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Module 3 – Magnetostatics
3.1 Steady Electric Currents and Current Density
3.1.1 Electric Current (\mathbf{I})
●​ Definition: Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge past a specific point or
through a specific surface. I = \frac{dQ}{dt}
○​ Unit: Ampere (\text{A}), which is \text{Coulombs per second} (\text{C/s}).
●​ Steady Current: A current that is constant with respect to time. Magnetostatics deals
exclusively with the magnetic fields produced by steady electric currents.

3.1.2 Convection Current and Conduction Current

●​ Convection Current: Occurs when charge flows through a medium that is an insulator
(or vacuum). This current does not involve conductors and does not obey Ohm's law.
○​ Example: Current carried by electron beams in a vacuum tube or charged particles
in plasma.
●​ Conduction Current: Occurs in a conductor due to the movement of free electrons
under the influence of an electric field. This current obeys Ohm's law.

3.1.3 Current Density (\mathbf{J})

●​ Definition: The Current Density (\mathbf{J}) is a vector quantity defined as the rate of
flow of charge per unit area, perpendicular to the direction of flow. \mathbf{J} =
\frac{I}{\Delta S} \mathbf{a}_n
○​ Unit: Amperes per square meter (\text{A}/\text{m}^2).
●​ Vector Form: The current \mathbf{I} passing through an arbitrary surface S is the flux of
the current density vector \mathbf{J} over that surface. I = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot
d\mathbf{S}

3.1.4 Ohm's Law in Point Form

●​ Ohm's Law: Relates the voltage (V) across a conductor to the current (I) flowing through
it: V = I R.
●​ Point Form (Differential Form): Relates the electric field intensity \mathbf{E} that causes
the current to the resulting current density \mathbf{J}. \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E}
○​ \sigma: Conductivity of the material (Unit: Siemens per meter, \text{S}/\text{m} or
\text{mho}/\text{m}).
○​ Interpretation: The current density is directly proportional to the applied electric
field, with the proportionality constant being the conductivity.
●​ Resistivity (\rho): The inverse of conductivity (\rho = 1/\sigma).
3.1.5 Equation of Continuity
●​ Statement: The rate at which charge decreases within a given closed volume must equal
the net outward flow of current through the closed surface bounding that volume. This
expresses the principle of Conservation of Charge.
●​ Integral Form: \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{S} = - \frac{dQ}{dt} = - \int_v \frac{\partial
\rho_v}{\partial t} \, dv
●​ Differential Form (Derived using Divergence Theorem): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = -
\frac{\partial \rho_v}{\partial t}
●​ Magnetostatics Condition (Steady Current): Since \frac{\partial \rho_v}{\partial t} = 0 for
steady state, the equation simplifies to: \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = 0
○​ Interpretation: Steady current density fields are solenoidal (divergence-free),
meaning current flow lines must always close upon themselves; current has no
isolated sources or sinks.
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3.2 Biot-Savart Law

●​ Fundamental Postulate: The Biot-Savart Law describes the differential magnetic field
intensity (d\mathbf{H}) produced at a point P by a differential current element (I \,
d\mathbf{l}).
●​ Current Element (I \, d\mathbf{l}): A differential length d\mathbf{l} carrying a current I.
●​ Formula (Differential Magnetic Field Intensity d\mathbf{H}): d\mathbf{H} = \frac{I \,
d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{a}_R}{4 \pi R^2}
○​ R: Distance magnitude from the current element to the point P.
○​ \mathbf{a}_R: Unit vector directed from I \, d\mathbf{l} to P.
●​ Vector Nature:
1.​ d\mathbf{H} is perpendicular to both the current element d\mathbf{l} and the
distance vector \mathbf{R}.
2.​ The direction of d\mathbf{H} is determined by the Right-Hand Rule (curling fingers
in the direction of d\mathbf{H} gives thumb direction in the direction of I).
3.​ d\mathbf{H} is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (R^2).
●​ Total Magnetic Field Intensity (\mathbf{H}): Found by integrating d\mathbf{H} over the
entire length of the conductor L. \mathbf{H} = \int_L \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times
\mathbf{a}_R}{4 \pi R^2}

3.2.1 Biot-Savart Law Applications

●​ A. Infinite Straight Filamentary Conductor:
○​ Geometry: A steady current I along the z-axis.
○​ Coordinate System: Cylindrical coordinates (\rho, \phi, z).
○​ Result: The magnetic field \mathbf{H} is entirely in the azimuthal (\mathbf{a}_\phi)
direction. \mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{2 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi
○​ Interpretation: Field strength decays as 1/\rho (inversely proportional to radial
distance). Field lines are concentric circles around the wire.
●​ B. Finite Straight Filamentary Conductor:
 ○​ Geometry: A straight wire of length L, defined by angles \alpha_1 and \alpha_2
from the point P to the endpoints.
○​ Result: H = \frac{I}{4 \pi \rho} (\cos \alpha_2 - \cos \alpha_1)
○​ Note: For an infinite line, \alpha_1=180^\circ and \alpha_2=0^\circ, yielding the
infinite conductor result.
●​ C. Circular Loop of Radius a (on z-axis):
○​ Geometry: A circular current loop of radius a in the xy-plane, centered at the origin.
Field calculated at P(0, 0, z) on the axis.
○​ Result: \mathbf{H} = \frac{I a^2}{2 (a^2 + z^2)^{3/2}} \mathbf{a}_z
○​ At the Center (z=0): H = \frac{I}{2a} \mathbf{a}_z.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 3/28---

3.3 Magnetic Flux Density (\mathbf{B}) and

Permeability
3.3.1 Magnetic Flux Density (\mathbf{B})
●​ Definition: The Magnetic Flux Density (\mathbf{B}) is the fundamental measure of the
magnetic field strength, analogous to \mathbf{D} in electrostatics. \mathbf{B} = \mu_0
\mathbf{H} \quad (\text{in free space})
○​ Unit: Tesla (\text{T}), or Webers per square meter (\text{Wb}/\text{m}^2).
○​ Permeability of Free Space (\mu_0): A fundamental constant. \mu_0 = 4 \pi \times
10^{-7} \text{ H/m (Henrys per meter)}

3.3.2 Magnetic Flux (\Psi_m)

●​ Definition: The number of magnetic field lines passing through a specific surface S.
\Psi_m = \int_S \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S}
○​ Unit: Weber (\text{Wb}).

3.3.3 Gauss's Law for Magnetic Fields

●​ Statement: The net magnetic flux (\Psi_m) passing through any closed surface is always
zero. \oint_S \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S} = 0
●​ Significance: This is the second of Maxwell's four equations. It confirms the
non-existence of isolated magnetic charges or magnetic monopoles. Magnetic field lines
are closed loops (solenoidal).
●​ Differential Form (using Divergence Theorem): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0

3.4 Ampère's Circuital Law

3.4.1 Ampère's Law (Integral Form)
●​ Statement: The circulation of the Magnetic Field Intensity (\mathbf{H}) around any closed
path L is equal to the total current enclosed (I_{enc}) by that path. \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot
d\mathbf{l} = I_{enc}
 ○​ Amperian Path: The closed contour L chosen for integration. For effective
application, the path must exploit the symmetry of the current distribution such that
\mathbf{H} is either tangential (constant magnitude) or normal (zero contribution).
○​ Direction: The direction of integration (d\mathbf{l}) and the direction of the
enclosed current (I_{enc}) are related by the Right-Hand Rule.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 4/28---

3.4.2 Ampère's Law Applications

●​ A. Infinite Straight Filamentary Conductor:
○​ Amperian Path: A circular path of radius \rho concentric with the wire.
○​ Integral Evaluation: \mathbf{H} is tangential (\mathbf{H} = H_\phi \mathbf{a}_\phi)
and constant along the path d\mathbf{l} = \rho \, d\phi \, \mathbf{a}_\phi. \oint_L
\mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \int_0^{2\pi} H_\phi (\rho \, d\phi) = H_\phi (2 \pi \rho)
○​ Enclosed Current: I_{enc} = I
○​ Result: H_\phi (2 \pi \rho) = I \implies H_\phi = \frac{I}{2 \pi \rho} \mathbf{H} =
\frac{I}{2 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi
○​ (This result matches the Biot-Savart Law, confirming consistency).
●​ B. Infinite Sheet of Current:
○​ Geometry: A uniform surface current density \mathbf{K} = K_y \mathbf{a}_y on the
z=0 plane.
○​ Amperian Path: A rectangular path of length L parallel to the current flow (in the
y-direction) and width 2h perpendicular to the sheet.
○​ Result: The field exists only parallel to the sheet and perpendicular to the current
flow (in the x-direction). \mathbf{H} = \frac{1}{2} \mathbf{K} \times \mathbf{a}_n H =
\frac{1}{2} K \text{ for } z>0 \quad \text{and} \quad H = -\frac{1}{2} K \text{ for } z<0
●​ C. Infinite Solenoid:
○​ Geometry: A tightly wound solenoid of N turns per unit length, carrying current I.
○​ Amperian Path: A rectangular loop.
○​ Result: The magnetic field is confined inside the solenoid and is zero outside.
\mathbf{H} = N I \mathbf{a}_z \quad (\text{inside}) \mathbf{H} = 0 \quad
(\text{outside})
●​ D. Toroid:
○​ Geometry: A tightly wound coil bent into a circular ring. N total turns.
○​ Amperian Path: A circular path of radius \rho inside the core.
○​ Result: \mathbf{H} = \frac{N I}{2 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi \quad (\text{inside the
core}) \mathbf{H} = 0 \quad (\text{outside the core})

3.4.3 Ampère's Law (Differential Form)

●​ Derivation from Stokes's Theorem:
○​ Start with the Integral Form of Ampère's Law: \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} =
I_{enc} = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{S}.
○​ Apply Stokes's Theorem to the line integral: \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} =
\int_S (\nabla \times \mathbf{H}) \cdot d\mathbf{S}.
○​ Equate the two surface integrals: \int_S (\nabla \times \mathbf{H}) \cdot d\mathbf{S}
= \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{S}.
○​ Since this must hold for any surface S, the integrands must be equal: \nabla \times
 \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}
●​ Significance: This is the third of Maxwell's four equations (in its magnetostatic form). It
states that the differential source of the magnetic field intensity \mathbf{H} is the current
density \mathbf{J}.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 5/28---

3.5 Magnetic Vector Potential (\mathbf{A})

3.5.1 Definition and Relationship to \mathbf{B}
●​ Motivation: Since \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 (Gauss's Law for Magnetism), \mathbf{B} is
a solenoidal field. Any solenoidal field can be expressed as the curl of another vector
field.
●​ Definition: The Magnetic Vector Potential (\mathbf{A}) is the field whose curl yields the
magnetic flux density \mathbf{B}. \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}
○​ Unit of \mathbf{A}: Webers per meter (\text{Wb}/\text{m}) or Volts \cdot seconds per
meter (\text{V} \cdot \text{s}/\text{m}).
●​ Analogy: \mathbf{A} is the magnetic equivalent of the scalar electric potential V (where
\mathbf{E} = -\nabla V). However, \mathbf{A} is a vector field, making calculations more
complex.

3.5.2 Vector Potential from Current Distributions

●​ The formula for \mathbf{A} is analogous to the potential V formula, but involving the
differential current element instead of charge.
●​ Line Current: \mathbf{A} = \int_L \frac{\mu_0 I \, d\mathbf{l}}{4 \pi R}
●​ Surface Current (\mathbf{K}): \mathbf{A} = \int_S \frac{\mu_0 \mathbf{K} \, dS}{4 \pi R}
●​ Volume Current (\mathbf{J}): \mathbf{A} = \int_v \frac{\mu_0 \mathbf{J} \, dv}{4 \pi R}
●​ Calculation Procedure: Calculate \mathbf{A} first, then derive \mathbf{B} using
\mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}.

3.6 Magnetic Forces and Torques

3.6.1 Lorentz Force Equation
●​ Statement: The force \mathbf{F} on a moving charge Q in the presence of both an
electric field \mathbf{E} and a magnetic field \mathbf{B} is the sum of the electric force
(\mathbf{F}_E) and the magnetic force (\mathbf{F}_M). \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{F}_E +
\mathbf{F}_M
●​ Formula: \mathbf{F} = Q (\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})
○​ \mathbf{v}: Velocity of the charge (\text{m/s}).
●​ Properties of the Magnetic Force (\mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})):
1.​ Zero Work: \mathbf{F}_M is always perpendicular to the velocity \mathbf{v} (since
\mathbf{v} \cdot (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) = 0). Therefore, the magnetic force
does no work on the charge, meaning it cannot change the speed or kinetic energy
of the particle, only its direction.
2.​ \mathbf{F}_M is also perpendicular to \mathbf{B}.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 6/28---

3.6.2 Force on a Current Element

●​ The magnetic force \mathbf{F} on a differential current element I \, d\mathbf{l} in a
magnetic field \mathbf{B} is: d\mathbf{F} = I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{B}
●​ Total Force on a Closed Circuit: The total force on a closed loop C is the line integral of
d\mathbf{F} over the loop. \mathbf{F} = \oint_C I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{B}

3.6.3 Force Between Two Current Wires

●​ Consider two parallel, infinitely long wires separated by distance d, carrying currents I_1
and I_2.
●​ Step 1: Field from Wire 1 (\mathbf{B}_1).
○​ \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{I_1}{2 \pi d} \mathbf{a}_\phi.
○​ \mathbf{B}_1 = \mu_0 \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{\mu_0 I_1}{2 \pi d} \mathbf{a}_\phi.
(Direction is tangential).
●​ Step 2: Force on Wire 2 (d\mathbf{F}_2).
○​ Wire 2 has current element I_2 \, d\mathbf{l}_2 in field \mathbf{B}_1.
○​ d\mathbf{F}_2 = I_2 \, d\mathbf{l}_2 \times \mathbf{B}_1. Assuming current is in the
+z direction, d\mathbf{l}_2 = dz \mathbf{a}_z.
○​ d\mathbf{F}_2 = I_2 (dz \mathbf{a}_z) \times \left( \frac{\mu_0 I_1}{2 \pi d}
\mathbf{a}_\phi \right) = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d} dz (\mathbf{a}_z \times
\mathbf{a}_\phi)
○​ Since \mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_\phi = -\mathbf{a}_\rho, the force is attractive
(in the -\mathbf{a}_\rho direction).
●​ Result (Force per unit length, f = dF/dz): \mathbf{f} = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d}
\mathbf{a}_d
○​ \mathbf{a}_d: Unit vector pointing from Wire 2 to Wire 1.
○​ Direction Rule:
■​ Attraction: If currents I_1 and I_2 are in the same direction.
■​ Repulsion: If currents I_1 and I_2 are in the opposite direction.

3.6.4 Torque on a Current Loop

●​ Magnetic Dipole Moment (\mathbf{m}): Defined for a planar loop of area S carrying
current I. \mathbf{m} = I S \mathbf{a}_n
○​ \mathbf{a}_n: Unit vector normal to the loop area (Right-Hand Rule applied to
current direction).
○​ Unit: \text{A} \cdot \text{m}^2.
●​ Torque (\mathbf{T}): The rotational force experienced by a magnetic dipole moment
\mathbf{m} placed in a uniform magnetic field \mathbf{B}. \mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \times
\mathbf{B}
○​ Unit: Newton-meters (\text{N} \cdot \text{m}).
●​ Interpretation: The torque tends to rotate the loop until its magnetic dipole moment
\mathbf{m} aligns with the external magnetic field \mathbf{B}, achieving minimum
potential energy.
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3.7 Magnetic Materials and Boundary Conditions

3.7.1 Magnetization (\mathbf{M}) and Permeability
●​ Magnetization (\mathbf{M}): When a magnetic material is placed in an external
magnetic field \mathbf{H}, the internal atomic dipoles align, creating an internal magnetic
field. \mathbf{M} is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume. \mathbf{M} = \chi_m
\mathbf{H}
○​ \chi_m: Magnetic Susceptibility (dimensionless).
●​ Relationship between \mathbf{B}, \mathbf{H}, and \mathbf{M}:
○​ The Magnetic Flux Density \mathbf{B} inside a material is the sum of the field due
to the external current (\mu_0 \mathbf{H}) and the field due to magnetization
(\mu_0 \mathbf{M}). \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 (\mathbf{H} + \mathbf{M})
●​ Permeability (\mu): The measure of a material's ability to support the formation of a
magnetic field within itself. \mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H} = \mu_0 \mu_r \mathbf{H}
○​ Relative Permeability (\mu_r): The ratio of the material's permeability \mu to that
of free space \mu_0. \mu_r = 1 + \chi_m

3.7.2 Classification of Magnetic Materials

Material Type Magnetic Relative Permeability Behavior
Susceptibility (\mu_r)
(\chi_m)
Diamagnetic Small, negative (\chi_m Slightly less than 1 Weakly repelled by B
< 0) (\mu_r \lesssim 1) field. (Bismuth, Copper,
Gold)
Paramagnetic Small, positive (\chi_m Slightly greater than 1 Weakly attracted to B
> 0) (\mu_r \gtrsim 1) field. (Aluminum,
Platinum, Air)
Ferromagnetic Large, positive (\chi_m Much greater than 1 Strongly attracted;
\gg 1) (\mu_r \gg 1) non-linear, exhibits
hysteresis. (Iron,
Nickel, Cobalt)
3.7.3 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
●​ Conditions governing \mathbf{H} and \mathbf{B} at the interface between two magnetic
media (\mu_1 and \mu_2).
Component Relationship Statement
Normal (\mathbf{B}_n) \mathbf{B}_{n1} = The normal component of the
\mathbf{B}_{n2} Magnetic Flux Density
(\mathbf{B}) is continuous
across the boundary.
Tangential (\mathbf{H}_t) \mathbf{H}_{t1} - The tangential component of
\mathbf{H}_{t2} = \mathbf{K} the Magnetic Field Intensity
Component Relationship Statement
(\mathbf{H}) is discontinuous
by an amount equal to the free
surface current density
(\mathbf{K}) flowing at the
boundary.
●​ If \mathbf{K}=0 (No surface current): The tangential component of \mathbf{H} is
continuous (\mathbf{H}_{t1} = \mathbf{H}_{t2}).
●​ At a perfect conductor interface (\sigma=\infty): Since \mathbf{J} must be zero inside,
the surface current \mathbf{K} will be finite on the boundary.
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3.8 Solved Problems / Case Studies (1/8)

Solved Problem 1: Biot-Savart Law (Finite Conductor)
●​ Problem: A straight conductor of length 2L lies along the z-axis, centered at the origin,
carrying current I in the +\mathbf{a}_z direction. Find \mathbf{H} at a point P(\rho, 0, 0) in
the xy-plane.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Set up the Biot-Savart Integral.
■​ Current element: I \, d\mathbf{l} = I \, dz' \mathbf{a}_z. (Prime notation used
for source coordinates).
■​ Field point: \mathbf{r} = \rho \mathbf{a}_\rho. Source point: \mathbf{r}' = z'
\mathbf{a}_z.
■​ Distance vector: \mathbf{R} = \mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r}' = \rho \mathbf{a}_\rho -
z' \mathbf{a}_z.
■​ R^2 = \rho^2 + (z')^2.
○​ Step 2: Calculate d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{a}_R. d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{R}
= (I \, dz' \mathbf{a}_z) \times (\rho \mathbf{a}_\rho - z' \mathbf{a}_z) = I \, dz' \rho
(\mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_\rho) - I \, dz' z' (\mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_z)
■​ Since \mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_\rho = \mathbf{a}_\phi and \mathbf{a}_z
\times \mathbf{a}_z = 0: d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{R} = I \rho \, dz'
\mathbf{a}_\phi \mathbf{a}_R = \mathbf{R}/R \implies d\mathbf{l} \times
\mathbf{a}_R = \frac{d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{R}}{R} = \frac{I \rho \, dz'
\mathbf{a}_\phi}{R}
○​ Step 3: Perform the integration. \mathbf{H} = \int_{-L}^{L} \frac{I \rho \, dz'
\mathbf{a}_\phi}{4 \pi R^3} = \frac{I \rho \mathbf{a}_\phi}{4 \pi} \int_{-L}^{L}
\frac{dz'}{(\rho^2 + (z')^2)^{3/2}}
■​ Using the substitution z' = \rho \tan \alpha, the integral simplifies to:
\mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{4 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi \left[ \frac{z'}{\sqrt{\rho^2 +
(z')^2}} \right]_{-L}^{L} \mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{4 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi \left(
\frac{L}{\sqrt{\rho^2 + L^2}} - \frac{-L}{\sqrt{\rho^2 + L^2}} \right)
○​ Result: \mathbf{H} = \frac{2 I L}{4 \pi \rho \sqrt{\rho^2 + L^2}} \mathbf{a}_\phi \quad
\text{or} \quad \mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{2 \pi \rho} \frac{L}{\sqrt{\rho^2 + L^2}}
\mathbf{a}_\phi
○​ Limit Check (Infinite Wire): If L \to \infty, \frac{L}{\sqrt{\rho^2 + L^2}} \to 1,
 recovering the result \mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{2 \pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 9/28---

Solved Problem 2: Ampère's Law (Coaxial Cable)

●​ Problem: A coaxial cable has an inner conductor of radius a carrying current I in the
+\mathbf{a}_z direction and an outer conductor (radius b) carrying current -I. Find
\mathbf{H} in the regions: a) \rho < a, b) a < \rho < b, and c) \rho > b.
●​ Solution (Symmetry: Cylindrical. Amperian Path: Circle of radius \rho):
○​ Step 1: Region \rho < a (Inside the inner conductor).
■​ Assume current density \mathbf{J} is uniform: J = I / (\pi a^2).
■​ Enclosed Current: I_{enc} = J \cdot (\pi \rho^2) = \frac{I}{\pi a^2} (\pi \rho^2) =
I \frac{\rho^2}{a^2}.
■​ Ampère's Law: \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = H_\phi (2\pi \rho) =
I_{enc}. H_\phi = \frac{I_{enc}}{2 \pi \rho} = \frac{I \rho^2 / a^2}{2 \pi \rho} =
\frac{I \rho}{2 \pi a^2} \mathbf{H} = \frac{I \rho}{2 \pi a^2} \mathbf{a}_\phi
○​ Step 2: Region a < \rho < b (Between the conductors).
■​ Enclosed Current: I_{enc} = I (Total current in the inner conductor).
■​ Ampère's Law: H_\phi (2\pi \rho) = I. \mathbf{H} = \frac{I}{2 \pi \rho}
\mathbf{a}_\phi
○​ Step 3: Region \rho > b (Outside the cable).
■​ The outer conductor carries -I (total current) in the opposite direction.
■​ Enclosed Current: I_{enc} = I_{inner} + I_{outer} = I + (-I) = 0.
■​ Ampère's Law: H_\phi (2\pi \rho) = 0. \mathbf{H} = 0

Solved Problem 3: Force per Unit Length Between Wires

●​ Problem: Two parallel wires separated by d=5 \text{ cm} carry currents I_1 = 10 \text{ A}
and I_2 = 20 \text{ A}. Calculate the force per unit length exerted on Wire 2 if the currents
are flowing: a) in the same direction, and b) in opposite directions.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the Force per Unit Length Formula. f = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d}
■​ \mu_0 / (2\pi) = 2 \times 10^{-7} \text{ H/m}. d = 0.05 \text{ m}.
○​ Step 2: Calculate the magnitude. f = (2 \times 10^{-7}) \frac{(10)(20)}{0.05} = (2
\times 10^{-7}) \frac{200}{0.05} = (2 \times 10^{-7}) (4000) f = 8 \times 10^{-4} \text{
N/m}
○​ Step 3: Determine the direction.
■​ a) Same Direction: The force is attractive (towards Wire 1).
■​ b) Opposite Direction: The force is repulsive (away from Wire 1).
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 10/28---

Solved Problem 4: Magnetic Flux Calculation

●​ Problem: The Magnetic Flux Density is given as \mathbf{B} = 2 \rho \mathbf{a}_\phi \text{
T} in cylindrical coordinates. Calculate the total magnetic flux \Psi_m passing through the
surface defined by 0 \le \rho \le 1 \text{ m}, 0 \le z \le 2 \text{ m} in the \phi=0 plane.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Set up the Magnetic Flux Integral. \Psi_m = \int_S \mathbf{B} \cdot
 d\mathbf{S}
○​ Step 2: Define the Differential Surface Vector (d\mathbf{S}).
■​ The surface lies in the \phi=0 plane. The area vector d\mathbf{S} points in the
direction normal to the plane, which is \mathbf{a}_\phi.
■​ d\mathbf{S} = d\rho \, dz \, \mathbf{a}_\phi.
○​ Step 3: Calculate the dot product \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S}. \mathbf{B}
\cdot d\mathbf{S} = (2 \rho \mathbf{a}_\phi) \cdot (d\rho \, dz \, \mathbf{a}_\phi) = 2
\rho \, d\rho \, dz
○​ Step 4: Perform the integration. \Psi_m = \int_{z=0}^{2} \int_{\rho=0}^{1} 2 \rho \,
d\rho \, dz \Psi_m = \int_{z=0}^{2} dz \cdot 2 \left[ \frac{\rho^2}{2} \right]_0^{1} =
[z]_0^{2} \cdot 1 \Psi_m = (2) \cdot (1) = 2 \text{ Wb}

Solved Problem 5: Magnetic Vector Potential \mathbf{A} and

\mathbf{B}
●​ Problem: The magnetic vector potential is given as \mathbf{A} = y \mathbf{a}_x - x
\mathbf{a}_y \text{ Wb/m} in Cartesian coordinates. Find the magnetic flux density
\mathbf{B}.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the relationship \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}.
○​ Step 2: Apply the Cartesian Curl formula. \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A} =
\begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{a}_x & \mathbf{a}_y & \mathbf{a}_z \\ \frac{\partial}{\partial
x} & \frac{\partial}{\partial y} & \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \\ A_x & A_y & A_z
\end{vmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{a}_x & \mathbf{a}_y & \mathbf{a}_z \\
\frac{\partial}{\partial x} & \frac{\partial}{\partial y} & \frac{\partial}{\partial z} \\ y & -x
& 0 \end{vmatrix}
○​ Step 3: Expand the determinant. \mathbf{B} = \mathbf{a}_x \left(
\frac{\partial}{\partial y}(0) - \frac{\partial}{\partial z}(-x) \right) - \mathbf{a}_y \left(
\frac{\partial}{\partial x}(0) - \frac{\partial}{\partial z}(y) \right) + \mathbf{a}_z \left(
\frac{\partial}{\partial x}(-x) - \frac{\partial}{\partial y}(y) \right)
○​ Step 4: Simplify. \mathbf{B} = \mathbf{a}_x (0 - 0) - \mathbf{a}_y (0 - 0) +
\mathbf{a}_z (-1 - 1) \mathbf{B} = -2 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ T}
○​ Conclusion: The magnetic field is uniform and points in the negative z direction.
This field is solenoidal since \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = \nabla \cdot (-2 \mathbf{a}_z)
= 0.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 11/28---

Solved Problem 6: Lorentz Force on a Moving Charge

●​ Problem: A particle with charge Q = 2 \text{ C} moves with velocity \mathbf{v} =
3\mathbf{a}_x + 4\mathbf{a}_y \text{ m/s} in a region where the magnetic flux density is
\mathbf{B} = 5\mathbf{a}_x - 2\mathbf{a}_y + 1\mathbf{a}_z \text{ T} and the electric field
is \mathbf{E} = 10 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ V/m}. Find the total Lorentz force \mathbf{F} on the
charge.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Calculate the Electric Force \mathbf{F}_E. \mathbf{F}_E = Q \mathbf{E}
= 2 (10 \mathbf{a}_z) = 20 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ N}
 ○​ Step 2: Calculate the Magnetic Force \mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times
\mathbf{B}).
■​ First, find \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}: \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} =
\begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{a}_x & \mathbf{a}_y & \mathbf{a}_z \\ 3 & 4 & 0 \\ 5 &
-2 & 1 \end{vmatrix} \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} = \mathbf{a}_x (4 - 0) -
\mathbf{a}_y (3 - 0) + \mathbf{a}_z (-6 - 20) \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} =
4\mathbf{a}_x - 3\mathbf{a}_y - 26\mathbf{a}_z
■​ Now, calculate \mathbf{F}_M: \mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times
\mathbf{B}) = 2 (4\mathbf{a}_x - 3\mathbf{a}_y - 26\mathbf{a}_z)
\mathbf{F}_M = 8\mathbf{a}_x - 6\mathbf{a}_y - 52\mathbf{a}_z \text{ N}
○​ Step 3: Calculate the Total Force \mathbf{F}. \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{F}_E +
\mathbf{F}_M = (20 \mathbf{a}_z) + (8\mathbf{a}_x - 6\mathbf{a}_y -
52\mathbf{a}_z) \mathbf{F} = 8\mathbf{a}_x - 6\mathbf{a}_y - 32\mathbf{a}_z \text{
N}

Solved Problem 7: Torque on a Current Loop

●​ Problem: A rectangular current loop of area S = 0.05 \text{ m}^2 carrying a current I = 3
\text{ A} is placed in a uniform magnetic field \mathbf{B} = 0.5 \mathbf{a}_y \text{ T}. If the
magnetic dipole moment of the loop is \mathbf{m} = 0.15 \mathbf{a}_z \text{
A}\cdot\text{m}^2, find the torque \mathbf{T} exerted on the loop.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Check consistency of \mathbf{m}.
■​ \mathbf{m} = I S \mathbf{a}_n = (3 \text{ A}) (0.05 \text{ m}^2) \mathbf{a}_z =
0.15 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ A}\cdot\text{m}^2. (The given \mathbf{m} is
consistent).
○​ Step 2: Apply the Torque formula \mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}.
\mathbf{T} = (0.15 \mathbf{a}_z) \times (0.5 \mathbf{a}_y) \mathbf{T} = (0.15)(0.5)
(\mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_y)
■​ Since \mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_y = -\mathbf{a}_x: \mathbf{T} = 0.075
(-\mathbf{a}_x) \text{ N}\cdot\text{m}
○​ Result: \mathbf{T} = -0.075 \mathbf{a}_x \text{ N}\cdot\text{m}.
○​ Interpretation: The torque tends to rotate the loop about the x-axis until \mathbf{m}
(currently \mathbf{a}_z) aligns with \mathbf{B} (currently \mathbf{a}_y).
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 12/28---

Solved Problem 8: Current Density and Total Current

●​ Problem: The current density in a conductor is given by \mathbf{J} = 10 e^{-100 \rho}
\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}^2. Find the total current I flowing through the circular
cross-section defined by 0 \le \rho \le 1 \text{ mm}.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Set up the Total Current Integral.
■​ Since the current is in the z direction, the integration surface S is the xy plane
(normal \mathbf{a}_z).
■​ In cylindrical coordinates, d\mathbf{S} = \rho \, d\rho \, d\phi \, \mathbf{a}_z. I
= \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot d\mathbf{S} = \int_0^{2\pi} \int_0^{10^{-3}} (10
e^{-100 \rho} \mathbf{a}_z) \cdot (\rho \, d\rho \, d\phi \, \mathbf{a}_z) I =
 \int_0^{2\pi} d\phi \cdot \int_0^{10^{-3}} 10 \rho e^{-100 \rho} \, d\rho
○​ Step 2: Integrate with respect to \phi. I = (2\pi) \cdot 10 \int_0^{10^{-3}} \rho
e^{-100 \rho} \, d\rho
○​ Step 3: Integrate with respect to \rho (Integration by Parts: \int u \, dv = uv -
\int v \, du).
■​ Let u = \rho and dv = e^{-100 \rho} d\rho. Then du = d\rho and v =
-\frac{1}{100} e^{-100 \rho}. \int \rho e^{-100 \rho} d\rho = \left[
-\frac{\rho}{100} e^{-100 \rho} \right]_0^{10^{-3}} - \int_0^{10^{-3}} \left(
-\frac{1}{100} e^{-100 \rho} \right) d\rho \int \rho e^{-100 \rho} d\rho \approx
\left[ -\frac{10^{-3}}{100} e^{-0.1} - 0 \right] + \frac{1}{100} \left[ -\frac{1}{100}
e^{-100 \rho} \right]_0^{10^{-3}}
■​ Since 10^{-3} is small, use approximation e^{-x} \approx 1-x. e^{-0.1} \approx
0.9. \int \rho e^{-100 \rho} d\rho \approx -10^{-5} (0.9) - \frac{1}{10000}
(e^{-0.1} - e^0) \approx -9 \times 10^{-6} - 10^{-4} (0.9 - 1) \approx -9 \times
10^{-6} - 10^{-4} (-0.1) = -9 \times 10^{-6} + 10^{-5} = 10^{-5} - 9 \times
10^{-6} = 10 \times 10^{-6} - 9 \times 10^{-6} = 10^{-6}
○​ Step 4: Final Result (using approximation). I = 20 \pi \times 10^{-6} \approx 6.28
\times 10^{-5} \text{ A} \quad \text{or } 62.8 \text{ } \mu\text{A}

Solved Problem 9: Magnetic Field at the Center of a Square Loop

●​ Problem: A square loop of side length 2a carries current I. Find the magnetic field
intensity \mathbf{H} at the center of the loop.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the result for a finite straight conductor.
■​ H = \frac{I}{4 \pi \rho} (\cos \alpha_2 - \cos \alpha_1).
■​ For one side, the perpendicular distance from the center is \rho=a.
■​ The limits \alpha_1 and \alpha_2 from the center to the ends of the side are
135^\circ and 45^\circ, respectively.
○​ Step 2: Calculate H_1 (Field from one side). \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{I}{4 \pi a} (\cos
45^\circ - \cos 135^\circ) = \frac{I}{4 \pi a} \left( \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} -
\left(-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\right) \right) \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{I}{4 \pi a} \left(
\frac{2}{\sqrt{2}} \right) = \frac{I \sqrt{2}}{4 \pi a}
○​ Step 3: Calculate the Total Field \mathbf{H}_{total}.
■​ There are four identical sides, and the fields from all four contribute equally in
the same direction (perpendicular to the square plane). \mathbf{H}_{total} = 4
\mathbf{H}_1 = 4 \frac{I \sqrt{2}}{4 \pi a} = \frac{\sqrt{2} I}{\pi a}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 13/28---

Solved Problem 10: Gauss's Law for Magnetism

●​ Problem: Given the magnetic flux density field \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{\rho} \mathbf{a}_\rho
in a region defined by 1 < \rho < 2 \text{ m}. Verify the differential form of Gauss's law for
magnetism (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0).
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the Cylindrical Divergence formula for \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B}.
(Since B_\phi=0, B_z=0). \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{\rho}
\frac{\partial}{\partial \rho} (\rho B_\rho) + \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial B_\phi}{\partial
 \phi} + \frac{\partial B_z}{\partial z}
○​ Step 2: Substitute B_\rho = 1/\rho. \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{\rho}
\frac{\partial}{\partial \rho} \left( \rho \cdot \frac{1}{\rho} \right) + 0 + 0 \nabla \cdot
\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial}{\partial \rho} (1)
○​ Step 3: Simplify. \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{\rho} (0) = 0
○​ Conclusion: The field satisfies \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0, confirming that it is
solenoidal (flux lines form closed loops).

Solved Problem 11: Magnetic Boundary Conditions (No Surface

Current)
●​ Problem: Region 1 (\mu_{r1}=2) is separated from Region 2 (\mu_{r2}=5) by an interface
with no surface current (\mathbf{K}=0). If the magnetic field intensity in Region 1 is
\mathbf{H}_1 = 5\mathbf{a}_x + 10\mathbf{a}_y + 15\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}, and the
interface is the xy-plane (z=0), find \mathbf{B}_2 and \mathbf{H}_2.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Decompose components (Normal \mathbf{a}_z, Tangential
\mathbf{a}_x, \mathbf{a}_y).
■​ \mathbf{H}_{t1} = 5\mathbf{a}_x + 10\mathbf{a}_y \text{ A/m}.
\mathbf{H}_{n1} = 15\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}.
○​ Step 2: Apply Boundary Conditions.
■​ Normal \mathbf{B} is continuous: \mathbf{B}_{n1} = \mathbf{B}_{n2}.
■​ Tangential \mathbf{H} is continuous (\mathbf{K}=0): \mathbf{H}_{t1} =
\mathbf{H}_{t2}.
○​ Step 3: Find \mathbf{H}_2.
■​ \mathbf{H}_{t2} = \mathbf{H}_{t1} = 5\mathbf{a}_x + 10\mathbf{a}_y \text{
A/m}.
■​ Calculate \mathbf{B}_{n1}: \mathbf{B}_{n1} = \mu_1 \mathbf{H}_{n1} =
\mu_{r1} \mu_0 \mathbf{H}_{n1} = 2 \mu_0 (15\mathbf{a}_z) = 30 \mu_0
\mathbf{a}_z.
■​ Since \mathbf{B}_{n2} = \mathbf{B}_{n1}: \mathbf{B}_{n2} = 30 \mu_0
\mathbf{a}_z.
■​ Find \mathbf{H}_{n2}: \mathbf{H}_{n2} = \mathbf{B}_{n2} / \mu_2 =
\mathbf{B}_{n2} / (\mu_{r2} \mu_0) = \frac{30 \mu_0 \mathbf{a}_z}{5 \mu_0} =
6 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}.
■​ Recombine \mathbf{H}_2: \mathbf{H}_2 = \mathbf{H}_{t2} + \mathbf{H}_{n2}
= 5\mathbf{a}_x + 10\mathbf{a}_y + 6\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}.
○​ Step 4: Find \mathbf{B}_2. \mathbf{B}_2 = \mu_2 \mathbf{H}_2 = 5 \mu_0
(5\mathbf{a}_x + 10\mathbf{a}_y + 6\mathbf{a}_z) \text{ T}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 14/28---

Solved Problem 12: Force on a Current Loop in Non-Uniform Field

●​ Problem: A square loop of side L=0.1 \text{ m} in the xy-plane carries current I = 1 \text{
A}. The magnetic field is non-uniform: \mathbf{B} = 0.5 x \mathbf{a}_y \text{ T}. Calculate
the net force on the loop. (Assume the loop is positioned at x=1 \text{ m}, y=0 \text{ m} for
the bottom-left corner).
 ●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Set up the Force Integral \mathbf{F} = \oint_C I \, d\mathbf{l} \times
\mathbf{B}.
■​ I=1 \text{ A}. \mathbf{B} = 0.5 x \mathbf{a}_y.
○​ Step 2: Analyze the force on each of the four sides.
■​ Side 1 (Bottom, y=0, d\mathbf{l} = dx \mathbf{a}_x, x: 1 \to 1.1):
d\mathbf{F}_1 = I (dx \mathbf{a}_x) \times (0.5 x \mathbf{a}_y) = 0.5 I x \, dx
(\mathbf{a}_x \times \mathbf{a}_y) = 0.5 I x \, dx \mathbf{a}_z \mathbf{F}_1 =
0.5 I \mathbf{a}_z \int_{1}^{1.1} x \, dx = 0.5 (1) \mathbf{a}_z \left[
\frac{x^2}{2} \right]_1^{1.1} = 0.5 \mathbf{a}_z (0.605 - 0.5) = 0.0525
\mathbf{a}_z \text{ N}
■​ Side 2 (Right, x=1.1, d\mathbf{l} = dy \mathbf{a}_y, y: 0 \to 0.1):
d\mathbf{F}_2 = I (dy \mathbf{a}_y) \times (0.5 (1.1) \mathbf{a}_y) = 0 \quad
(\text{since } \mathbf{a}_y \times \mathbf{a}_y = 0) \mathbf{F}_2 = \mathbf{0}
■​ Side 3 (Top, y=0.1, d\mathbf{l} = -dx \mathbf{a}_x, x: 1.1 \to 1):
d\mathbf{F}_3 = I (-dx \mathbf{a}_x) \times (0.5 x \mathbf{a}_y) = -0.5 I x \, dx
\mathbf{a}_z \mathbf{F}_3 = -0.5 I \mathbf{a}_z \int_{1.1}^{1} x \, dx = -0.5 (1)
\mathbf{a}_z \left[ \frac{x^2}{2} \right]_{1.1}^{1} = -0.5 \mathbf{a}_z (0.5 -
0.605) = 0.0525 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ N}
■​ Side 4 (Left, x=1, d\mathbf{l} = -dy \mathbf{a}_y, y: 0.1 \to 0):
d\mathbf{F}_4 = I (-dy \mathbf{a}_y) \times (0.5 (1) \mathbf{a}_y) = 0 \quad
(\text{since } \mathbf{a}_y \times \mathbf{a}_y = 0) \mathbf{F}_4 = \mathbf{0}
○​ Step 3: Calculate the Total Force \mathbf{F}. \mathbf{F}_{total} = \mathbf{F}_1 +
\mathbf{F}_2 + \mathbf{F}_3 + \mathbf{F}_4 = 0.0525 \mathbf{a}_z + 0 + 0.0525
\mathbf{a}_z + 0 \mathbf{F}_{total} = 0.105 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ N}
○​ Conclusion: In a non-uniform field, the forces that cancel in a uniform field may
result in a non-zero net translational force (in this case, upwards in the z-direction).
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 15/28---

Solved Problem 13: Magnetization Vector \mathbf{M}

●​ Problem: A magnetic material has a relative permeability \mu_r=50. If the magnetic field
intensity inside the material is \mathbf{H} = 2 \mathbf{a}_x \text{ A/m}, find the
Magnetization vector \mathbf{M}.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the relationship between \mu_r and \chi_m. \mu_r = 1 + \chi_m
\chi_m = \mu_r - 1 = 50 - 1 = 49
○​ Step 2: Use the relationship \mathbf{M} = \chi_m \mathbf{H}. \mathbf{M} = 49
(2 \mathbf{a}_x)
○​ Result: \mathbf{M} = 98 \mathbf{a}_x \text{ A/m}

Solved Problem 14: Magnetic Field from a Solenoid (Numerical)

●​ Problem: A long solenoid has 1000 turns per meter (N=1000). If it carries a current I=5
\text{ A}, find the magnetic flux density \mathbf{B} inside the solenoid, assuming it is filled
with air (\mu \approx \mu_0).
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Use the formula for \mathbf{H} inside an infinite solenoid. \mathbf{H} =
 N I \mathbf{a}_z H = (1000 \text{ turns/m}) (5 \text{ A}) = 5000 \text{ A/m}
○​ Step 2: Calculate \mathbf{B} using \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{H}. \mathbf{B}
= \mu_0 (5000) \mathbf{a}_z = (4 \pi \times 10^{-7} \text{ H/m}) (5000) \mathbf{a}_z
\mathbf{B} = 20000 \pi \times 10^{-7} \mathbf{a}_z \approx 6.28 \times 10^{-3}
\mathbf{a}_z \text{ T} \mathbf{B} = 6.28 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ mT}

Solved Problem 15: Boundary Conditions (Tangential \mathbf{H} with

Surface Current)
●​ Problem: Two regions with \mu_{r1}=1 and \mu_{r2}=3 are separated by the plane x=0. A
surface current \mathbf{K} = 5 \mathbf{a}_y \text{ A/m} flows on the boundary. If
\mathbf{H}_1 = 10\mathbf{a}_x + 2\mathbf{a}_y + 0\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}, find
\mathbf{H}_2.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Decompose components (Normal \mathbf{a}_x, Tangential
\mathbf{a}_y, \mathbf{a}_z).
■​ \mathbf{H}_{t1} = 2\mathbf{a}_y \text{ A/m}. \mathbf{H}_{n1} =
10\mathbf{a}_x \text{ A/m}.
○​ Step 2: Apply Normal \mathbf{B} continuity (\mathbf{B}_{n1} =
\mathbf{B}_{n2}).
■​ \mathbf{B}_{n1} = \mu_1 \mathbf{H}_{n1} = (1 \mu_0) (10 \mathbf{a}_x) = 10
\mu_0 \mathbf{a}_x.
■​ \mathbf{H}_{n2} = \mathbf{B}_{n2} / \mu_2 = (10 \mu_0 \mathbf{a}_x) / (3
\mu_0) = \frac{10}{3} \mathbf{a}_x \approx 3.33 \mathbf{a}_x \text{ A/m}.
○​ Step 3: Apply Tangential \mathbf{H} discontinuity (\mathbf{H}_{t1} -
\mathbf{H}_{t2} = \mathbf{K} \times \mathbf{a}_n).
■​ \mathbf{a}_n: Unit normal from 2 to 1 (\mathbf{a}_x).
■​ \mathbf{K} \times \mathbf{a}_n = (5 \mathbf{a}_y) \times (\mathbf{a}_x) = 5
(\mathbf{a}_y \times \mathbf{a}_x) = -5 \mathbf{a}_z.
■​ \mathbf{H}_{t2} = \mathbf{H}_{t1} - (\mathbf{K} \times \mathbf{a}_n) =
2\mathbf{a}_y - (-5 \mathbf{a}_z) = 2\mathbf{a}_y + 5 \mathbf{a}_z \text{
A/m}.
○​ Step 4: Recombine \mathbf{H}_2. \mathbf{H}_2 = \mathbf{H}_{t2} +
\mathbf{H}_{n2} = 3.33 \mathbf{a}_x + 2\mathbf{a}_y + 5 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 16/28---

3.9 Practice Problem Set (1/4)

Short-Answer Problems
1.​ What is the primary characteristic of the current required for a problem to be analyzed
under Magnetostatics?
2.​ State the unit and the physical meaning of the ratio \mu / \mu_0.
3.​ Why is the magnetic force \mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) on a moving
charge unable to change the particle's kinetic energy?
4.​ State the two primary vector operations required to calculate the magnetic field intensity
d\mathbf{H} using the Biot-Savart Law.
 5.​ What is the value of \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} and what physical principle does this
represent?
6.​ The Ampère's Circuital Law relates the circulation of \mathbf{H} around a closed path L
to what quantity?
7.​ Define the Magnetic Dipole Moment (\mathbf{m}) for a current loop of area S.
8.​ A diamagnetic material has a relative permeability (\mu_r) that is slightly less than 1.
What is the sign of its magnetic susceptibility (\chi_m)?
9.​ State the simplified form of the Equation of Continuity (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{J}) for
steady currents.
10.​State the boundary condition for the normal component of the Magnetic Flux Density
(\mathbf{B}_n) at a material interface.
11.​What is the term for the force exerted on a current element I \, d\mathbf{l} in a field
\mathbf{B}?
12.​Convert the current density equation \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E} into its equivalent
form involving resistivity \rho.

Long-Answer Problems
1.​ Biot-Savart Law vs. Ampère's Law: Compare and contrast the Biot-Savart Law and
Ampère's Circuital Law. Explain the conditions under which each is most effectively used
to calculate the magnetic field \mathbf{H}, providing a geometric example for each.
2.​ Magnetic Boundary Conditions: Derive and summarize the boundary conditions for the
Normal Magnetic Flux Density (\mathbf{B}_n) and the Tangential Magnetic Field
Intensity (\mathbf{H}_t) at the interface between two linear, isotropic magnetic media
(\mu_1 and \mu_2), considering the possible presence of a surface current \mathbf{K}.
3.​ The Magnetic Vector Potential (\mathbf{A}): Explain why the Magnetic Vector Potential
\mathbf{A} must exist, based on the differential form of Gauss's Law for Magnetism.
Derive the formula for \mathbf{H} in terms of \mathbf{A} by substituting \mathbf{B} =
\nabla \times \mathbf{A} into Ampère's Law (\nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}).
4.​ Force and Torque: Explain the Lorentz Force Equation in detail, distinguishing between
the electric and magnetic force components. Derive the net magnetic force per unit length
exerted between two parallel, infinite wires carrying currents I_1 and I_2, and state the
rule governing attraction vs. repulsion.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 17/28---

3.9 Practice Problem Set (2/4)

Numerical Exercises (Calculus and Fields)
1.​ Biot-Savart Law (Total Field): An infinite line current I = 4 \text{ A} flows along the z-axis.
Find the Magnetic Field Intensity \mathbf{H} at the point P(2, 3, 0) in Cartesian
coordinates.
2.​ Ampère's Law (Solenoid): A solenoid has 500 turns over a length of 0.5 \text{ m}. If the
coil carries a current of 2 \text{ A} and the core material has \mu_r=100, find the magnetic
flux density \mathbf{B} inside the solenoid.
3.​ Current Density (Divergence): The current density in a region is given by \mathbf{J} =
2x \mathbf{a}_x + 3y \mathbf{a}_y + C z \mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}^2. If this represents a
 steady current, find the constant C.
4.​ Lorentz Force: An electron (Q = -1.6 \times 10^{-19} \text{ C}) is moving at \mathbf{v} =
10^5 \mathbf{a}_x \text{ m/s} in a field \mathbf{B} = 0.5 \mathbf{a}_y \text{ T}. Calculate
the magnetic force \mathbf{F}_M on the electron.
5.​ Magnetic Flux and Area: The magnetic field is uniform, \mathbf{B} = 0.2 \mathbf{a}_x
\text{ T}. Find the total magnetic flux \Psi_m passing through a rectangular area defined
by 0 \le y \le 1 \text{ m} and 0 \le z \le 2 \text{ m}. (The area is in the yz-plane).
6.​ Force Between Wires: Two long parallel wires separated by 20 \text{ cm} carry currents
I_1 = 5 \text{ A} and I_2 = 15 \text{ A} in opposite directions. Find the force per unit length
acting on the wire carrying I_2.

Numerical Exercises (Boundary Conditions and Materials)

1.​ Magnetic Boundary (No Surface Current): Region 1 (\mu_{r1}=4) is separated from
Region 2 (\mu_{r2}=1). No surface current exists. If \mathbf{B}_1 = 2\mathbf{a}_x +
6\mathbf{a}_y + 8\mathbf{a}_z \text{ T} and the interface is the yz-plane (x=0), find
\mathbf{B}_2 and \mathbf{H}_2.
2.​ Torque on a Dipole: A magnetic dipole moment \mathbf{m} = 0.5 \mathbf{a}_z \text{
A}\cdot\text{m}^2 is placed in a field \mathbf{B} = 0.1 \mathbf{a}_x + 0.2 \mathbf{a}_y
\text{ T}. Calculate the resultant torque \mathbf{T} on the dipole.
3.​ Magnetic Vector Potential (Check): Given \mathbf{A} = \frac{1}{\rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi
(Cylindrical). Show that \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = 0. (The magnetostatic condition for
\mathbf{A} in free space is \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = 0).
4.​ Magnetization (Susceptibility): The Magnetic Flux Density in a medium is \mathbf{B} =
0.005 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ T}, and the Magnetic Field Intensity is \mathbf{H} = 20
\mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}. Calculate the relative permeability \mu_r and the magnetic
susceptibility \chi_m of the medium.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 18/28---

3.9 Practice Problem Set (3/4)

Practice Problem Answer Key
Short-Answer Problem Answer
1. Current Characteristic The current must be a steady current
(constant in time).
2. Unit and Meaning of \mu_r Unit: Dimensionless. Meaning: Relative
Permeability (how much better the material is
than free space at supporting a magnetic field).
3. Why \mathbf{F}_M cannot change kinetic \mathbf{F}_M is always perpendicular to the
energy velocity \mathbf{v} (\mathbf{F}_M \perp
\mathbf{v}), so the work done \mathbf{F} \cdot
d\mathbf{l} is zero.
4. Biot-Savart Vector Operations Vector Cross Product (d\mathbf{l} \times
\mathbf{a}_R) and Integration (\int).
5. Value and Principle of \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0. Represents
Gauss's Law for Magnetism (No magnetic
Short-Answer Problem Answer
monopoles; \mathbf{B} is solenoidal).
6. Ampère's Law (Quantity Enclosed) The total current enclosed (I_{enc}) by the
closed path L.
7. Magnetic Dipole Moment (\mathbf{m}) \mathbf{m} = I S \mathbf{a}_n.
8. Susceptibility of Diamagnetic Material Small and negative (\chi_m < 0).
9. Equation of Continuity (Steady Current) \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = 0.
10. Normal \mathbf{B}_n Boundary Condition Continuous (\mathbf{B}_{n1} =
\mathbf{B}_{n2}).
11. Force Term The Magnetic Force d\mathbf{F} = I \,
d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{B}.
12. Ohm's Law (Resistivity Form) \mathbf{J} = \frac{1}{\rho} \mathbf{E}.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 19/28--- | Numerical Exercise | Result |
Calculation Details | | :---: | :---: | :---: | | 1. \mathbf{H} at P(2, 3, 0) | \mathbf{H} \approx 0.106
\mathbf{a}_\phi \text{ A/m} | \rho = \sqrt{2^2+3^2} = \sqrt{13} \approx 3.606 \text{ m}. \mathbf{H}
= \frac{I}{2\pi \rho} \mathbf{a}_\phi. H = \frac{4}{2\pi (3.606)} \approx 0.176 \text{ A/m}. \phi =
\tan^{-1}(3/2) \approx 56.3^\circ. \mathbf{a}_\phi = -\sin \phi \mathbf{a}_x + \cos \phi
\mathbf{a}_y \approx -0.832 \mathbf{a}_x + 0.555 \mathbf{a}_y. \mathbf{H} \approx -0.146
\mathbf{a}_x + 0.098 \mathbf{a}_y. | | 2. \mathbf{B} inside Solenoid | 2.51 \text{ mT} | N/L =
500/0.5 = 1000 \text{ turns/m}. H = N I = 1000(2) = 2000 \text{ A/m}. B = \mu_r \mu_0 H = 100
\mu_0 (2000) \approx 2.51 \times 10^{-3} \text{ T}. | | 3. Steady Current Constant C | C = -5 |
\nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = 0 \implies \frac{\partial J_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial J_y}{\partial y} +
\frac{\partial J_z}{\partial z} = 2 + 3 + C = 0. C=-5. | | 4. Lorentz Force \mathbf{F}_M | -8 \times
10^{-15} \mathbf{a}_z \text{ N} | \mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) = (-1.6 \times
10^{-19}) (10^5 \mathbf{a}_x \times 0.5 \mathbf{a}_y). \mathbf{F}_M = (-1.6 \times 10^{-19}) (5
\times 10^4 \mathbf{a}_z). | | 5. Magnetic Flux \Psi_m | 0.4 \text{ Wb} | \Psi_m = \int_S
\mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S}. d\mathbf{S} = dy dz \mathbf{a}_x. \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{S} =
0.2 dy dz. \Psi_m = 0.2 \cdot (\text{Area}) = 0.2 (1 \times 2) = 0.4 \text{ Wb}. | | 6. Force per Unit
Length f | 7.5 \times 10^{-5} \text{ N/m} (Repulsive) | f = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d} = (2 \times
10^{-7}) \frac{(5)(15)}{0.20} = 7.5 \times 10^{-5} \text{ N/m}. Repulsive since currents are
opposite. | | 7. \mathbf{B}_2 and \mathbf{H}_2 | \mathbf{B}_2 = 2\mathbf{a}_x + 1.5\mathbf{a}_y
+ 2\mathbf{a}_z \text{ T}. \mathbf{H}_2 = 2 \mu_0^{-1} \mathbf{a}_x + 1.5 \mu_0^{-1}
\mathbf{a}_y + 2 \mu_0^{-1} \mathbf{a}_z \text{ A/m}. | Normal \mathbf{B} is continuous:
B_{n1}=B_{n2}=2 \mathbf{a}_x. Tangential \mathbf{H} is continuous: H_{t1}=H_{t2}. H_{t1} =
(6\mathbf{a}_y+8\mathbf{a}_z)/4\mu_0 = (1.5\mathbf{a}_y+2\mathbf{a}_z)/\mu_0.
\mathbf{B}_{t2} = \mu_{r2} \mu_0 \mathbf{H}_{t2} = 1 \mu_0 \mathbf{H}_{t1} = 1.5\mu_0
\mathbf{a}_y + 2\mu_0 \mathbf{a}_z \text{ T}. Recombine: \mathbf{B}_2 = B_{n2} + B_{t2}. | | 8.
Resultant Torque \mathbf{T} | -0.1 \mathbf{a}_x + 0.05 \mathbf{a}_y \text{ N}\cdot\text{m} |
\mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B} = (0.5 \mathbf{a}_z) \times (0.1 \mathbf{a}_x + 0.2
\mathbf{a}_y). \mathbf{T} = 0.05 (\mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_x) + 0.1 (\mathbf{a}_z \times
\mathbf{a}_y) = 0.05 \mathbf{a}_y - 0.1 \mathbf{a}_x. | | 9. \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} Check |
\nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = 0 | \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial}{\partial \rho}
(\rho A_\rho) + \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial A_\phi}{\partial \phi} + \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial z}.
Since A_\rho=0, A_z=0 and A_\phi is independent of \phi: \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = 0. | | 10.
\mu_r and \chi_m | \mu_r = 19.89. \chi_m = 18.89. | \mu = B/H = 0.005 / 20 = 2.5 \times 10^{-4}
\text{ H/m}. \mu_r = \mu / \mu_0 = (2.5 \times 10^{-4}) / (4\pi \times 10^{-7}) \approx 198.94.
\chi_m = \mu_r - 1 \approx 197.94. |
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 20/28---

3.10 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1.​ Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields created by:
○​ (A) Time-varying charges.
○​ (B) Stationary charges.
○​ (C) Steady (time-invariant) currents.
○​ (D) Oscillating dipoles.
2.​ The differential form of Ampère's Circuital Law for magnetostatics is:
○​ (A) \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0
○​ (B) \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}
○​ (C) \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}
○​ (D) \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = I_{enc}
3.​ The core principle expressed by Gauss's Law for Magnetism (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0)
is:
○​ (A) Conservation of charge.
○​ (B) Non-existence of magnetic monopoles.
○​ (C) The field is conservative.
○​ (D) The field decays as 1/R^2.
4.​ The magnetic force \mathbf{F}_M on a moving charge Q is proportional to:
○​ (A) \mathbf{E}
○​ (B) \mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{B}
○​ (C) \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}
○​ (D) \nabla \times \mathbf{H}
5.​ The force between two parallel wires carrying current in the same direction is:
○​ (A) Repulsive
○​ (B) Attractive
○​ (C) Zero
○​ (D) Perpendicular to the plane of the wires
6.​ The unit of Magnetic Field Intensity (\mathbf{H}) is:
○​ (A) Tesla (\text{T})
○​ (B) Weber (\text{Wb})
○​ (C) \text{A}/\text{m} (Amperes per meter)
○​ (D) \text{H}/\text{m} (Henrys per meter)
7.​ The Magnetic Vector Potential (\mathbf{A}) is defined such that:
○​ (A) \mathbf{A} = -\nabla V
○​ (B) \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}
○​ (C) \mathbf{B} = \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A}
○​ (D) \mathbf{H} = \mu \mathbf{A}
8.​ The tangential component of \mathbf{H} at the boundary between two magnetic media is
discontinuous by an amount equal to:
○​ (A) Volume charge density \rho_v.
○​ (B) Magnetic flux density \mathbf{B}.
○​ (C) Surface current density \mathbf{K}.
○​ (D) Magnetization \mathbf{M}.
9.​ A ferromagnetic material is characterized by a relative permeability \mu_r that is:
 ○​ (A) Slightly less than 1.
○​ (B) Equal to 1.
○​ (C) Much greater than 1.
○​ (D) Slightly greater than 1.
10.​Which law is fundamentally expressed by the equation \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot
d\mathbf{l} = I_{enc}?
○​ (A) Faraday's Law
○​ (B) Biot-Savart Law
○​ (C) Gauss's Law
○​ (D) Ampère's Circuital Law
11.​According to the Equation of Continuity for steady currents, the divergence of the current
density \mathbf{J} must be:
○​ (A) \rho_v
○​ (B) -\partial \rho_v / \partial t
○​ (C) \infty
○​ (D) 0
12.​The torque \mathbf{T} exerted on a magnetic dipole moment \mathbf{m} in a field
\mathbf{B} is given by:
○​ (A) \mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \cdot \mathbf{B}
○​ (B) \mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}
○​ (C) \mathbf{T} = I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{B}
○​ (D) \mathbf{T} = \nabla \times \mathbf{B}
13.​Ohm's law in point form is given by:
○​ (A) V = I R
○​ (B) \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E}
○​ (C) \mathbf{D} = \epsilon \mathbf{E}
○​ (D) \mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 21/28--- 14. The total magnetic flux \Psi_m through
a surface S is calculated by integrating the normal component of: * (A) \mathbf{H} * (B)
\mathbf{B} * (C) \mathbf{A} * (D) \mathbf{J}
1.​ The magnetic field intensity \mathbf{H} due to an infinite straight wire carrying current I
decays radially as:
○​ (A) 1/\rho^2
○​ (B) 1/\rho
○​ (C) Constant
○​ (D) \rho
2.​ The relationship \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 (\mathbf{H} + \mathbf{M}) is the defining equation
for:
○​ (A) Magnetic Potential.
○​ (B) Permeability.
○​ (C) Magnetic Dipole Moment.
○​ (D) Magnetization.
3.​ Which term describes charge flow through an insulating medium, which does not strictly
obey Ohm's Law?
○​ (A) Conduction current.
○​ (B) Displacement current.
○​ (C) Convection current.
○​ (D) Eddy current.
 4.​ If a magnetic field is uniform (\mathbf{B} = B_0 \mathbf{a}_z), the curl of the magnetic
field intensity is:
○​ (A) Non-zero.
○​ (B) \mathbf{H}
○​ (C) \mathbf{J}
○​ (D) Zero (\nabla \times \mathbf{H} = 0).
5.​ The normal component of the magnetic flux density (\mathbf{B}_n) at a magnetic
boundary is:
○​ (A) Discontinuous.
○​ (B) Continuous.
○​ (C) Equal to the surface current \mathbf{K}.
○​ (D) Proportional to \mu_r.
6.​ The force per unit length f between two parallel wires is proportional to:
○​ (A) The product of the currents, I_1 I_2.
○​ (B) The distance separation d.
○​ (C) The sum of the currents, I_1 + I_2.
○​ (D) The square of the distance, d^2.
7.​ A particle with charge Q is moving in a uniform magnetic field \mathbf{B}. If \mathbf{v} is
parallel to \mathbf{B}, the magnetic force \mathbf{F}_M is:
○​ (A) Q v B
○​ (B) Maximum
○​ (C) Zero
○​ (D) Directed along \mathbf{v}
8.​ The magnetic vector potential due to a volume current \mathbf{J} involves integration over
dv, with the integrand proportional to:
○​ (A) \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{J}
○​ (B) \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{a}_R
○​ (C) \mathbf{J}
○​ (D) |\mathbf{J}|
9.​ The total force on a closed current loop in a uniform magnetic field is:
○​ (A) \mathbf{T}
○​ (B) \mathbf{m}
○​ (C) \mathbf{0}
○​ (D) Proportional to I
10.​If the magnetic susceptibility \chi_m of a medium is slightly positive, the material is
classified as:
○​ (A) Ferromagnetic
○​ (B) Diamagnetic
○​ (C) Paramagnetic
○​ (D) Conducting
11.​The Biot-Savart Law is often considered the magnetic equivalent of what electrostatic
law?
○​ (A) Gauss's Law
○​ (B) Faraday's Law
○​ (C) Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
○​ (D) Coulomb's Law
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 22/28---
3.10 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) (2/2)
MCQ Answer Key
Question Answer
1 (C) Steady (time-invariant) currents.
2 (B) \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}
3 (B) Non-existence of magnetic monopoles.
4 (C) \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}
5 (B) Attractive
6 (C) \text{A}/\text{m} (Amperes per meter)
7 (B) \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}
8 (C) Surface current density \mathbf{K}.
9 (C) Much greater than 1.
10 (D) Ampère's Circuital Law
11 (D) 0
12 (B) \mathbf{T} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}
13 (B) \mathbf{J} = \sigma \mathbf{E}
14 (B) \mathbf{B}
15 (B) 1/\rho
16 (D) Magnetization.
17 (C) Convection current.
18 (D) Zero (\nabla \times \mathbf{H} = 0).
19 (B) Continuous.
20 (A) The product of the currents, I_1 I_2.
21 (C) Zero
22 (C) \mathbf{J}
23 (C) \mathbf{0}
24 (C) Paramagnetic
25 (D) Coulomb's Law
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 23/28---

3.11 Solved Long Answer Problem: Force and Torque

●​ Problem: Explain the Lorentz Force Equation in detail, distinguishing between the
electric and magnetic force components. Derive the net magnetic force per unit length
exerted between two parallel, infinite wires carrying currents I_1 and I_2, and state the
rule governing attraction vs. repulsion.
●​ Solution:
○​ Part 1: The Lorentz Force Equation
■​ The Lorentz Force Equation combines the forces exerted on a point charge
Q moving with velocity \mathbf{v} in a region containing both an electric field
\mathbf{E} and a magnetic field \mathbf{B}. \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{F}_E +
\mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})
■​ Electric Force (\mathbf{F}_E = Q \mathbf{E}):
 ■​ Mechanism: Exerted by the electric field \mathbf{E}.
■​ Properties: \mathbf{F}_E is always parallel to the direction of
\mathbf{E}. It can change the speed (kinetic energy) of the charge, as it
is not necessarily perpendicular to the velocity \mathbf{v}.
■​ Magnetic Force (\mathbf{F}_M = Q (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})):
■​ Mechanism: Exerted by the magnetic field \mathbf{B} due to the
charge's motion.
■​ Properties:
1.​ \mathbf{F}_M is always perpendicular to both the velocity
\mathbf{v} and the magnetic field \mathbf{B}.
2.​ Because \mathbf{F}_M \perp \mathbf{v}, the force does zero
work (\mathbf{F}_M \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \mathbf{F}_M \cdot
\mathbf{v} dt = 0). Therefore, the magnetic force can only change
the direction of motion, not the magnitude of the velocity (speed).
○​ Part 2: Force per Unit Length Between Two Infinite Parallel Wires
■​ Setup: Consider two parallel infinite wires separated by distance d. Wire 1
carries current I_1 and Wire 2 carries current I_2. We calculate the force
exerted on a differential length d\mathbf{l}_2 of Wire 2 by the field
\mathbf{B}_1 generated by Wire 1.
■​ Step 1: Magnetic Field \mathbf{B}_1 produced by Wire 1.
■​ Using Ampère's Law, the magnetic field intensity \mathbf{H}_1 at
distance d is: \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{I_1}{2 \pi d} \mathbf{a}_\phi
■​ The magnetic flux density \mathbf{B}_1 at Wire 2's location:
\mathbf{B}_1 = \mu_0 \mathbf{H}_1 = \frac{\mu_0 I_1}{2 \pi d}
\mathbf{a}_\phi
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 24/28--- * Step 2: Differential Force
d\mathbf{F}_2 on Wire 2. * The differential force on current element I_2 \, d\mathbf{l}_2 is
d\mathbf{F}_2 = I_2 \, d\mathbf{l}_2 \times \mathbf{B}_1. * Assume d\mathbf{l}_2 = dz
\mathbf{a}_z (current in +z direction). Wire 2 is in the radial direction \mathbf{a}_\rho relative to
Wire 1. d\mathbf{F}_2 = I_2 (dz \mathbf{a}_z) \times \left( \frac{\mu_0 I_1}{2 \pi d}
\mathbf{a}_\phi \right) d\mathbf{F}_2 = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d} dz (\mathbf{a}_z \times
\mathbf{a}_\phi)
* **Step 3: Vector Product Evaluation.**​
* The cross product in cylindrical coordinates is
$\mathbf{a}_z \times \mathbf{a}_\phi = -\mathbf{a}_\rho$.​
$$d\mathbf{F}_2 = -\frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi d} dz
\mathbf{a}_\rho$$​
​
* **Step 4: Force per Unit Length $\mathbf{f}$ (Result).**​
* Dividing by $dz$:​
$$\mathbf{f} = \frac{d\mathbf{F}_2}{dz} = -\frac{\mu_0 I_1
I_2}{2 \pi d} \mathbf{a}_\rho$$​
* $\mathbf{a}_\rho$ points radially away from Wire 1. The
negative sign means the force is directed **radially inward** toward
Wire 1.​
​
* **Rule of Attraction/Repulsion:**​
* If $I_1$ and $I_2$ are in the **Same Direction** ($I_1 I_2 >
0$): $\mathbf{f}$ is negative, indicating **Attraction**.​
* If $I_1$ and $I_2$ are in the **Opposite Direction** ($I_1
I_2 < 0$): $\mathbf{f}$ is positive (repulsion), indicating
**Repulsion**.​

Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 25/28---

3.12 Solved Long Answer Problem: Magnetic

Boundary Conditions Derivation (Tangential)
●​ Problem: Derive the boundary condition for the tangential component of the Magnetic
Field Intensity (\mathbf{H}_t) at the interface between two magnetic media (\mu_1 and
\mu_2), assuming a free surface current density \mathbf{K} exists at the boundary.
●​ Solution:
○​ Step 1: Set up the Amperian Loop.
■​ Construct a small, infinitesimal rectangular Amperian loop L that straddles
the boundary, with two sides (\Delta w) parallel to the boundary and two sides
(\Delta h) perpendicular to it.
■​ Perpendicular Height: \Delta h \to 0.
■​ Parallel Width: \Delta w.
■​ The loop is oriented perpendicular to the surface current \mathbf{K} for
maximum effect.
○​ Step 2: Apply Ampère's Circuital Law (Integral Form). \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot
d\mathbf{l} = I_{enc}
○​ Step 3: Evaluate the Enclosed Current (I_{enc}).
■​ As \Delta h \to 0, the enclosed current is only due to the surface current
\mathbf{K} flowing through the width \Delta w. I_{enc} = K \Delta w
○​ Step 4: Evaluate the Line Integral (\oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l}).
■​ The integral has four parts (Top, Bottom, Left, Right). \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot
d\mathbf{l} = \int_{Top} \mathbf{H}_1 \cdot d\mathbf{l}_1 + \int_{Bottom}
\mathbf{H}_2 \cdot d\mathbf{l}_2 + \int_{Left} \mathbf{H}_{L} \cdot
d\mathbf{l}_{L} + \int_{Right} \mathbf{H}_{R} \cdot d\mathbf{l}_{R}
■​ As \Delta h \to 0, the contributions from the left and right sides vanish.
■​ Top Path (Medium 1): \mathbf{H}_1 is approximately \mathbf{H}_{t1}.
d\mathbf{l}_1 is in the direction of the tangential component. \int_{Top}
\mathbf{H}_1 \cdot d\mathbf{l}_1 \approx H_{t1} \Delta w
■​ Bottom Path (Medium 2): d\mathbf{l}_2 is in the opposite direction
(\mathbf{H}_2 is approximately \mathbf{H}_{t2}). \int_{Bottom} \mathbf{H}_2
\cdot d\mathbf{l}_2 \approx -H_{t2} \Delta w
■​ Total Circulation: \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = H_{t1} \Delta w -
H_{t2} \Delta w = (H_{t1} - H_{t2}) \Delta w
○​ Step 5: Equate Circulation and Enclosed Current.
■​ (H_{t1} - H_{t2}) \Delta w = K \Delta w
■​ Dividing by \Delta w: H_{t1} - H_{t2} = K
○​ Vector Form (Directional Discontinuity): The discontinuity in \mathbf{H}_t is
perpendicular to both the normal vector \mathbf{a}_n and the current \mathbf{K}.
\mathbf{H}_{t1} - \mathbf{H}_{t2} = \mathbf{K} \times \mathbf{a}_n
 ○​ Conclusion (Tangential \mathbf{H}): The tangential component of the Magnetic
Field Intensity is discontinuous across the boundary by an amount equal to the
component of the surface current density flowing perpendicular to the boundary
loop.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 26/28---

3.13 Derivation of Vector Potential in Terms of Current

Density (\mathbf{J})
●​ Goal: To show the relationship between \mathbf{A} and \mathbf{J} by substituting
\mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A} into Ampère's law.
●​ Starting Point: Ampère's Law (Differential Form): \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}
●​ Step 1: Substitute \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{B} / \mu. (Assuming a linear medium
\mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H}) \nabla \times (\frac{\mathbf{B}}{\mu}) = \mathbf{J}
\frac{1}{\mu} (\nabla \times \mathbf{B}) = \mathbf{J}
●​ Step 2: Substitute \mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}. \frac{1}{\mu} (\nabla \times
(\nabla \times \mathbf{A})) = \mathbf{J} \nabla \times (\nabla \times \mathbf{A}) = \mu
\mathbf{J}
●​ Step 3: Use the Vector Triple Product Identity.
○​ \nabla \times (\nabla \times \mathbf{A}) = \nabla (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{A}) - \nabla^2
\mathbf{A}
○​ Substitute the identity into the previous result: \nabla (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{A}) -
\nabla^2 \mathbf{A} = \mu \mathbf{J}
●​ Step 4: Apply the Coulomb Gauge Condition.
○​ In magnetostatics, it is common practice to impose the Coulomb Gauge condition,
which simplifies the equation: \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = 0
○​ This condition forces the first term to zero, resulting in the Vector Poisson
Equation: \nabla^2 \mathbf{A} = -\mu \mathbf{J}
●​ Step 5: Solution by Analogy to Electrostatics.
○​ The Vector Poisson Equation (\nabla^2 \mathbf{A} = -\mu \mathbf{J}) is
mathematically analogous to the scalar Poisson Equation (\nabla^2 V = -\rho_v /
\epsilon).
○​ The solution for scalar potential V is V = \int_v \frac{\rho_v \, dv}{4 \pi \epsilon R}.
○​ By analogy, the solution for the vector potential \mathbf{A} is: \mathbf{A} = \int_v
\frac{\mu \mathbf{J} \, dv}{4 \pi R}
●​ Conclusion: This derivation formally connects the current density \mathbf{J} (the source
of the magnetic field) to the vector potential \mathbf{A}, which is then used to find
\mathbf{B}.
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 27/28---

3.14 Summary of Magnetostatic Equations

Law/Concept Differential Form Integral Form Source/Nature
Gauss's Law \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} \oint_S \mathbf{B} \cdot Solenoidal (No
(Magnetism) =0 d\mathbf{S} = 0 Monopoles)
Ampère's Law \nabla \times \oint_L \mathbf{H} \cdot Current Density
Law/Concept Differential Form Integral Form Source/Nature
(Magnetostatics) \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J} d\mathbf{l} = I_{enc} \mathbf{J} (Rotational)
Constitutive Relation \mathbf{B} = \mu \mu = \mu_0 \mu_r Material Property (\mu)
\mathbf{H}
Vector Potential \mathbf{B} = \nabla \mathbf{A} = \int_v Mathematical Definition
Definition \times \mathbf{A} \frac{\mu \mathbf{J} \,
dv}{4 \pi R}
Conservation of \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} \oint_S \mathbf{J} \cdot Current Continuity
Charge (Steady) =0 d\mathbf{S} = 0
Vector Poisson \nabla^2 \mathbf{A} = (Differential form of Relates \mathbf{A} to
Equation -\mu \mathbf{J} integral formula) source \mathbf{J}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed ---PAGE 28/28---

3.15 Comparison of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

Feature Electrostatics (Source: Q) Magnetostatics (Source: I)
Sources Static Charge (\rho_v) Steady Current (\mathbf{J})
Force Law Coulomb's Law: \mathbf{F} = Q Biot-Savart Law: d\mathbf{H}
\mathbf{E} \propto I \, d\mathbf{l} \times
\mathbf{a}_R
Source Field Law Gauss's Law: \nabla \cdot Ampère's Law: \nabla \times
(Differential) \mathbf{D} = \rho_v \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}
Source-Free Law Conservative Field: \nabla Gauss's Law: \nabla \cdot
(Differential) \times \mathbf{E} = 0 \mathbf{B} = 0
Constitutive Relation \mathbf{D} = \epsilon \mathbf{B} = \mu \mathbf{H}
\mathbf{E}
Potential Scalar Potential V (\mathbf{E} = Vector Potential \mathbf{A}
-\nabla V) (\mathbf{B} = \nabla \times
\mathbf{A})
Boundary Normal \mathbf{D}_n is discontinuous \mathbf{B}_n is continuous
Component by \rho_s
Boundary Tangential \mathbf{E}_t is continuous \mathbf{H}_t is discontinuous
Component (always) by \mathbf{K}
Notes created by Noor Mohammed