq- = 1.56 mm.
uid can be considered to be negligible. Surface tension of a Example 18: A liquid film, exposed to the atmosphere on
liquid can be increased or decreased by adding impurities. both sides, is present in the area ABCD of the metallic frame
For example, surface tension of water can be decreased or work shown in the following figure.
increased by adding surfactants or NaCl respectively.
A C
Example 17: A solid cylindrical needle
⎛ g ⎞
⎜⎝ density = 7.8 3 ⎟⎠ of length 5 cm is placed very gently Rod
cm
on the surface of a body of water (surface tension = 73
dynes/cm) such that it floats on the water surface. Neglect
buoyancy effects and surface tension effects at the circular B D
faces of the needle. The maximum diameter that the needle Liquid film
can have, such that it will still be able to float on the water The side CD, of length 10 cm, is movable and can be
surface, is pulled with the help of a rod. The work done to increase
(A) 1.56 mm (B) 4.88 mm the length of side BD by 1 mm, still maintaining the
(C) 5.26 mm (D) 1.31 mm
liquid film (surface tension = 0.073 N/m ) in the area
Solution: ABCD, is
(A) 7.3 × 10-6J (B) 1.46 × 10-5J
F F -4
(C) 1.46 × 10 J (D) 7.3 × 10-5J
q q

Solution:
Let L be the length of the side CD. Then, L = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Needle
At the side CD, there are two lengths on which surface
tension acts since the film of liquid is exposed to the
Water atmosphere on both sides. Hence the length along which the
surface tension acts at the side CD = 2L.
W \ Work done = s 2L Dx, where s 2L represents the force
Let F be the force, due to surface tension of water, acting due to surface tension acting at the side CD.
along the length of the needle on either side as shown in the Here Dx = 1 mm = 1 × 10-3 m
above figure. Let W be the weight of the needle. σ = 0.073 N/m
Now F = s L , where s is the surface tension of water and
Work done = 0.073 × 2 × 0.1 × 1 × 10-3
L is the length of the needle.
= 1.46 × 10-5 J.

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.401

Effects of Surface Tension Example 20: Two cylindrical liquid jets A and B have the
1. A falling rain drop attaining a spherical shape. surface tensions sA and sB respectively such that sA = 2sB .
2. Sap rising in a tree. The jets A and B are exposed to the respective external
3. Birds being able to drink water from ponds. 2σ B
pressures PA and PB, such that PB − PA = , where dB is
4. Capillary rise. dB
5. Dust particles collecting on the surface of a liquid. the diameter of the cylindrical jet B. If the two jets have the
6. Liquid jets breaking up. same inside pressure, then the diameter of the cylindrical
jet A is
Excess Pressure (A) dB (B) 2 dB
In liquid droplets, gas bubbles, soap bubbles and liquid jets, (C) 0.5 dB (D) 4 dB
an amount of pressure in excess to the external pressure is
present due to surface tension for maintaining the shape. Solution:
Given sA = 2 sB and
Liquid droplet or gas bubble
2σ B
4σ PA − PB = (1)
Pi − Po = ΔP = , dB
d
Jets A and B have the same inside pressure, hence
where Pi is the pressure inside the liquid droplet or gas bub-
ble, Po is the pressure outside the liquid droplet or gas bub- 2σ A 2σ B
+ PA = + PB , (2)
ble, d is the diameter of the (spherical) liquid droplet or gas dA dB
bubble and DP is the excess pressure. where dA is the diameter of the cylindrical jet A.
Soap or liquid bubble A soap or liquid bubble has air both 2σ A
inside and outside it and hence it has two free surfaces on PB − PA = − 2σ B
dA
which surface tension acts.
2σ B
But PB – PA =
8σ dB
Pi − Po = ΔP = ,
d Equating,
Where d is the outer diameter of the soap or liquid bubble. 2σ B 2σ A 2σ B
∴ = −
dB dA dB
Cylindrical liquid jet
4σ B 2σ A
2σ =
Pi − Po = ΔP = dB dA
d \dA = dB.
Where d is the diameter of the cylindrical jet.
Example 19: The pressures inside and outside of a water Capillarity
bubble and water drop are found to be the same. If d is the When a small diameter tube is inserted into a body of liquid,
diameter of the water bubble and if the bubble and drop the liquid rises or falls in the tube giving rise to the phenom-
are at the same temperature, then the diameter of the water enon known as capillarity. Capillarity is due to the forces of
drop is cohesion (attraction between the same molecules) between
(A) d (B) 3d the liquid molecules and the forces of adhesion (attraction
(C) 2d (D) d/2 between different molecules) between the liquid and solid
(constituting the tube) molecules.
Solution:
The rise of the liquid is called as the capillary rise while
Since the inside and outside pressures of the water drop are
the fall is called as the capillary drop or capillary depres-
equal to that of the water bubble, we have Excess pressure
sion. Capillarity or capillary effect can be termed to be a
inside the water drop = Excess pressure inside the water
consequence of surface tension.
bubble.
The strength of capillarity (or capillary effect) is quanti-
4σ 8σ fied by a parameter called as the contact (or wetting) angle
i.e., = , where dd and db are the diameters of the
dd db (q). The contact angle is defined as the angle between the
water drop and water bubble respectively. solid surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the
point of contact between the two surfaces. The surface
db d ­tension force acts along the tangent towards the solid sur-
∴ dd = = .
2 2 face. The magnitude of the capillary rise of a liquid (surface

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 3.402 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

tension = s, density = r) having a contact angle q with a capillary rise seen in one of the tubes to the capillary drop
tube of constant diameter d is given by seen in the other is;
(A) 0.28 (B) 1.73 (C) 3.46 (D) 0.58
4σ cos θ
h= Solution:
ρ gd
Let dA and qA be the diameter and contact angle for tube A.
The contact angle of water with clean glass is nearly zero, i.e., Let dB and qB be the diameter and contact angle for tube B.
q ≈ 00. (If q 0, then it is called complete or perfect wetting.) Given dB = 2dA, qA = 30° and qB = 120°
For glass tubes with diameters greater than 1 cm the cap- Since qA < 90°, capillary rise (hr) will be seen when tube A
illarity effect of water is negligible. is dipped.
4σ cos θ A
Liquid wets solid surface ∴ hr = (1)
ρ gd A
q Since qB > 90°, capillary drop (hd) will be seen when tube
Tangent
Meniscus
B is dipped.
h>o − 4σ cos θ B
∴ hr =
ρ gd B
(Negative sign is introduced since hd is already referred to
Liquid as capillary drop)
From equations (1) and (2), we have
Tube hr − cos θ A × d B
∴ =
hd cos θ B × d A
1. Contact angle q is greater t
2. Contact angle q is less than 90°. − cos 30° × 2d A
= = 3.46.
3. When a small diameter tube made of the solid is dipped cos 120° × d A
in the liquid, capillary rise occurs. Example 22: The maximum diameter that a capillary tube
4. Magnitude of cohesive forces < magnitude of adhesive can have to ensure that a capillary rise of at least 6 mm is
forces. achieved when the tube is dipped into a body of liquid with
5. For example, water - glass. N kg
6. Capillary drop = h. surface tension = 0.08 and density = 900 , is
m m3
(A) 3 mm (B) 6 mm
Liquid does not wet solid surface (C) 5 m (D) 8 mm
Tube
Solution:
4σ cos θ
The capillary rise h = , where s, q, r, g and d have
ρ gd
h<0 their usual meanings.
Meniscus 4σ cos θ
liquid \ diameter of the capillary tube d =
q ρ gh
Here, q is taken to be 0°. The diameter d gets the maximum
Tangent
value (dmax) when h is minimum (i.e., h = hmin)
Given hmin = 6 mm
1. Contact angle q is greater than 90°.
4σ 4 × 0.08
2. When a small diameter tube made of the solid is dipped ∴ dmax = =
in the liquid, capillary drop occurs. ρ ghmin 900 × 9.81 × 0.006
3. Magnitude of adhesive forces < magnitude of cohesive = 6 mm.
forces.
4. Liquid is termed as a non-wetting liquid. Pressure
5. For example, mercury–glass Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per
6. Capillary drop = |h| unit area. The normal stress on any plane through a fluid
Example 21: When tube A is dipped into the body of a element of rest is equal to the fluid pressure. The S.I. unit of
N
liquid, the liquid makes a contact angle of 30° with the tube. pressure is Pascal (Pa) or 2 .
When tube B of different material having twice the diameter m
of tube A, is dipped into the same liquid body, the liquid N
makes a contact angle of 120° with the tube. The ratio of the 1Pa = 1
m2

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.403

Other units for pressure are atm (1 atm = 101325 Pa), psi the pressures at points 1 ( z = z1) and 2 (z = z2), from equa-
(1atm = 14.696 psi) and bar (1 bar = 105 Pa). Pressure is a z = z2
scalar quantity. At a point on a surface which is in contact tion (1) we have P2 − P1 = ΔP = − ∫ ρ gdz (2)
z = z1
with a fluid, the pressure force exerted by the fluid is normal
to the surface. For liquids, usually the density is considered to be constant
upto certain large depths. If the acceleration due to gravity
Atmospheric, Absolute and (g) is also constant with respect to the elevation z, then
Gauge Pressure P2 - P1 = rg (z1 - z2) = - rg Dz (3)
Atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the pressure exerted on a
surface by a planet’s atmosphere (e.g., the Earth’s atmos- where Dz (= z2 - z1) is sometimes called as the pressure head
phere) present above the surface. and is interpreted as the height of a column of liquid of den-
Absolute pressure (Pabs) is the pressure measured rela- sity r required to provide a pressure difference of P1 - P2.
tive to an absolute vacuum (where Pabs = 0). At any given If the surface of the liquid in the container is exposed to
position, the actual pressure is the absolute pressure. the atmosphere and r and g are assumed to be constant with
Gauge pressure (Pgauge) is the pressure indicated by a respect to z, then
pressure – measuring device (or pressure gauge) relative Pabs at point 4 = Patm
to the local atmospheric pressure. This is stated with the Pabs at point 2 = Patm + rg (h - z2)
assumption that the pressure gauge is cali berated with the Pgauge at point 1 = rg (h - z1)
local atmospheric pressure as reference. Pabs at point 3 = Patm + rgh
Pgauge = Pabs – Patm Equation (1) is also applicable for gases. However, as
gases have a low density, the variation of pressure with
If Pabs < Patm, then Pgauge is negative and the negative of height (for small to moderate heights) can be considered to
the gauge pressure is called as the vacuum pressure (Pvac). be negligible for a gas.
Pressure gauges measuring vacuum pressures are called as
vacuum gauges. Pressure Varying Horizontally (for Static Fluids)
Pvac = Patm - Pabs For a fluid resting inside a container, pressure does not
depend on the shape or cross-section of the container. Also,
Pressure Varying with Elevation or the pressure is the same at all points on any horizontal plane
Depth (for Static Fluids) considered in the fluid present in the container.
Consider three containers, open to the atmosphere, of
Consider a static body of liquid (density = r, specific weight
different shapes where the free surface of the liquids in
= w) of height h present in a container as shown in the fol-
them are at the same level as shown in the following figure.
lowing figure.
Liquid 2 (density = ρ1)
z=h 4

Depth
z = z2
2 h1
A B h2 C D E F
z = z1 1
z
Elevation
z=0 Liquid 2 (density = ρ2)
3
The points A, B, C, D, E and F all lie on the same horizontal
The variation of pressure P in the liquid with respect to the plane .Here,
elevation z is given by PA = PB = PE = PF and PC = PD
Since r2 > r1, it can be seen that Pc > PB and hence PC ≠ PB.
dP
= − ρ g = −ω (1) Pascal’s Law
dz
Pascal’s law states that the pressure at a point in a static fluid
Equation (1), called as the hydrostatic (differential) equa- has the same magnitude in all directions. This is also true
tion, corresponds to the hydrostatic law which states that for non-static fluids which have no shear stress, for exam-
“The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward ple, for fluids which move like rigid bodies where there is
direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid. no relative motion between the fluid elements.
Conventionally at z = 0, elevation = 0 and depth = h, Another version of Pascal’s law states that when there is
while at z = h, elevation = h and depth = 0. If P1 and P2 are an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there

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 3.404 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

is an equal increase in the pressure at every other point in 70 × 103 − 6 × 8.5 × 103 N
the confined fluid. Pascal’s law forms the underlying princi- ∴ ωL = = 9500 3
2 m
ple of the hydraulic jack and hydraulic press.
ωL
Example 23: A hydraulic press has a plunger of 5 cm Specific gravity of the liquid, SGL = ,
ρω × g
diameter. If the weight lifted by the hydraulic press is twice
⎛ kg ⎞
the force applied at the plunger, then the diameter of the ram Where ρω ⎜⎝ = 1000 3 ⎟⎠ is the density of pure water at 4°C.
of the hydraulic press is; m
(A) 5 cm (B) 10 cm 9500
∴ SGL = = 0.968.
1000 × 9.81
(C) 5 2 cm (D) 10 2 cm

Solution: Manometry (Some Cases to Measure

Let the force applied at the plunger be F. Then weight lifted the Gauge Pressure)
by the hydraulic press, W = 2F.(1) Manometers are pressure measuring devices which employ
Let d and D be the diameters of the plunger and ram liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes to measure
respectively and let a and A be their respective areas. ­pressure. Manometers are classified as (i) simple manom-
πd2 π D2 eters and (ii) differential manometers.
∴ a = and A = (2)
4 4
Simple Manometers
F W
From Pascal’s law, = (3) A simple manometer consists of a tube whose one end is
a A connected to a point where the pressure is to be measured
Substituting equations (1) and (2) in equation (3), we get and the other end is open to the atmosphere. The common
types of simple manometers are (a) piezometer (b) u-tube
D = 2d manometer and (c) single column manometer.
For the following discussion, consider P1 and PA to be
Given d = 5 cm ∴ D = 5 2 cm.
the pressures at points 1 and A respectively.
NOTE
Piezometer
When the plunger and the Ram are of circular Cross sec-
tion and ‘F’ is the load applied at the plunger, Load lifted
at the ram is
F π D2 D2 h
= 2
× =F 2
Ad 4 d
4 A
2 Liquid (density = ρ)
D
Here, F = 2F
d2 Analysis : P1 – Patm + hrg
PA = P1, since the points A and 1 are at the same elevation
∴ D = 2d .
and in the same liquid.

Example 24: Oil weight density = 8.5 kN/m3 is present in ∴ PA = Patm + hpg
a tank up to a depth of 6 m. It is observed that an immiscible
liquid, with a depth of 2 m, is present in the tank below NOTE
the oil. The reading on the pressure gauge connected to It is implicitly assumed here that surface tension effects
the tank’s bottom is 70 kPa. The specific gravity of the (capillary rise) are negligible.
immiscible liquid is:
(A) 0.982 (B) 0.968 U-tube manometer
(C) 0.873 (D) 0.893 I.
Solution:
Let the weight density of the immiscible liquid and the oil is A
h2
wL and wO respectively. B h1 C
Pressure at the bottom of the tank, Fluid x x
Pb = 6 × wO + 2 × wL (density = ρ1)

N
Given Pb = 70 kPa and ω O = 8.5k 3 Liquid
m (density = ρ2)

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.405

Analysis: Along the section XX, Inclined Single Column Manometer

Pressure at point B = pressure at point C
(∵ points B and C are at the same elevation and in the same
liquid )
i.e., PA + h1 r1 g = Patm + h2 r2 g A
L h2
PA = Patm + ( h2 ρ2 − h1ρ1 ) g h1
Fluid
(density = ρ 1)
II.

Reservoir
Right limb
A
h1 q
h2
Fluid (density = ρ1) Liquid (density = ρ 2)

Liquid (density = ρ2)

a × h2
PA = Patm + ( ρ2 g − ρ1 g )
PA = Patm − ( h1ρ1 + h2 ρ2 ) g A
+ h2 ρ2 g − h1ρ1 g
NOTE a × L sin θ
PA = Patm + ( ρ2 g − ρ1 g )
PA is vacuum pressure A
+ L sin θρ2 g − h1ρ1 g
III.
Where A and a are the cross-sectional areas of the reservoir
L and the right limb respectively.
A h2
h1
Fluid (density = ρ 1) Differential Manometers
q
Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring
Liquid (density = ρ 2)
the difference between the pressure at a given point in a fluid
and the pressure at some other point in the same or differ-
ent fluid. A differential manometer consists of a u-tube, in
PA = Patm + g ( h2 ρ2 − h1ρ1 )
which a heavy liquid is present, where two ends are con-
= Patm + g ( L sin θρ2 − h1ρ1 ) nected to points whose pressure difference is to be meas-
ured. Most common types of differential manometers are
Vertical Single Column Manometer (i) u-tube differential manometer and (ii) inverted u-tube
differential manometer.
For the following discussion, consider PA and PB to be
A the pressures at the points A and B respectively.
h2
Fluid h1 U-tube differential Manometer
(density = ρ 1)

Reservoir B

Fluid
Right limb A (density = ρ 3)
y
x
Liquid (density = ρ 2)
h
Fluid
(density = ρ 1)
a × h2
PA = Patm + ( ρ2 g − ρ1 g )
A
+ h2 ρ2 g Liquid (density = ρ 2)

Where A and a are the cross – sectional areas of the reser-

PA − PB − h( ρ2 − ρ1 ) g + y ρ3 g − x ρ1 g
voir and the right limb respectively.

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 3.406 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

Inverted u-tube Manometer plane passing through the meniscus of the liquid (density =
r2) in the left limb of the u-tube manometer, gives
Liquid (density = ρ 2)
Pair + (h1 + h2) r1 g = Patm + h3 r2 g  (1)
Now PG = Pair – Patm (2)
From the figure in the question it can be shown that the
h
height of the oil in the tank, h = h1 + (h2 – h4)(3)
B Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1) and
h1
rearranging, we get
h2
Fluid
⎛ρ ⎞ P
A (density = ρ 3) h = h3 ⎜ 2 ⎟ − G − h4
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ρ1 g
Fluid
(density = ρ 1) Example 26: A fluid (weight density = w1) flows through a
pipe as shown in the following figure. A differential u-tube
manometer, with a liquid of weight density = w2, is fitted to
PA − PB = h1ρ1 g − h2 ρ3 g − hρ2 g
the pipe in order to determine the pressure difference (PA
Example 25: A closed tank consists of oil (density = r1) – PB) where PA and PB are the pressures at the respective
and compressed air as shown in the following figure. A points A and B on the pipe.
u-tube
h2
PG
h1

A B
Air

→ Fluid flow

h1
Oil From the set of variables {h1, h2, w1, w2}, the set of the least
h3 number of variables whose values are to be known in order
to determine the required pressure difference ( PA – PB) is
h2 (A) {h1, h2, w1, w2}
x
h4 (B) {h1, w1, w2}
x
(C) {h2 , w2}
(D) {h2, w1, w2)
manometer using a liquid with density = r2, is connected to
Solution:
the tank. The variation of pressure with height is negligible
Equating pressures at a point in the left limb and at a point
in the tank volume occupied by air. If the pressure reading
in the right limb, where both points lie on a horizontal plane
in the pressure gauge connected to the top of the tank is PG­,
passing through the meniscus of the liquid (weight density
then an expression for the height of oil in the tank can be
= w2 in the left limb of the differential u-tube manometer,
gives
(A) h3 ⎛ ρ1 ⎞ − PG − h4
⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ ρ g PA - h1 w1 = PB - (h1 + h2) w1 + h2 w2
2 1
or PA - PB = h2 (w2 - w1)
\ The set of variables whose values are to be known = {h2,
⎛ ρ ⎞ Pg w1, w2}
(B) h3 ⎜ 2 ⎟ − − h4
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ρ1 g
Example 27: An inclined single column manometer is
⎛ρ ⎞ P connected to a pipe transporting a liquid of specific weight
(C) h3 ⎜ 2 ⎟ − G − h2 kN
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ρ1 g (ω1 ) = 9.81 3 , as shown in the following figure. The area
m
⎛ ρ1 ⎞ PG of the reservoir is very large compared to the area of the
(D) h3 ⎜ ⎟ − − h4 right limb of the manometer. The specific weight (w2) of
⎝ ρ2 ⎠ ρ2 g
kN
Solution: the manometric fluid is 13.6 3 . . The length (L) of the
m
Equating pressures at a point in the left limb and at a point manometric fluid in the right limb, above the manometric
in the right limb, where both the points lie on a horizontal fluid’s surface in the reservoir, is 100 cm. The gauge pressure

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.407

(P) at the point A in the pipe is 3.857 kPa. If the value of h Solution:
is 30 cm, then the right limb of the manometer is inclined to Let q be the angle at which the right limb is inclined to the
the horizontal at an angle of horizontal.
(A) 45° (B) 60° If a and A are the respective cross-sectional areas of the right
(C) 30° (D) 15° limb and the reservoir, then p is very small and negligible
(∵ A > > > a).
For the inclined column manometer, one can write
Pipe
a
A P = × L × sin θ (ω 2 − ω1 ) + L sin θω 2
A
− hω1
h1 Right limb
a
Since is negligible,
A
P = L sin q w2 - hww1
Reservoir
P + hω1
∴ sin θ =
Lω 2
Manometric fluid 3.857 × 103 + 0.3 × 9.81 × 103
=
1 × 13.6 × 103
i.e., q = 30°.

Exercises
Practice Problems 1 (A) 2.4525 m/s (B) 0.24525 m/s
Direction for questions 1 to 20: Select the correct alterna- (C) 4.905 m/s (D) 0.4905 m/s
tive from the given choices. 4. For an ideal gas (density = r) at pressure P and tem-
1. A flat thin disk (diameter = 100 cm) is rotated at 1200 perature T, the isothermal compressibility is equal to:
I I
r.p.m. at a distance of 2 mm from a flat horizontal sta- (A) P  (B) T  (C)   (D)
tionary surface. If the gap between the horizontal disk P T
and the surface is filled with a Newtonian fluid of 4 poise Direction for questions 5 and 6: A set of n identical spheri-
viscosities, then the torque required to rotate the disk is cal drops of radius r of a liquid (surface tension = s) com-
(A) 1.52 KN-m (B) 1.87 KN-m bine to form a single large spherical drop of radius R.
(C) 2.47 KN-m (D) 3.94 KN-m 5. An expression for R is:
2. Three thin plates are oriented parallel to each other (A) R = rn1/2 (B) R = rn1/3
with the lowest plate being fixed. The top plate, located (C) R = nr (D) R = n2r
at a distance of x meters above the fixed plate, is towed 6. The energy released during the combination process is
with a speed of V1 m/s. The middle plate is located at a equal to:
distance of y meters above the fixed plate. The viscosity (A) 4ps r2(1-n-1/3) (B) 4ps r2(n-1/3-1)
of the Newtonian fluid in between the fixed plate and (C) 4ps r n(1-n )
2 -1/3 (D) 4ps r2(n2/3-n)
the middle plate is twice that of the Newtonian fluid 7. The work done in blowing a soap bubble of 5 cm diam-
between the middle plate and the top plate. If the mid- eter, where the surface tension of the soap solution is
dle plate moves with a constant speed of V2 m/s, then 40 × 10-3 N/m, is:
V
the fraction 1 is equal to: (A) 3.14 × 10-4 J (B) 0.00785 J
V2
2x 2x (C) 0.0157 J (D) 6.28 × 10-4 J
(A) 3 − (B) 2 +
y y 8. A stream of bubbles is generated by introducing air
x 2x through a nozzle into a tank of water. The ratio of the
(C) 2 − (D) −2 + maximum diameter to the minimum diameter of the
y y
bubbles generated is 2 : 1. The pressure of the water sur-
3. A 10 kg block is sliding down a plane in clined at an rounding the nozzle remains constant and is denoted by
angle of angle of 30° to the horizontal. The block is Po. If Pmin is the minimum air pressure at the nozzle,
separated from the plane by a 1 mm thick layer of oil then the maximum air pressure at the nozzle is equal to
(Newtonian) of viscosity 2 poise. It is to be assumed P + 3P0 2 Pmin + P0
that the velocity distribution in the oil is linear and that (A) min (B)
2 2
the block has already reached the terminal velocity. The
2( Pmin + P0 ) 3
area of the block in contact with the oil is 0.1 m2. The (C) (D) Pmin + P0
present velocity of the block is: 2 2

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 3.408 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

9. The maximum diameter of a metallic (density = r)

spherical ball that can float in a constant temperature L
hm
liquid (surface tension = s) bath is proportional to h
1 hm
(A) σρ (B) σρ

ρ σ 14. A manometer connects two pipelines, one containing

(C) (D)
σ ρ an oil (specific gravity = 0.86) and the other containing
10. Two parallel glass plates, each of width W and negligi- water as shown in the figure. The manometric readings
ble thickness, are dipped vertically into a body of liquid are shown in the figure. If the density of air is taken to
(surface tension = s, density = r). If the distance between be 1.2 kg/m3 and the difference of pressures (PA – PB) is
the plates is t and the contact angle is q, then the capillary 10 kPa then the value of h (in cm) is
rise of the liquid between the plates is given by: (A) 10 (B) 6
2σ cos θ 2σ cos θ (C) 7 (D) 8
(A) (B) Air
W ρg tρg
4σ cos θ σ cos θ
(C) (D)
tρg tρg 1 cm
A
11. The weight density w(in N/m3) of a liquid in a large h
open container varies with the depth h (in m) as: w = 70 5 cm
3 cm
+ 0.3 h. The pressure at a depth of 5 m is:t Water
(A) 101325 Pa
B Oil
(B) 353.75 Pa
(C) 101678.75 Pa Mercury
(D) 101501.88 Pa
12. Air (density = 1.2 kg/m3) and a liquid (density = 900 kg/m3) 15. Two spherical soap bubbles, one having a smaller
is present in a closed tank as shown in the following fig- diameter than the other, are present at the two ends
ure. The pressure gauge P1 reads 5 k Pa. Person A cal- of a hollow horizontal cylindrical tube. A restric-
culates the pressure reading in the gauge P2 to be P2,A. tion at the centre of the tube prevents the flow of air
Person B considers the specific weight of air to be negli- between the two bubbles. If the restriction is removed,
gible and calculates the pressure reading in the gauge P2 then which one of the following is the ONLY possible
to be P2,B. The difference between P2,A and P2,B is consequence?
(A) 23.54 Pa (B) 0 Pa (A) Smaller bubble grows in size.
(C) -23.54 Pa (D) 47.08 Pa (B) Both the bubbles do not change in size.
(C) Larger bubble grows in size.
P1 P2 (D) Larger bubble could grow or shrink in size.
Direction for questions 16 and 17: A 500 mm diameter
Air 4m shaft is rotating at 300 r.p.m. in a bearing of length 150 mm.
6m Air The thickness of the lubricant (Newtonian fluid) film is
2 mm. The torque required to overcome the friction in the
bearing is 647.7 Nm. A linear velocity profile is approxi-
P Q R 6m mately developed in the lubricant.
4m Liquid 16. The viscosity of the lubricant is
(A) 0.8 Ns/m2 (B) 1.8 Ns/m2
(C) 3.8 Ns/m 2 (D) 2.8 Ns/m2
13. An inclined u-tube manometer, using a manometric liq-
17. The power utilized in overcoming the viscous resist-
uid of density rm, is connected to an open tank containing
ance is
a liquid of density rw , as shown in the following figure.
(A) 10.21 kW (B) 20.35 kW
If the ratio rm ; rw is 2 : 1, then the right limb of the u-tube
(C) 30.68 kW (D) 15.29 kW
manometer is inclined to the horizontal by an angle of
⎛ 3h ⎞ ⎛ h⎞ 18. A tank to which a manometer is attached contains water
(A) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ (B) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ as shown in the following figure. A stopcock is present
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
2 m away from the water surface in the manometer. The
⎛ h⎞  L
(C) sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ (D) sin −1   stopcock is closed and water is added to the tank up
⎝ 3L ⎠  h to the level of the stopcock. If the air trapped in the

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.409

manometer (due to the closing of the stopcock) is com- (A) 957121.8 N

pressed isothermally, then the increase in the elevation (B) 647923.6 N
of water in the manometer is: (C) -647923.6 N
Stopcock
(D) -957121.8 N

20. In the setup shown in the figure below, the weight

2m Air of the small and large piston is 1000 N and 1500 N
­respectively. If the force applied to the small piston
(diameter = 5 cm) is 100 N, then the magnitude of the
Water force that can be resisted by the large piston (diameter
Tank
= 10 cm) is:
(A) 100 N
(A) 0.2848 m (B) 0 m (B) 2006.9 N
(C) 5.234 m (D) 0.1172 m (C) 2473.2 N
19. A metal dome with a pipe on top is filled with water as (D) 2591.8 N
shown in the following figure. The metal dome and the
pipe weighs 7 kN. The radius of the hemispherical metal
dome is 2  while the diameter of the pipe is 0.2  . If the Large
value of  is 100 cm, then the force (Fb) that must be piston
exerted through the bolts to hold the dome in place is: 5m
Small
piston


6 Pipe
Oil (specific gravity = 0.8)

Metal dome
3 2

Water

Bolts
Fb Fb

Practice Problems 2 T2 is equal to:

Direction for questions 1 to 20: Select the correct alterna- (A) 2 T1 (B) 0.25 T1
tive from the given choices. (C) 0.5 T1 (D) 4 T1
1. The viscous torque on a disk of radius R1, rotating at 2. A thin square plate (10 cm × 10 cm) is pulled with a
an angular velocity of w1 inside a container containing force of 1.625 N horizontally through a 6 mm thick
a Newtonian fluid of viscosity m as shown in the figure layer of Newtonian fluid (viscosity = 1poise) between
below, is determined to be T1. To determine the viscous two plates, where the top plate is stationary and the
torque, a linear velocity profile is assumed and the shear bottom plate is moving with a velocity of 0.5 m/s,
on the outer disk edges is neglected. For another disk as shown in the following figure. If a linear velocity
of radius R2 rotating at an angular velocity of w2 inside profile is assumed, then the minimum distance from
the same container containing the same fluid, the viscous the bottom plate, at which the velocity of the fluid is
torque on the disk is determined to be T2. If the clear- zero, is
ance of the disk surfaces from the container edges are the
same in both cases, w2 = 8w1, and R2 = 0.5R1, then: Stationary plate

ω
2 mm Force = 1.625 N
h
Disk Newtonian 4 mm
h fluid
(viscosity = μ)
Container R Velocity = 0.5 m/s

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 3.410 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

(A) 6 mm (B) 5 mm 8. The number of the small spherical drops formed is

(C) 2 mm (D) 0.8 mm (A) 25 (B) 15
3. A block ( meters × b meters × h meters) weighing W (C) 35 (D) 125
Newtons is moved at a constant velocity of V m/s up a 9. The volume of the liquid of the large drop still uncon-
plane, inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, by verted to small spherical drops is
a force F applied in the horizontal direction. If an oil (A) 4189 cm3 (B) 33.51 cm3
(Newtonian fluid of viscosity m poise) film of thickness (C) 0 cm3 (D) 3351 cm3
t mm, separates the block and the inclined surface, then -4
10. If 5 × 10 J of energy is expended in blowing up a soap
W is equal to: bubble, using a soap solution having a surface tension
2 μbv 200 μbv of 50 × 10-3 N/m, then the diameter of the bubble is
(A) 3F − (B) 3F −
t t (A) 4 cm (B) 2 cm
(C) 8 cm (D) 3 cm
2 μbv 200 μbv
(C) F − (D) F − 11. Small liquid droplets, at 20°C, of constant diameter are
t t sprayed using a spray nozzle into the atmosphere. The
average diameter of the droplets is 100 mm. If the sur-
4. On the free surface of a body of liquid resting inside face tension of the liquid at 20°C is 2.69 × 10-2 N/m,
an open container, a constant shear force is applied. then the pressure inside the droplets is
Which one of the following events is most unlikely to (A) 1076 Pa
follow afterwards? (B) 102401 Pa
(A) The liquid deforms continuously. (C) 101325 Pa
(B) A liquid flow pattern develops inside the container. (D) 101863 Pa
(C) The liquid changes its shape.
12. The maximum diameter of a metallic (density = r )
(D) The liquid remains at rest.
spherical ball that can float in a constant temperature
5. If the straight line plots, between shear stress (t) and liquid (surface tension = s) bath is d1. If the density r
⎛ du ⎞ is made eightfold and the surface tension s is doubled,
rate of deformation ⎜ ⎟ , for three fluids then the maximum diameter becomes d2 . Then, one
⎝ dy ⎠
can write that
A (viscosity = mA), B (viscosity = mB) and C (viscosity (A) d2 = 2d1 (B) 4d2 = d1
= mC are as given in the below figure, then (C) 2d2 = d1 (D) d2 = 4d1
τ 13. A glass tube, of diameter 2 mm, is used to measure
C
B the pressure in a water tank as shown in the following
A figure.

du
O dy

(A) mC > mA (B) mC < mB < mA

(C) mC > mB < mA (D) mC < mB > mA 20 cm

6. For which of the following fluids, the apparent viscos-

ity can be considered to be independent of the rate of
shear strain and equal to the fluid’s viscosity?
(A) Ketchup (B) Water
(C) Cornstarch solution (D) Blood
If the surface tension of water is 0.073 N/m, then the
7. For an ideal gas (density = r) at pressure P and tem- height of water in the tube to be used to determine the
perature T, the coefficient of volume expansion is equal pressure in the tank, when surface tension effects in the
to tube are not negligible,
(A) T (B) P (A) 18.51 cm (B) 20 cm
1 1 (C) 19.25 cm (D) 10 cm
(C) (D)
T P 14. A hydraulic jack has a large piston of diameter 15 cm
Direction for questions 8 and 9: A spherical drop of liq- and a small piston of 5 cm diameter. The small piston is
uid (surface tension = s) of radius 10 cm is split into small above the large piston by a height h. If a force of 100 N
identical spherical drops of radius 2 cm under isothermal applied on the small piston lifts a load of 990 N placed
conditions. on the large piston, then the value of h (in cm) is:

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.411

(A) 14 (B) 67 A
(C) 40 (D) 52
15. A liquid is present in a tank fitted with two pressure
gauges as shown in the following figure. If the readings
in the pressure gauges are P1 = 60 kPa and P2 = 80 KPa, 1.5 m
then the density of the liquid (in kg/m3) is
h

B
P1

(A) 52 cm (B) 89 cm
7m
P2 (C) 48 cm (D) 62 cm
4m
18. Two open containers contain liquids in them such that
the free surface of the liquid in contact with the atmos-
(A) 679.58 (B) 701.28 phere is at the same elevation in both the containers.
(C) 504.32 (D) 462.95 The pressure at a point in the first container and the
pressure at a point in the second container can be
16. The inclined differential manometer, with the right (A) Equal only if the two points are at the same
limb inclined at an angle of q to the horizontal, con- ­elevation.
tains a manometric liquid of specific weight wm. The (B) Equal or unequal.
manometer is fitted to the two pipes as shown in the (C) Equal only if the two points are at the same depth.
following figure. (D) Equal only if the two points are in the same liquid.
19. Two tanks A and B are present in the configuration as
A B
shown in the following figure. The pressure readings
at the Bourdon pressure gauges P1 and P2 are 3 atm
and 2 atm respectively. If the atmospheric pressure
outside tank B is 1 at m, then the absolute pressure in
tank A is

Manometric
liquid P1
P2
A

B
The pressure differential between the two points A
and B in the respective pipes, which both contain (A) 6 atm (B) 4 atm
the same liquid of specific weight wb, is zero. It is (C) 2 atm (D) 3 atm
observed that wm= 2wb. When a pressure differential
of P (= PA - PB) occurs, then the manometer gives a 20. Which one of the following statements is NOT correct?
differential reading of Dh (measured along the inclined (A) Liquids wetting a solid surface have acute contact
tube). If all the variables are in the S.I units, then Dh is angles.
equal to (B) Non-wetting liquids have obtuse contact angles.
(C) For hydrophilic surfaces, water has a large contact
P P angle.
(A) (B)
ω m sin θ ω b sin θ (D) For hydrophobic surfaces, water has a large con-
tact angle.
3P P
(C) (D) 21. A cylindrical tank is filled with water upto a height h.
ω m sin θ 2ω b sin θ An air bubble of diameter d is present at the bottom of
17. Two pipes transporting water are connected by a the tank. If dn is be diameter of the bubble after it has
manometer as shown in the figure. The specific grav- traveled a distance of h/2 while rising to the surface,
ity of the manometric fluid is 2. If the difference in then
pressures at the points B and A is 10 kPa, then the (A) dn > d (B) dn = d/2
value of h is (C) dn = d (D) dn < d

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 3.412 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

Direction for questions 22 and 23: A shaft of diameter d is 26.

rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. in a bearing of length . The
thickness of the lubricant (Newtonian fluid) film is t where
the viscosity of the lubricant is m. The torque and power
required to rotate the shaft was determined to be T and P.
After doubling the length of the bearing and reducing the Tube Tube Tube
speed of the shaft to half its value, the torque and power x 1 2 3 x
required to rotate the shaft was determined to be T1 and P1.
A linear velocity profile could always be assumed in the
lubricant.
22. The relationship between the required torques T and T1 In the three capillary tube structure shown above, water
is is present in all the three tubes. The height of the free
(A) 2 T1 = T (B) T = T1 surface of water in tubes 1, 2 and 3, from the horizontal
(C) T1 = 2T (D) T1 = 8T line x x, are h1, h2 and h3 respectively. If the diameter of
23. The relationship between the required powers P and P1 the tubes 1, 2 and 3 are d1, d2 and d3 respectively such
is that d3 > d2 > d1, then
(A) P = P1 (B) P1 = 2P (A) h3 > h2 > h1
(C) 2P1 = P (D) P1 = 3P (B) h1 < h3 < h2
24. A frictionless piston-cylinder device, shown in the (C) h3 < h2 < h1
following figure, has a piston of mass 5 kg and a (D) h1 > h2 < h3
cross-section at area of 50 cm2. A compressed spring
27. A tank to which a manometer is attached contains
above the piston exerts a force of 50 N on the piston.
water as shown in the following figure. A stopcock is
If the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, the reading
present h metres away from the surface of the water
on the pressure gauge attached at the bottom of the
in the manometer. The stopcock is closed and water
cylinder is
is added to the tank upto the level of the stopcock. If
Spring the trapped air in the manometer (due to the closing of
the stopcock) is compressed isothermally and that the
increase in the elevation of water in the manometer is
Piston
0.3 m, then the value of h is equal to
Gas Cylinder
(A) 1.06 m
P (B) 4.06 m
(C) 1.03 m
(A) -80190 Pa (B) 19810 Pa (D) 2.06 m
(C) 100000 Pa (D) 10000 Pa
25. The air space above a tube, shown in the following
figure, is pressurized to 70 kPa vaccum. Water from a Stop cock
large reservoir fills the tube to a certain height. If the air h
space pressure is reduced to 50 kPa, then the height of Air
the water in the tube will
Tank
Air space

Water

Tube
28. In the following figure, the hemispherical dome has a
radius, r = 100 cm. The dome weighs about 1000 N.
Water
The specific gravity of the liquid inside the closed
structure is 1. If the reading on the pressure gauge is
29.62 kPa, then it could be stated that the metal at the
base of the hemispherical dome
(A) Not change. (A) is in tension.
(B) Increase by one metre. (B) is in compression.
(C) decrease by 2.82 metres. (C) is neither in tension nor in compression.
(D) decrease by 2.04 metres. (D) can be in tension or in compression.

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 Chapter 1 • Fluid Properties and Manometry | 3.413

r
W F
r (A) (B)
aω Aω
W F2
(C) (D)
2r Aω Waω
30. Two open containers, having the same base area, are
P filled with the same liquid such that the elevation of
the free surface of the liquid from the base is same for
both the containers. However, the volume of the liquid
29. In a hydraulic jack configuration, a load W placed in the second container is twice the volume of the liq-
on the large piston (area = A) is balanced by a force uid in the first container. The ratio of the pressure force
F applied on the small piston (area = a) such that exerted at the base of the first container to that exerted
the bases of both the pistons (whose weights can be at the base of the second container is:
assumed to be negligible) are at the same horizontal (A) 2:1
level. The specific weight of the liquid used in the jack (B) 1:1
is w. If the load on the large piston is doubled, then the (C) 1:2
vertical distance between the bases of the two pistons (D)  Not possible to be determined with the given
will be equal to ­conditions.

Previous Years’ Questions

1. An incompressible fluid (kinematic viscosiy, 7.4 × 4. 
An inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure
10-7 m2/s, specific gravity 0.88) is held between two the pressure difference between two pipes A and B,
parallel plates. If the top plate is moved with a veloc- as shown in the figure. Pipe A is carrying oil (specific
ity of 0.5 m/s while the bottom one is held station- gravity = 0.8) and pipe B is carrying water. The densi-
ary, the fluid attains a linear velocity profile in the gap ties of air and water are 1.16 kg/m3, respectively. The
of 0.5 mm between these plates; the shear stress in pressure difference between pipes A and B is _______
Pascals on the surface of top plate is [2004] kPa. [2016]
(A) 0.651 × 10-3 (B) 0.651 Acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2.
(C) 6.51 (D) 0.651 × 103
2. For a Newtonian fluid [2006]
Air
(A) Shear stress is proportional to shear strain
(B) Rate of shear stress is proportional to shear strain
80 mm
(C) Shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain
(D) Rate of shear stress is proportional to rate of
shear strain

3. For an incompressible flow field, V , which one of the 200 mm
following conditions must be satisfied? [2014] A
 
(A) ∇ ⋅V = 0 (B) ∇ × V = 0 Water
 B
  ∂V   100 mm
(C) (V ⋅ ∇)V = 0 (D) + (V ⋅ ∇)V = 0
∂t Oil

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 3.414 | Part III • Unit 4 • Fluid Mechanics

Answer Keys

Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. C 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C 7. D 8. A 9. D 10. B
11. C 12. A 13. C 14. D 15. C 16. D 17. B 18. A 19. D 20. D

Practice Problems 2
1. C 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. A 6. B 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. A
11. B 12. C 13. A 14. D 15. A 16. B 17. C 18. B 19. A 20. A
21. A 22. B 23. C 24. B 25. D 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. C 30. B

Previous Years’ Questions

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. –2.2 kPa

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