Evaluating the Suitability of Adaptive Thermal Comfort Models for Free-Running

Buildings in different Climatic conditions in India

By:

Thirth Rishubh Jayapal

Under the Supervision of Professor Parag S Wate

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Sustainable Architecture Studies

The University of Sheffield

Faculty of Social Science

School of Architecture

Word count: 10,254

Submission date: 21/08/2025

Declaration:

I hereby declare that this dissertation is my own work and has been written in my own words, except
where otherwise acknowledged. This work has not been previously submitted, in whole or in part, for
any degree or other qualification at this or any other university. All sources of information have been
acknowledged through the use of references.

Name: Thirth Rishubh Jayapal

Signed:

Date: 19/08/2025

(a)
Acknowledgement:

I want to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Parag S. Wate, for his invaluable
guidance, constructive feedback, and constant encouragement throughout the course of this
research. His expertise and insightful advice have been instrumental in determining both the
direction and the quality of this work.

I am also grateful to the staff and faculty of the Department of Architecture at the University of
Sheffield for providing a stimulating academic environment and the resources necessary for the
successful completion of this dissertation.

Special thanks are due to my friend, Bhavish Mohee, currently undertaking an MSc in Cyber Security
and AI, for his generous support in teaching me Python, which proved essential for the development
of certain aspects of this research.

I also wish to acknowledge my peers in the MSc Sustainable Architecture Studies program, whose
thoughtful discussions, collaboration, and encouragement have greatly enriched my learning
experience.

Above all, I am profoundly grateful to my parents for their unwavering support and for providing me
with the opportunity to pursue this degree.

(b)
Abstract:
Thermal comfort is a cornerstone of occupant well-being and energy-efficient building design,
particularly within the diverse and climate-sensitive context of India. This dissertation critically
examines adaptive thermal comfort models in free-running buildings across prominent climatic
zones and building typologies, with a focus on the interaction between environmental factors and
human adaptation. Employing an integrative methodology that incorporates exploratory analysis of
the ASHRAE Global Thermal Comfort Database, psychometric assessment, and building energy
simulation, this research assesses the effectiveness, limitations, and real-world applicability of
adaptive comfort frameworks.

The findings indicate that static standards frequently fail to capture the dynamic nature of occupant
comfort, underestimating local adaptations to temperature, humidity, and air movement. The
research highlights the significance of context-specific calibration, such as employing local Griffiths’
constants. It underscores the importance of passive design strategies, improved ventilation,
shading, occupant agency in narrowing the comfort gap in hot-humid climates like Chennai.
Comparative analyses and simulations demonstrate that targeted adaptive interventions can
significantly reduce occupant discomfort in thermally vulnerable spaces, while simultaneously
achieving sustainability objectives by minimizing energy demand.

Ultimately, this dissertation advocates for broader adoption of adaptive comfort models,
underpinned by regional data and behavioral insights. It calls for policy and design approaches that
enable buildings and occupants to respond intelligently to environmental challenges, thereby
fostering greater comfort, resilience and sustainability across India’s varied socio-economic and
climatic landscape.

(c)
Table of Contents:

Declaration (a)

Acknowledgment (b)

Abstract (c)

Table of Contents (d)

1. Introduction: 1
1.1 Thermal Comfort and Its Importance: 1
1.2 : Overview of existing thermal comfort models: 1
1.2.1. The PMV Model: Overview and Limitations 1
1.2.2. Adaptive Thermal Comfort Model: Overview and Challenges 2
1.3 Aim and Objectives: 4
1.3.1. Aim: 4
1.3.2. Objectives: 4
1.3.3. Method of Study 5
2. Literature review 6
2.1 Adaptive Thermal Comfort in Tropical India 6
2.2 Thermal Comfort in Low-income Housing 6
2.3 Thermal Comfort in Composite Climates 7
2.4 Behavioural Adaptations in Hot-Humid Climates 8
2.5 Griffiths’ Constant for Adaptive Comfort 8
2.6 Passive Cooling Strategies in Kerala’s Wet Tropics 9
2.7 Thermal Comfort and Energy in Kolkata Residencies 9
2.8 Comprehensive Study in Hyderabad 10
2.9 Climatic and Cultural Divergence: Europe and Himalayas 11
2.10 Implications for Building Design and Retrofit 11
2.11 Summary of Limitations and Research Gaps 12
2.12 Conclusion 13
3. Methodology 14
3.1 Exploratory Analysis of thermal comfort in different parts of India using ASHRAE Thermal
Comfort Database 14
3.2 Psychometric Analysis and Comfort Zone Comparison in Chennai 16
3.3 Estimating Optimum Temperature and Specific Humidity Using Griffith's Method 17
3.4 Comparative Analysis of Indoor Environment between Office and Residential 19

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 3.5 Building Simulation for Residential Comfort Assessment 19
3.6 Adaptive Measures for Enhancing Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated Buildings 21
3.6.1. Scenario 1: New Residential Building in Chennai (Hot and Humid Climate) 22
3.6.2. Scenario 2: Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings in Chennai 22
3.7 Justification of Adaptive Measures 23
4. Results 24
4.1 Simulation carried out in two-different climatic zones: 24
4.1.1. Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) 24
4.1.2. Relative Humidity 25
4.1.3. Air Temperature 26
4.1.4. Temperature–Humidity Interaction 26
4.2 Thermal Comfort Frequency in Chennai Scenarios 27
4.3 Adaptive vs. Base Case Comparison 28
4.4 Psychrometric Analysis 29
5. Discussion 30
5.1 Key Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort in Chennai Apartments 31
5.2 Design Implications 31
5.3 Targeted Seasonal Strategies 32
5.4 Effectiveness of Adaptive Measures 32
5.5 Persistent Challenges and Mitigation Potential 32
5.6 Psychrometric Insights 33
5.7 Broader Context and Applicability 33
6. Conclusion 34
7. References: 35
8. List of Figures 37
9. List of tables 37

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1. Introduction:
1.1 Thermal Comfort and Its Importance:
Thermal comfort is a critical factor influencing the well-being, productivity, and health of
building occupants. It refers to a person’s psychological state of satisfaction with the
surrounding thermal environment. The concept encompasses a complex interplay of
environmental and personal factors, requiring a nuanced understanding for effective
building design and operation. One of the most influential frameworks for assessing thermal
comfort was developed by Professor Ole Fanger in the early 1970s. His work culminated in
the formulation of the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) model, which has since been widely
accepted and codified in standards such as ISO 7730 and ASHRAE 55.

1.2 : Overview of existing thermal comfort models:

1.2.1. The PMV Model: Overview and Limitations
The PMV model uses a seven-point scale to predict the average thermal sensation of a group
of individuals ranging from -3, which is cold, to +3, which is hot, where 0 represents a neutral
or thermally comfortable state. This prediction is derived from a heat balance equation that
accounts for six fundamental parameters, out of which four are environmental factors and
two are personal. The four environmental factors are air temperature (ta), mean radiant
temperature (tr), air velocity (v), and relative humidity, influencing the calculation of water
vapour pressure (pa). The two personal factors are metabolic rate (M), which reflects the
energy generated by bodily activities, and clothing insulation (Clo), represents the thermal
resistance of the clothing worn. These variables collectively influence the thermal exchange
between the human body and its environment, determining the overall sensation of warmth
or coolness that individuals experience.

Figure1: PMV and PPD Curve. Adapted from Nicol, F., Humphreys, M. & Roaf, S. (2012). Adaptive Thermal
Comfort: Principles and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

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 Despite the PMV model’s widespread adoption, it was originally developed based on
controlled laboratory experiments involving a relatively narrow demographic, primarily
young, healthy college students. These experiments took place within climate chambers
designed to simulate steady-state and symmetrical thermal environments. Consequently,
the model assumes idealized conditions, such as the absence of localised discomforts,
including draughts, temperature stratification, and radiant asymmetry, which are commonly
encountered in real buildings. Another significant limitation is the model’s treatment of
occupants as passive, non-interacting agents who do not adapt to their environment through
behaviour or physiological changes. This assumption significantly limits the PMV model’s
accuracy in predicting comfort in dynamic, real-world settings, especially in naturally
ventilated (free-running) buildings, where occupants often actively respond to
environmental variations.

1.2.2. Adaptive Thermal Comfort Model: Overview and Challenges

Recognising these shortcomings, researchers and practitioners have increasingly turned to
Adaptive Thermal Comfort (ATC) models as a complementary or alternative approach to
traditional thermal comfort models. The ATC concept is founded on the understanding that
occupants continuously adapt to their thermal environment through a combination of
behavioural (e.g., changing clothing, opening windows), physiological (e.g.,
acclimatisation), and psychological (e.g., expectation and preference) mechanisms. Unlike
the PMV model which presumes a fixed comfort condition, ATC models emphasise that
comfort is dynamic and closely linked to the outdoor climate experienced by occupants over
time. Generally, adaptive models relate indoor comfort temperature to the prevailing
outdoor conditions through empirical correlations. These are typically represented by a
linear relationship between indoor comfort temperature and the running mean outdoor
temperature.

Figure 2: Acceptable operative temperature ranges for free-running spaces. Adapted from Nicol, F., Humphreys,
M. & Roaf, S. (2012). Adaptive Thermal Comfort: Principles and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

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The adaptive approach is particularly relevant for free-running buildings, i.e., structures that
rely on natural ventilation and passive strategies rather than mechanical ventilation. In these
conditions, occupants often have some degree of control over their environment. They can
make use of windows, fans, shading devices, and clothing to regulate thermal
comfort. Because of this, adaptive models have been widely incorporated into standards
like ASHRAE 55 and EN15251, encouraging designers to account for occupant behaviour
and local climate when setting comfort criteria. This has important implications for energy-
efficient building design, as it supports wider comfort bands and reduced reliance on
energy-intensive HVAC systems.

However, while the ATC model addresses several limitations of the PMV approach, it also
presents challenges. Most adaptive models primarily consider temperature as the principal
variable affecting comfort, often overlooking other critical factors such as humidity, which
plays a crucial role in many hot and humid climates. Additionally, adaptive models typically
assume occupants have full and unhindered control over the environmental adjustments,
including clothing choices and ventilation, an assumption that does not hold universally.
For example, in countries like India where climates vary from hot-humid coastal zones to
hot-arid interiors and temperate highlands, a large proportion of the population lives in low
to middle income free running buildings, limiting their ability to control their indoor
environment effectively.

Furthermore, these models often do not sufficiently account for the wide variability in
occupant characteristics, cultural factors, building typologies, and socio-economic
conditions that influence thermal comfort perceptions and adaptive behaviours. This
creates a gap between theoretical comfort predictions and actual occupant experience,
highlighting the need for a more comprehensive, context-sensitive approach to thermal
comfort assessment.

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1.3 Aim and Objectives:
1.3.1. Aim:

The research aims to critically investigate the effectiveness and applicability of adaptive
thermal comfort models within free-running buildings across different climatic zones,
focusing on a variety of building typologies and occupant contexts. The study will examine
how environmental parameters, and human factors interact to influence thermal sensation
and preference, and how these insights can inform building design and retrofit strategies to
achieve optimal comfort.

1.3.2. Objectives:
• Analysing different building typologies within varied climatic contexts, exploring how
architectural form, usage, and construction affect occupant comfort and adaptation
potential.
• Investigating the relationship between PMV values and occupant voting mechanisms,
specifically analysing Thermal Sensation Vote (TSV) and Thermal Preference Vote (TPV) data
to understand occupants’ subjective responses to environmental and man-made factors.
• Employing the Griffiths constant method to calculate preferred indoor temperature and
humidity levels that correspond to neutral thermal votes, thereby establishing occupant-
informed comfort benchmarks.
• Developing a base-case thermal model for a representative climatic region to simulate
current thermal performance and identify gaps between predicted and actual comfort.
• Proposing and evaluating adaptive strategies for both retrofit and new building scenarios,
aimed at achieving the preferred thermal conditions through passive design, occupant
behaviour, and climate-responsive interventions.

By integrating quantitative thermal modelling with qualitative occupant feedback, this

research seeks to improve the understanding of thermal comfort beyond the scope of
existing models. It aims to provide practical guidance for designers, engineers, and
policymakers to create built environments that are both energy-efficient and truly
comfortable for occupants under varying climatic and socio-economic conditions.
Ultimately, this dissertation contributes to the growing body of knowledge on thermal
comfort by emphasizing the importance of adaptive actions and occupant agency,
recognizing that achieving comfort is not merely about controlling indoor climate variables
but also about empowering people and buildings to respond intelligently to their
environment.

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1.3.3. Method of Study

Figure 3: Methods of study in a flow chart (Authors own)

This study follows a two-stage approach combining literature review and simulation-based
analysis. The literature review examines adaptive thermal comfort models, the influence of
climate and humidity, and occupant adaptive strategies, providing the theoretical
foundation for the research. Building on these insights, the methodology employs
exploratory analysis using the ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Database, comparative evaluation
of office and residential environments, and detailed building simulations for Chennai.
Psychrometric analysis and adaptive retrofit measures are then applied to assess and
enhance thermal comfort in naturally ventilated residential buildings

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2. Literature review
2.1 Adaptive Thermal Comfort in Tropical India
Understanding the existing comfort models that are present and their outcomes in different
climatic conditions of India through studies that have been carried out is very important. The
parameters under which the studies were conducted must also be understood, along with
model outputs that are seen, and the occupant poll. The study that has been carried out by
Mishra A.K. and Ramgopal M. (Mishra and Ramgopal et. al., 2015), Adaptive comfort models
for the tropical regions of India gives an overview of how effective the models are at
estimating comfort level. The main aim was to compare the performance of the various
adaptive comfort equations (ACEs) in predicting occupant comfort in naturally ventilated
buildings in India and to estimate possible energy savings with the implementation of
adaptive comfort standards (ACSs). The study demonstrated that the EN15251 adaptive
comfort model accurately predicted the comfort temperatures in naturally ventilated (NV)
buildings under Indian tropical climate conditions, and that Humphreys’ equation was more
accurate for air-conditioned (AC) buildings. The implementation of EN 15215 in NV buildings
would yield significant energy savings due to its broader comfort zones, with the highest
savings noted in cities like Chennai and Mumbai, which experience the least inter-seasonal
temperature variations. However, existing models are not without flaws- ASHRAE 55 was too
cautious in its estimate of comfort temperatures, whereas the Toe and Kubota models were
too liberal. The Nguyen et al. and Indra Ganti et al. models were also constrained by their
narrow ranges of applicability. The EN15251 adaptive thermal comfort model is most
appropriate for naturally ventilated (NV) Indian tropical buildings due to its accurate
predictions of comfort and potential for energy savings. Additional field studies, however,
are required to enhance region-specific adaptive models and adapt them to different
climatic conditions. The study has several strengths, such as an exhaustive methodology
comparing many Adaptive Comfort Equations (ACEs) with extensive field data, yielding
reliable results. Its energy-saving potential is particularly beneficial for India, addressing the
increasing energy demands and climate change issues. In addition, the study provides
actionable recommendations, suggesting the adoption of EN15251 in Indian contexts,
which could guide policymakers and architects. There are some imperfections, however,
such as the limited field data scope, as surveys targeted specific cities and building types,
which could neglect the diversity of Indian climates. The study also failed to pay enough
regard to humidity, an important parameter in the tropical climate, and used fixed values for
parameters like air speed and humidity, which may not completely reflect real-world
variability.

2.2 Thermal Comfort in Low-income Housing

The Malik J. and Bardhan R. (2022) paper investigates thermal comfort perceptions in low-
income naturally ventilated affordable Mumbai housing in India. It challenges the
applicability of global and natural comfort standards to these housing conditions. The
research is informed by a three-season longitudinal field study with surveys and
environmental monitoring. The study defined a wider comfort range, and with a neutral

6|Pa g e
 temperature of 28.3°C and a comfort band of 24.6°C to 32.2°C, it indicated greater thermal
adaptation of residents than the ASHRAE and National Building Code of India (NBC)
guidelines suggest. Existing standards could not predict comfort in low-income dwellings
because they had prescribed narrower ranges of comfort, whereas the residents were
comfortable at higher temperatures. Most strikingly, the neutral temperature zone. Adaptive
behaviours showed occupants relying more on-air movement (fans and windows) than on
clothing adjustments, with humidity and air speed having a significant role to play, especially
in hot-humid climates. Psychological and economic factors were also involved in the
perception of comfort. Lower-income residents expressed higher thermal acceptability, as
a result, most likely due to accommodation expectations, but more affluent citizens were
less accepting, even though cooling appliances existed. These findings highlight the
importance of revised thermal comfort models geared to low-income communities with a
focus on passive cool strategies and high air movement rates in low-income housing design
over sole reliance upon air conditioning. One of the primary findings of this research is the
importance of humidity sensation votes (HSVs) in the quantification of thermal comfort,
particularly in hot and humid environments. While the study does not compute HSVs into an
equation, it identifies humidity as a vital aspect of thermal comfort. Nonetheless, because
the study was done only in Mumbai, more studies in other parts of India are required to
establish if the same results can be applied across a wider context, further reinforcing the
argument for the inclusion of humidity in thermal comfort models.

2.3 Thermal Comfort in Composite Climates

Another article by Kumar, S. et al. (2016) examines thermal comfort in naturally ventilated
buildings in India’s composite climate. It is a critique of the international thermal comfort
standards, which do not account for local adaptations. The research is based on a 2610 field
survey of 32 naturally ventilated (NV) buildings, including office and residential buildings.
The researchers gathered environmental and subjective data, measuring indoor
temperature, humidity, airspeed, clothing levels, and thermal preference to analyse
occupant comfort. Based on the findings, new boundaries of the thermal comfort zones for
different levels of airspeed: still air (0–0.2 m/s), natural airflow (0.2–0.5 m/s), and fan-
assisted airflow (0.5–1.5 m/s). The study confirmed that building occupants in naturally
ventilated (NV) buildings were comfortable at significantly higher temperatures than those
prescribed by ASHRAE 55 standards, especially in still-air conditions. Comfort extended to
32°C in still air and 35°C with fan-induced airflow (1.5 m/s), across a relative humidity range
of 20% to 80%. Adaptive behaviour played a significant role, with clothing changes, the use
of fans, and window openings being used to attain comfort. Seasonal variation in clothing
insulation from 0.3 Clo in summer to 1.2 Clo in winter influenced thermal sensation. The
study also highlighted two limitations of ASHRAE 55: underestimating the NV building
comfort limits in India because of the failure to fully account for airspeed and regional
acclimatization. The proposed thermal comfort zones could encapsulate 80% of the
comfortable responses, which concurred with the proposed 20% dissatisfaction rate limit,
validating their applicability. The study has several strengths, including a robust dataset
collected from several naturally ventilated (NV) buildings across several seasons, making its
conclusions highly representative of the composite climate of India. It emphasizes regional

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 relevance, unveiling the inadequacies of global thermal comfort standards for tropical
climates and offering India-specific recommendations. The integrated approach, merging
environmental parameters, subjective feedback, and psychrometric calculations,
contributes to the validity of the results. Additionally, its focus on adaptive behaviours, such
as changes in clothing and the use of fans, provides a holistic perspective of thermal comfort
that goes beyond strict standards. Some drawbacks involve narrow geographical coverage
since the study is in Jaipur, and additional data from more composite cities would increase
generalizability. Although humidity was considered, its complex interaction with high
temperatures could have been probed more deeply. Lastly, the study assumes steady
airspeed values, but airflow in NV buildings typically fluctuates due to turbulence and spatial
gradients, which may affect perceptions of comfort.

2.4 Behavioural Adaptations in Hot-Humid Climates

The research by Mukhopadhyay, Subhagata, and Kumar. Et al. (2024) is regarding behaviour
adaptations for improved Thermal comfort for residential buildings in hot and humid
climates. The research examines residents’ adaptive behaviours in Kharagpur, India,
towards achieving thermal comfort in residential buildings in a hot-humid climate for
improving passive, low-carbon design strategies. Conducted in a tropical savanna climate,
the research involved long-term environmental measurements and behaviour surveys in
three homes during the monsoon and winter seasons. Environmental measurements were
made of air temperature, relative humidity, indoor wind speed, and energy consumption,
while surveys documented daily activities, thermal feelings, and cooling habits. Results
indicated that indoor temperatures were higher than outdoor temperatures during
monsoons due to low ventilation and high thermal mass, prompting the residents to employ
fans, air conditioners, and window openings for cooling systems and optimizing the use of
semi-open spaces. Dwellers made compensatory actions upon thermal perceptions,
adjusting apparel, activity level, and the way they utilize areas. In the conclusion of this
study, occupants’ behaviour remains a pivotal agent in governing uniform building design
indoor thermal comfort by highlighting climate-specific and locally tuned architectural
answers to the matter at hand.

2.5 Griffiths’ Constant for Adaptive Comfort

A pivotal methodological tool in adaptive comfort research is the Griffiths’ constant, which
helps estimate neutral temperature when direct regression analysis is statistically
unreliable. Griffiths’ method leverages the ratio of change in thermal sensation vote to
change in temperature, providing a linear estimate of neutral temperature from subjective
data. The IMAC study (Manu et al, 2016) exemplifies the innovative use of Griffiths’ constant
within the Indian context. Departing from the European default value of 0.5/K, the study
empirically derived distinct Griffiths’ constants for Indian office buildings, 0.16K for naturally
ventilated and mixed mode buildings, and 0.25/K for air-conditioned buildings. These lower
values suggest Indian occupants exhibit less sensitivity to temperature changes, reflecting
regional acclimatisation. This refinement improved model accuracy and statistical fit,

8|Pa g e
 yielding neutral temperatures. The IMAC model’s use of context-specific Griffiths’ constant
highlights the necessity of local calibration of adaptive parameters, reinforcing that direct
adoption of Western standards can misrepresent occupant comfort in non-Western
climates. The study also validates the adaptive comfort approach by demonstrating strong
correlations between neutral temperatures and climate parameters, thereby informing
national standards and energy policies with empirically grounded, occupant-informed
benchmarks.

2.6 Passive Cooling Strategies in Kerala’s Wet Tropics

Building on these findings, the literature on Kerala’s wet tropical climate expands the
understanding of thermal comfort by emphasizing the role of passive cooling strategies in
residential buildings. Three major models are frequently referenced: the Predicted Mean
Vote- Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PMV-PPD) method, adaptive comfort models
tailored for naturally ventilated spaces, and the Tropical Summer Index (TSI), which is
specifically applied in Indian conditions. Comparative assessments of these models
establish the acceptable ranges of temperature and humidity for hot and humid
environments. Studies on Kerala’s traditional architecture, such as those by Dili, Naseer, and
Varghese, highlight the effectiveness of courtyards, shaded verandas, ventilated roofs, and
cross-ventilated layouts in maintaining comfort without mechanical systems. Srivastav et
al. further explored adapting these strategies for contemporary buildings using
environmental performance modelling, while Brager and De Dear’s adaptive thermal
comfort framework provided the theoretical basis for understanding occupants' ability to
acclimatise to varying indoor and outdoor conditions. Across the reviewed work, recurring
passive strategies include optimizing building orientation to reduce solar gain, integrating
courtyards and vegetation for microclimate control, selecting materials with appropriate
thermal mass, and maximizing cross-ventilation through open floor plans. Modern
interventions such as external shading devices and low-emissivity glazing are also evaluated
for compatibility with humid tropical climates. Despite substantial evidence supporting
these methods, a gap remains in quantifying their combined effects within modern
residential contexts, especially as Kerala transitions from naturally ventilated to
mechanically conditioned spaces due to increasing affluence and air conditioner use. The
literature consistently underscores that combining adaptive comfort models with locally
tuned passive cooling approaches can both enhance indoor thermal conditions and reduce
energy demand, aligning with broader sustainability goals and national initiatives to curb
greenhouse gas emissions in the residential sector.

2.7 Thermal Comfort and Energy in Kolkata Residencies

Complementing this, Pellegrino et al. (2016) provide a detailed examination of thermal
comfort and energy performance in Kolkata’s common low-rise residential buildings, which
face challenges like Kerala’s rapidly urbanizing housing stock. Using a combination of in-
field environmental measurements and a validated Energy Plus simulation model, the study
evaluates the impact of a range of low-cost, technically simple interventions, including
reflective roof coatings, selective glazing, external shading devices, and both daytime and
nocturnal natural ventilation. The results demonstrate that combining these strategies can

9|Pa g e
 reduce Comfort Indoor Degree Hours (CIDH) by up to 69% and lower cooling energy demand
by 35-76% under mixed-mode operation, highlighting their potential to reduce reliance on
mechanical air conditioning. A key contribution of the study is its focus on the vulnerability
of typical residential construction, characterized by thin walls, poor insulation, and lack of
shading systems, which exacerbate overheating and drive growing A/C dependence. Equally
important is the emphasis on occupant behaviour, particularly the role of nocturnal
ventilation in mitigating indoor heat build-up, aligning closely with adaptive thermal comfort
principles. The research shows that simple, behaviour-linked measures can have as much
impact as technological upgrades when combined with passive design. By linking dynamic
comfort modelling with practical, affordable retrofitting strategies, the study underscores
the potential of integrating passive cooling techniques into both new construction and the
rehabilitation of existing housing stock in hot-humid Indian climates. This aligns strongly
with Kerala-focused studies, reinforcing the broader conclusion that combining regionally
appropriate passive strategies with adaptive comfort standards offers a feasible pathway to
improving thermal comfort while reducing energy intensity across India’s diverse tropical
and sub-tropical regions.

2.8 Comprehensive Study in Hyderabad

Further reinforcing the adaptive comfort narrative, Indraganti (2010) conducted one of the
most comprehensive thermal comfort studies in the Indian residential context, focusing on
naturally ventilated apartments in Hyderabad, a city that shares several climatic features
with Kerala, including high humidity and prolonged warm seasons. The study, which
gathered data across three different seasons (summer, monsoon, and winter), involved
environmental monitoring and occupant surveys from 200 households, generating a robust
dataset that captured both objective conditions and subjective thermal perceptions. One of
the central findings was the identification of a significantly wider comfort range than those
defined by international benchmarks such as ASHRAE 55 or the National Building Code
(NBC) of India. The research established a mean neutral temperature of 29.1°C, with a
comfort range extending from 26.0°C to 32.2°C, suggesting that Indian occupants in
naturally ventilated buildings tolerate and even prefer higher indoor temperatures, provided
sufficient air movement exists. The study also found that over 90% of respondents reported
thermal acceptability at these elevated temperatures, particularly when aided by ceiling
fans and operable windows. This highlighted the essential role of air velocity in hot-humid
climates, where thermal sensation is heavily moderated by convective cooling. Indraganti
observed that occupants exhibited a high degree of behavioural adaptability, modifying their
clothing insulation, daily routines and use of architectural features like balconies and
shading devices to achieve comfort. Furthermore, seasonal variation in comfort perception
was clear, with occupants showing greater humidity tolerance and relaxed expectations
during the monsoon season, indicating a dynamic comfort threshold that evolves with
climatic exposure. Beyond behavioural responses, the study emphasised the influence of
psychological and socio-cultural factors, including thermal history, economic constraints,
and expectations shaped by long-term acclimatization. These findings challenge the
applicability of static thermal comfort models and underscore the need for region-specific
adaptive standards that capture the lived realities of occupants in tropical climates.

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2.9 Climatic and Cultural Divergence: Europe and Himalayas
In addition to region-specific field studies, recent comparative analyses have emphasised
the importance of geographic and topographic diversity even within similar climatic
classifications. The study by Thapa and Pernigotto (2025) underscores this by comparing
adaptive thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings located in temperate climates of
high-latitude Europe and high-altitude Himalayan regions in India. Despite both being
classified under temperate oceanic climates, the study found significant differences in
indoor thermal conditions, occupant behaviour, and comfort thresholds due to contrasting
building construction practices, insulation levels, and cultural adaptation strategies. For
instance, the Darjeeling dataset revealed a stronger correlation between indoor and outdoor
air temperatures, indicative of lower thermal buffering in Indian buildings compared to their
European counterparts. Moreover, occupants in the Indian buildings exhibited greater
variability in clothing insulation and stronger reliance on behavioural adaptation strategies.
This comparative approach reveals that climatic classification alone is insufficient for
predicting occupant comfort; instead, contextual factors such as altitude, construction
quality, and cultural practices must be integrated into adaptive thermal comfort modelling.
The findings reinforce the need for multi-scalar adaptive models that consider both global
standards and localized behavioural patterns, advancing climate-responsive and
sustainable building practices across diverse geographic terrains.

2.10 Implications for Building Design and Retrofit

Insights from adaptive thermal comfort research play a pivotal role in guiding both retrofit
initiatives and the design of new buildings, aiming to enhance occupant comfort while
simultaneously reducing energy consumption. Central to these strategies are passive design
measures, which are particularly vital for free-running buildings that rely on natural
environmental conditions rather than mechanical systems for thermal regulation.
Enhancing natural ventilation is one of the most effective passive approaches, as it
facilitates continuous air movement that helps dissipate heat and maintain indoor air
quality. Optimizing building orientation and window placement allows for maximum
exploitation of prevailing winds, which further improves airflow and cools interior spaces
naturally. Additionally, the integration of shading devices, such as overhangs, louvers, and
vegetation, effectively reduces solar heat gain, thereby lowering indoor temperatures and
mitigating uncomfortable glare. Increasing thermal mass in buildings is another crucial
passive strategy that contributes to thermal comfort by absorbing heat during the day and
releasing it slowly at night, effectively smoothing out temperature fluctuations and reducing
peak indoor temperatures. This approach is particularly beneficial in climates that
experience high diurnal temperature variations. The work of Mukhopadhyay et al. (2024)
underscores how architectural elements like semi-open spaces, such as verandas,
courtyards, and ventilated corridors, combined with thoughtful window orientation,
significantly enhance air circulation and provide microclimate regulation in hot-humid
environments. These features not only improve thermal comfort but also encourage
occupant interaction with their environment, fostering a sense of control and well-being.

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 Beyond physical design interventions, behavioural strategies play a complementary and
essential role. Educating occupants about simple adaptive actions, such as adjusting
clothing layers according to temperature variations, using fans to increase air movement,
and strategically opening and closing windows, empowers individuals to actively participate
in managing their comfort. Such behavioural adaptations have been shown to substantially
improve comfort levels, especially in buildings without mechanical cooling. Importantly,
promoting occupant awareness supports the effective use of passive design features and
ensures that the benefits of architectural measures are fully realized. In the context of
retrofitting, upgrading older buildings with improved ventilation systems, shading devices,
and increased permeability can yield significant gains in thermal comfort without resorting
to costly mechanical air conditioning installations. These retrofit measures are often
financially and environmentally sustainable, making them accessible solutions for a wide
range of building types and socioeconomic settings. Integrated strategies that combine
passive architectural design, behavioural adaptation, and low-cost retrofits present a
holistic approach to achieving comfortable and energy-efficient indoor environments. This
approach aligns closely with sustainability goals by reducing reliance on energy-intensive
HVAC systems, cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting resilient building stock
that can adapt to climate variability and occupant needs over time.

2.11 Summary of Limitations and Research Gaps

The reviewed literature illustrates the multidimensional nature of adaptive thermal comfort
in India, shaped not only by climate but also by building typology, occupant behaviour, socio-
economic conditions, and regional cultural factors. While many studies converge on the
finding that Indian occupants tolerate higher comfort temperatures, especially with
adequate air movement, several limitations and gaps remain:

• Humidity and airspeed are critical yet often inadequately represented. Despite their proven
impact on comfort, few models integrate these parameters dynamically or quantitatively.
Studies like Malik and Bardhan (2022) and Indraganti (2010) note their importance but stop
short of formal incorporation into adaptive comfort equations.

• Occupant behaviour, including psychological responses, economic limitations, and cultural

expectations, needs further quantification. While many studies observe adaptation through
clothing, fan usage, or scheduling changes, more empirical data is needed to model these
responses robustly.

• Adaptive comfort is time-dependent, yet most studies are short-term seasonal, capturing
static snapshots rather than comfort transitions over time. This omits insights on seasonal
acclimatisation and inter-seasonal behavioural shifts, as only a few studies (e.g.
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2024) span multiple seasons.

• While the IMAC study calibrated Griffiths’ constants for Indian office buildings, similar
empirical calibrations for other building types, such as low-income housing, schools, and
traditional homes, are missing. This limits the applicability of adaptive models across India’s
varied building stock.

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2.12 Conclusion
The review of adaptive thermal comfort literature in India reveals a clear and urgent need for
context-specific models that reflect the country’s climatic diversity, construction practices,
and occupant behaviours. The failure of international standards (like ASHRAE 55 and ISO
7730) to accommodate higher comfort temperatures, broader humidity tolerances, and
culturally informed behaviours has prompted a wave of Indian studies that demonstrate the
unique thermal adaptability of Indian occupants. Models such as EN15251 have shown
promise in NV buildings, but even these require calibration to Indian realities, especially
regarding humidity, air movement, and behavioural adaptation.

One of the biggest gap is that humidity and airflow are still not fully integrated into many
adaptive comfort models. Another issue is that most research is limited to certain cities or
building types, so it’s hard to generalize the findings to the whole country. Finally, many
studies assume that people have control over their environment, like being able to open
windows or use fans, but that’s not always the case, especially in low-income housing.

This literature review has shown why adaptive thermal comfort models are necessary,
especially in countries like India, where climate, building design, and social context vary so
widely. The PMV model, while historically important, doesn't reflect real-world behaviour or
environmental conditions. It assumes people are passive and that comfort depends only on-
air temperature and a few other fixed variables. But as the introduction outlined, comfort is
dynamic. People constantly adapt to their surroundings by changing their clothes, opening
windows, using fans, or simply adjusting their expectations. The adaptive comfort model
(ATC) takes this into account and is much better suited for free-running buildings, which
make up a large part of India’s building stock.

The IMAC study shows that calibrating Griffiths’ constant for Indian conditions enables more
accurate prediction of preferred indoor temperatures based on occupant feedback. This
directly supports the dissertation’s aim of proposing adaptive strategies for both retrofit and
new buildings, as it provides reliable, user-informed benchmarks for comfort. By grounding
design decisions in locally derived thermal preferences, passive solutions like natural
ventilation, shading, and material choices can be better tailored to meet actual occupant
needs across varied climates.

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3. Methodology
The study adopts a mixed approach of evaluating thermal comfort conditions in Indian cities,
combining exploratory data analysis of empirical occupant responses with dynamic building
simulations. The overall aim is to deepen the understanding of subjective thermal comfort in
diverse climatic contexts, verify existing thermal comfort standards, and assess the
effectiveness of passive adaptive strategies tailored to hot-humid environments. The
methodology is structured around six key phases: Exploratory analysis of the ASHRAE Global
Thermal Comfort Database, psychometric assessment, building energy simulation,
estimation of neutral comfort conditions, modelling of adaptive interventions, and synthesis
of findings.

3.1 Exploratory Analysis of thermal comfort in different parts of India using ASHRAE
Thermal Comfort Database
The first phase involved analysing occupant thermal sensation and preference data from the
ASHRAE Global Thermal Comfort Database, specifically for Indian cities. The database has
data from all over the globe, which provides subjective thermal comfort votes along with
corresponding environmental data and represents an invaluable resource for studying real-
world comfort patterns beyond controlled laboratory conditions. For this study, four Indian
cities were selected to represent a range of climatic conditions and geographic diversity:
Chennai (hot and humid), Bangalore (moderate), Jaipur (hot and dry), and Shimla (temperate-
cool). These cities were chosen because they encapsulate distinct thermal environments,
allowing for comparative analysis of thermal comfort perceptions across climatic zones.

The dataset was filtered to include only records from naturally ventilated buildings, to reflect
the conditions typical of most residential and low-cost commercial buildings in India.
Records with missing or incomplete environmental data were excluded to ensure
robustness. A key limitation encountered was the absence of mean radiant temperature
(MRT) data in many cases. Given MRT’s critical role in influencing thermal comfort, this
missing parameter was approximated by assuming the operative temperature to be equal to
the air temperature, following established practices documented in the literature (Indraganti
et al., 2014; Nicol & Humphreys, 2002). Following the data cleansing, Thermal Sensation
Votes (TSVs) obtained in each city were employed to calculate occupants' subjective
responses to thermal conditions. A graph was drawn with the X-axis as the percentage of
thermal sensation votes and the Y-axis as the thermal sensation scale to better represent this
relationship. This type of representation provides a better view of the frequency and
distribution of occupant responses on various thermal sensation scales (e.g., cold, cool,
neutral, warm, hot). The visualization adds interpretability by casting distinct comfort
sensations and establishing any climatic patterns in subjective thermal responses.

Below are the graphs for the four cities:

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Figure 4: Distribution of TSVs in Bangalore (Authors own) Figure 5: Distribution of TSVs in Chennai (Authors own)

Figure 6: Distribution of TSVs in Jaipur (Authors own) Figure 7: Distribution of TSVs in Shimla (Authors own)

In addition to the analysis of thermal sensation votes, the study also went further into thermal
preference data, which can inform us as to what the actual thermal conditions are desired by
the occupants, rather than as perceived. While the TSV can inform us on how individuals feel,
cold (-3) to warm (+3), the thermal preference tells us if the occupant would prefer it to be
cooler, warmer, or remain the same.

To further elevate the level of analysis, thermal preference responses and thermal sensation
votes were dual-plotted in the same figure. In the figures 8-11, the X-axis indicates the
percentage of responses, and both the thermal sensation categories and the thermal
preference categories were indicated on the Y-axis. This dual plotting permitted direct
comparison of desired and perceived conditions. For instance, a subject with a TSV of ‘0’
(neutral) can still prefer cooler temperatures. Such cases are significant in the understanding
that neutrality does not necessarily equate to comfort satisfaction. This mismatch between
sensation and preference yielded useful information on adaptive behaviour, seasonal
expectation, or cultural influences on comfort perception. By overlaying thermal preference
data onto the graph, enabled to move beyond static comfort concepts and learn more about
indoor conditions that occupants prefer. This mismatch between sensation and preference
can yield useful information on adaptive behaviour, seasonal expectation, or cultural
influences on comfort perception. This approach enabled a more nuanced interpretation of
comfort in naturally ventilated buildings and inform potential adaptive design solutions.

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 Below are the histograms of TSVs and TPVs

Figure 8: TSV by TPV in Bangalore (Authors own Figure 9: TSV by TPV in Chennai (Authors own)

Figure 10: TSV by TPV in Jaipur (Authors own) Figure 11: TSV by TPV in Shimla (Authors own)

3.2 Psychometric Analysis and Comfort Zone Comparison in Chennai

To deepen the understanding of occupant responses in a specific climatic context, Chennai
was selected for a detailed psychometric analysis due to its hot and humid climate, where
humidity plays a highly perceptible role in thermal comfort. It also poses distinct challenges
for passive methods of achieving comfort. In such climates, both air temperature and
moisture content play significant roles in influencing occupants’ perception of heat, and
thus, it is a suitable location for careful examination. Further, TSVs of the Chennai dataset
were plotted on a psychometric chart, used graphically to represent the thermodynamic
properties of moist air, to plot the air temperature and relative humidity for every TSV. The
comfort zone (All year round) of ASHRAE Standard 55 was overlaid on the plot to identify
acceptable indoor environmental conditions for buildings naturally ventilated. It permitted a
visual estimate of how many comfort votes fell within the standard comfort envelope and how
many fell outside it.

All the plotting and analysis were conducted in Python using packages such as Matplotlib
and Psychrochart to ensure precise and flexible visualisation. Python was found to be an
effective foundation for the data processing of large datasets, filtering based on comfort
zones on the psychrometric chart with precision. This method allowed for a critical study of
how actual occupant responses in Chennai compare with theoretical comfort zones, and

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 whether present standards have been adequate to include comfort in warm and humid
climates.

Table 1: The table contains few of the data filtered out of ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Database (Authors own)

Figure 12: Thermal Sensation Votes in Chennai from ASHRAE Thermal Database plotted on Psychometric Chart
(Authors own)

3.3 Estimating Optimum Temperature and Specific Humidity Using Griffith's

Method
Griffiths' method was employed to determine the optimum temperature and specific
humidity, particularly in scenarios where occupants indicated a clear thermal preference.
This method enables us to estimate the temperature at which an occupant would report
thermal neutrality (i.e., a Thermal Sensation Vote (TSV) of zero) by correlating actual TSVs with
corresponding operative temperature data.

The method is particularly valuable in adaptive comfort studies, where subjective responses
often diverge from standardized comfort setpoints. Using the equation:

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where G is the Griffiths constant (typically 0.33). This approach gives a practical way to infer
individualized comfort conditions. By applying this across a dataset of TSVs, researchers can
derive a statistical distribution of neutral temperatures, capturing the effects of
acclimatization, behavioural adjustments, and environmental context.

In this study, Griffith's method was used to process the data with a focus on cases where
occupants expressed thermal preference votes, indicating a desire for warmer or cooler
conditions. This allowed for a more occupant-centric estimate of optimal indoor
environmental conditions, accounting for subjective comfort tolerance rather than relying
solely on predictive models like PMV. Moreover, where psychrometric data was available,
these neutral operative temperatures were cross-referenced with specific humidity values,
enabling a more complete assessment of perceived comfort in hot-humid climates.

Table 1: The table contains few of the data filtered out of ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Database and the
calculated Preferred Temperature (Authors own)

Figure 13: Thermal Preference Votes in Chennai from ASHRAE Thermal Database plotted on Psychometric
Chart. (Authors own)

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3.4 Comparative Analysis of Indoor Environment between Office and Residential
The thermal comfort data initially analysed in this study pertains to an office building in
Chennai, which provided structured and consistent observations due to its controlled
occupancy, professional routines, and limitations when attempting to extrapolate findings to
other building types, particularly residential dwellings.

In office settings, occupants are typically sedentary, uniformly dressed due to professional
norms, and limited in their ability to control the indoor environment, even in naturally
ventilated buildings (Nicol et al., 2012; de Dear et al., 2013). These characteristics can
significantly influence thermal comfort perception and often result in reduced variability in
Thermal Sensation Votes (TSVs), which may not accurately reflect comfort expectations in
more diverse settings.

To address this limitation and improve the generalizability of findings, the study included a
comparative analysis comprising two parts:

1. Literature Review on Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated Residential Dwellings: Studies

conducted in domestic environments, especially in warm and humid climates, show a
greater diversity in occupant behaviour, activity levels, and clothing insulation, which are
critical adaptive variables in the thermal comfort process (Humphreys et al., 2007; Indraganti
et al.,2014). Residential spaces offer more thermal autonomy as occupants control
windows, fans, and shading devices, often resulting in a broader thermal acceptability range.
These behaviours underpin the adaptive thermal comfort model, which considers thermal
preference, not just sensation (Nicol and Humphreys, 2002).

2. Simulation of a Typical Residential Building in Chennai: To complement the literature review,

a typical 3-bedroom residential apartment was modelled using Design Builder, incorporating
local climate data and field measurements. The model simulated realistic indoor
environmental conditions, accounting for:

• Lower clothing insulation

• Variable activity levels

• Greater user interaction

This simulation enabled a direct comparison between indoor conditions in office and
residential settings, under otherwise similar climatic inputs. The aim was to analyse how
building use patterns and occupant behaviour affect comfort responses, particularly under
naturally ventilated conditions.

3.5 Building Simulation for Residential Comfort Assessment

Building simulation was employed to model indoor thermal conditions and test occupant
comfort across different spatial configurations within a typical residential setting. This phase

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 involved dynamic energy simulations using Design Builder software, which integrates the
Energy Plus simulation engine to predict thermal performance and comfort indices.

Model Description: Typical 3BHK Apartment

A representative 3-bedroom, hall, and kitchen (3BHK) apartment unit was modelled,
reflecting common residential building typologies in Chennai. The model incorporated
relevant construction materials, thermal properties, internal loads, and occupancy
schedule.

Figure 14: Floor plan of a Typical 3BHK Apartment (Authors own)

Simulation Scenarios

To capture the effects of building orientation and floor level on thermal conditions, four
distinct scenarios were developed:

• Scenario 1: An east-facing unit on the first floor, also featuring adiabatic walls on two sides,
which means that most of its windows are on the west facade.

• Scenario 2: An east-facing unit on the third floor, featuring one adiabatic wall.

• Scenario 3: A north-facing unit on the first floor, also featuring adiabatic walls on two sides,
which means that most of its windows are on the south facade.

• Scenario 4: A north-facing unit on the third floor, featuring one adiabatic wall.

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 Figure 15: Scenario 1 (Authors own) Figure 16: Scenario 2(Authors own)

Figure 17: Scenario 3 (Authors own) Figure 18: Scenario 4 (Authors own)

The differentiation between adiabatic walls (which do not gain or lose heat) and exposed
walls was intended to simulate variations in thermal exposure and heat gain across unit
positions. Furthermore, for the purpose of evaluating results bedroom 1 was chosen.

3.6 Adaptive Measures for Enhancing Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated

Buildings
Achieving thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings located in hot and humid regions
like Chennai necessitates a shift from conventional, energy-intensive cooling strategies to
building design, occupant behaviour, and environmental responsiveness in achieving
comfort, particularly in naturally ventilated settings (de Dear & Brager, 1998; Nicol &
Humphreys, 2002). This approach is especially relevant in tropical climates where high
temperatures, humidity, and limited diurnal variation pose persistent thermal challenges.
Given that Chennai experiences average summer temperatures of 30–38°C, relative humidity
exceeding 70% year-round, and intense monsoon winds (southeast to northeast between
June and November), design strategies must prioritize air movement, shading, solar control,
and passive cooling over conventional insulation-focused techniques (Indraganti et al., 2014;
Manu et al., 2016).

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 To evaluate the potential of adaptive interventions, two primary contexts were analysed: a
new residential build and a retrofitting scenario, out of which the retrofit scenario has been
modelled and evaluated. The following sections detail the adaptive actions tailored to each
context.

3.6.1. Scenario 1: New Residential Building in Chennai (Hot and Humid Climate)
• Orientation and Layout
Buildings should be oriented with longer facades along the north-south axis to reduce
heat gain from low-angle morning and evening sun. Window placement must
leverage prevailing monsoon winds for enhanced natural ventilation.
• Ventilation Design
Incorporating large, operable windows on opposing facades enables effective cross-
ventilation, which is critical in humid climates where air movement mitigates
discomfort caused by high moisture content (Barush et al.,2020).
• Shading devices
Architectural shading elements such as deep overhangs, jalis, verandas, and
pergolas effectively block direct solar radiation while maintaining airflow, crucial for
both thermal comfort and daylight quality (Rijal et al., 2013).
• Courtyard Integration
Shaded internal courtyards can promote stack ventilation and establish
microclimatic cooling, especially in low-rise urban buildings. Vegetation in these
spaces enhances evaporative cooling effects.
• Material Selection
Using light-coloured, breathable materials such as lime plaster, hollow clay blocks,
or terracotta facilitates passive cooling by reflecting solar heat and allowing thermal
dissipation.
• Ceiling Fans
Ceiling fans are a low-energy yet highly effective means of improving thermal
perception, especially in humid climates where increasing air velocity improves
evaporative heat loss (Indraganti, 2010).
• Occupant Practices
Encouraging behavioural adaptations, such as wearing light, breathable cotton
clothing, adjusting daily routines to avoid the afternoon heat, and operating windows
at the right time, enhances overall comfort outcomes.

3.6.2. Scenario 2: Retrofitting Existing Residential Buildings in Chennai

• Window Modification
Fixed or poorly placed windows can be replaced with operable louvered or sliding
units to facilitate airflow and adapt to shifting wind directions.
• Shading Additions
External shading solutions such as bamboo blinds, shade nets, or vertical fins can
significantly reduce solar heat gain and glare while remaining low-cost and
contextually appropriate.

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 • Roof Retrofit
The application of reflective surface treatments (e.g., white lime wash) or clay tile
overlays can lower rooftop surface temperatures and improve indoor thermal
conditions (Bouchahm et al., 2011).
• Cross-ventilation Enhancements
Removing internal partitions, integrating ventilator grilles, or using open-plan layouts
can enhance airflow within rooms, which is critical in structures with limited external
exposure.
• User Behaviour
Encouraging strategic window operation., opening at night to promote night flushing
and closing during humid afternoons, can greatly improve indoor thermal conditions.

3.7 Justification of Adaptive Measures

The adaptive strategies chosen were grounded in key learning objectives informed by
literature on thermal comfort and adaptive design:

• Maximizing Passive Comfort: Measures such as cross-ventilation, shading, and thermal

mass were selected to minimize dependency on mechanical cooling, in line with bioclimatic
architectural principles (Givoni, 1998; Szokolay, 2008).

• Improving Occupant Agency: Strategies like operable windows, ceiling fans, and flexible
layouts enhance user control, a critical determinant of comfort in adaptive thermal
environments (de Dear & Brager, 2002).

• Responding to Climate-Specific Constraints: Chennai’s hot-humid conditions, high

relative humidity, and limited diurnal variation require specific solutions that enhance
ventilation and manage solar gain without compromising air movement (Indraganti et al.,
2014).

• Ensuring Affordability and Cultural Relevance: Interventions such as lime plaster, jalis,
and shaded courtyards draw from vernacular practices, providing both cost-effectiveness
and acceptance in local housing contexts (Rao & Rajasekar, 2017).

• Aligning with Adaptive Comfort Models: All measures were selected to support the
adaptive comfort model (ASHRAE Standard 55), which allows for a wider thermal comfort
band in naturally ventilated spaces by incorporating behavioural and contextual adaptability
(ASHRAE, 2020).

Using these strategies, simulations in Design Builder examined PMV distribution, the
relationship between indoor conditions and comfort standards, and the contribution of
adaptive measures. The findings highlight trends in occupant comfort across building types
and climate conditions, as well as the effectiveness of targeted interventions in achieving
desired comfort levels.

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4. Results
4.1 Simulation carried out in two-different climatic zones:
The simulation results for the selected three-bedroom apartment models in Chennai and
Jaipur highlight pronounced differences in Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), air temperature, and
relative humidity. These differences are strongly shaped by the interaction between each
city’s climatic context and the environmental variables influencing thermal comfort within
the modelled spaces.

By systematically comparing the outcomes, it becomes possible to better understand how

thermal comfort varies seasonally, how adaptive strategies influence occupant experience,
and which design interventions may be prioritized for hot-humid versus hot semi-arid
regions.

4.1.1. Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

Figure 19: Monthly PMV in Chennai and Jaipur scenarios for bedroom 1 (Authors own)

Figure 19 illustrates the monthly variation in PMV for the east-facing, first-floor case study
apartments in both Chennai and Jaipur. Both locations display an upward trend in PMV
values during the summer months, peaking around May or June. However, Chennai
consistently registers higher PMV values even in cooler months—January through March
and October through December—indicating that occupants tend to experience a sustained
sensation of warmth throughout the year.

This can be attributed to the persistent hot-humid climate in Chennai, which limits
opportunities for thermal relief outside the peak summer season. In contrast, Jaipur’s hot
semi-arid climate exhibits greater seasonal variability. Here, PMV values drop significantly

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 during winter, occasionally entering the neutral or slightly cool thermal sensation range.
This seasonal shift creates a broader natural comfort window in Jaipur, in contrast to
Chennai’s narrower year-round comfort range.

These results suggest that in hot-humid climates like Chennai, traditional temperature-
based comfort thresholds underestimate year-round thermal stress, as occupants may
experience discomfort even at moderate air temperatures. This reinforces the need for
climate-specific comfort indices and tailored passive design strategies.

4.1.2. Relative Humidity

Figure 20: Monthly Relative humidity in Chennai and Jaipur scenarios for bedroom 1 (Authors own)

Figure 20 shows the monthly relative humidity patterns for the two cities. In Chennai,
humidity remains consistently high throughout the year, ranging between 55% and 70%.
This is a defining characteristic of its tropical coastal climate and plays a critical role in
shaping thermal comfort outcomes. In Jaipur, relative humidity fluctuates more widely,
between 25% and 65%, reflecting its continental location and more pronounced wet-dry
seasonal cycle.

The impact of this difference is significant. In Chennai, high humidity levels limit the body’s
ability to cool itself through sweat evaporation, especially when coupled with high air
temperatures. As a result, PMV values remain elevated across more months of the year,
even when absolute air temperatures are like those recorded in Jaipur. In Jaipur, lower
humidity during most of the year enhances evaporative cooling efficiency, allowing
occupants to better tolerate higher temperatures.

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 This finding reinforces the importance of incorporating humidity into thermal comfort
models. Over-reliance on air temperature as a predictor of discomfort risks underestimating
the cumulative heat stress in humid climates.

4.1.3. Air Temperature

Figure 21: Monthly Air temperature in Chennai and Jaipur scenarios for bedroom 1(Authors own)

As depicted in Figure 21, both cities exhibit a similar seasonal trend in air temperature, with
peaks in May and June. However, Jaipur’s annual thermal range is much broader. In summer,
temperatures can rise to levels comparable to Chennai’s, but in winter (December–
January), Jaipur experiences a sharp drop in average temperatures, often resulting in cool
to cold indoor conditions.

In contrast, Chennai’s air temperatures remain relatively high year-round, with only modest
seasonal variation. This means that for much of the year, indoor spaces in Chennai are
prone to thermal discomfort unless effective cooling or ventilation strategies are employed.

From a comfort perspective, Jaipur’s winter temperatures may occasionally create

conditions that are too cool for comfort without heating, while Chennai rarely experiences
such a shift. The combination of higher year-round temperatures and elevated humidity
levels in Chennai contributes to a persistent challenge for natural ventilation strategies.

4.1.4. Temperature–Humidity Interaction

A combined review of Figures 1–3 reveals that air temperature alone cannot explain the
observed PMV patterns. In Chennai, high humidity amplifies discomfort even when
temperatures are only moderately elevated, while in Jaipur, low humidity allows for more
efficient thermoregulation. For example, at 30°C air temperature, PMV values in Chennai
are typically higher than those in Jaipur, due to reduced evaporative cooling potential.

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 These findings suggest that predictive comfort models for hot-humid climates must
explicitly account for the interaction between temperature and moisture content. In such
climates, small increases in humidity can result in disproportionate increases in perceived
discomfort. This has direct implications for building design: passive cooling measures in
humid climates should prioritize both shading and humidity control, whereas in semi-arid
climates, temperature reduction alone may be sufficient for much of the year.

4.2 Thermal Comfort Frequency in Chennai Scenarios

Figure 22: PMV of all the base case scenarios for the whole year (Authors own)

The analysis of monthly thermal discomfort frequency measured using the Fanger Model
PMV, for four distinct 3BHK scenarios in Chennai offers further insight into the role of
orientation and floor level. The scenarios varied by bedroom orientation (East, North) and
floor position (1st, 3rd).

Key observations include:

• Peak Values: All four scenarios display an increase in PMV frequency from January, peaking
between May and June, followed by a decline toward December.

• Highest Discomfort: The east-facing 3rd floor consistently experiences the highest
frequency of discomfort, exceeding 3.5 in May. The elevated solar exposure on the east
façade during morning hours, combined with reduced shading on higher floors, likely
explains this outcome.

• Lowest Discomfort: The north-facing 1st floor records the lowest discomfort frequency,
peaking just above 2.5 in May. Reduced direct solar gains and ground-level buffering likely
contribute to this performance.

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• Intermediate Scenarios: The east-facing 1st floor and north-facing 3rd floor fall between the
two extremes. In both orientations, 3rd-floor scenarios show higher discomfort frequencies
than 1st-floor counterparts, illustrating the influence of vertical positioning on indoor heat
accumulation.

• Seasonal Consistency: All scenarios share a similar seasonal pattern, driven by Chennai’s
ambient climate trends, though absolute values vary significantly depending on orientation
and height.

These findings emphasize that even within the same climate, microclimatic factors such as
building orientation and floor level significantly influence comfort outcomes.

4.3 Adaptive vs. Base Case Comparison

Figure 23: Base case vs Adaptive case- Scenario 1 Figure 24: Base case vs Adaptive case- Scenario 2

Figure 25: Base case vs Adaptive case- Scenario 3 Figure 26: Base case vs Adaptive case- Scenario 4

To evaluate the potential of adaptive retrofits, simulations were conducted for both base case
and adaptive case conditions across the four Chennai scenarios. Across all orientations and
floor levels, the adaptive scenarios yield lower monthly PMV frequencies, with the most
pronounced improvements occurring between March and June—the peak summer months
in Chennai.

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 Specific reductions include:

• North 1st Floor: Peak PMV frequency reduced from ~2.6 in the base case to ~2.2 in the
adaptive case in May.

• East 1st Floor: Peak reduced from ~3.3 to ~2.5 in May.

• East 3rd Floor: Highest absolute discomfort values, reduced from 3.6 to 3.1.

• North 3rd Floor: Peak reduced from 3.4 to 2.9.

Beyond peak reductions, adaptive strategies flatten the annual discomfort curve, moderating
both extreme highs and seasonal variability. This suggests that such measures—potentially
including enhanced shading, improved ventilation, and reflective materials—could
significantly extend the natural comfort window in hot-humid climates without reliance on
mechanical cooling.

4.4 Psychrometric Analysis

The psychrometric charts illustrate the influence of adaptive measures more clearly. Each
plotted point corresponds to a daily combination of indoor air temperature and relative
humidity, while the thermal comfort zone is outlined by an orange dashed polygon. The
plotted data represents simulated readings for the summer months (March to June), when
PMV values typically peak.

Figure 27: PMVs from base cases of all scenarios plotted on Psychometric Chart

• Before Adaptation (Base case):

Indoor conditions are widely dispersed across the chart, with a substantial proportion falling
outside the comfort zone. This reflects the frequency of high PMV values and underlines the

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 limited capacity of the base-case building envelope to regulate indoor thermal conditions
passively.

Figure 28: PMVs from adaptive cases of all scenarios plotted on Psychometric Chart

• After Adaptation:

There is a visible concentration of data points within or close to the comfort boundary. The
share of hours falling outside the comfort zone decreases markedly, indicating that adaptive
measures have increased the number of hours in which indoor thermal conditions meet
comfort criteria.

This improvement is particularly important in Chennai’s climate, where high humidity

restricts passive cooling efficiency. By shifting indoor conditions closer to the comfort zone,
adaptive interventions help reduce dependence on active cooling, improving both energy
performance and occupant well-being

5. Discussion
The comparative simulation results for Chennai and Jaipur strongly reinforce findings from
the literature review, particularly regarding the critical role of humidity as a determinant of
thermal comfort in hot-humid climates. While the methodological framework initially
prioritized temperature-based comfort metrics—such as operative temperature and
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)—the results demonstrate that neglecting humidity risks
underestimating discomfort in regions like Chennai.

In hot-humid environments, sustained high moisture levels suppress evaporative cooling

from the skin, meaning that even when air temperatures fall within nominal comfort
thresholds, occupants may still experience significant thermal strain. Conversely, in hot
semi-arid climates such as Jaipur, lower humidity levels enhance the body’s ability to
dissipate heat through sweating, enabling a broader adaptive comfort range. This

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 physiological advantage allows Jaipur residents to tolerate higher air temperatures with less
discomfort compared to their Chennai counterparts.

These differences underscore the need for climate-specific adaptive comfort models.
Conventional PMV calculations, calibrated largely in temperate-climate contexts, may not
equally capture the lived comfort realities across contrasting climatic zones. The results also
validate the methodological choice to compare an office-based thermal comfort database
with simulations of residential settings. Residential spaces often feature more variable
occupancy patterns, activity levels, and ventilation strategies than offices, and these
dynamics interact differently with temperature and humidity to shape comfort outcomes.

5.1 Key Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort in Chennai Apartments

The detailed scenario-based analysis for Chennai highlights several factors that consistently
shape indoor thermal conditions in multistorey residential buildings.

1. Orientation Impact

East-facing bedrooms, particularly on higher floors, register the highest PMV frequencies
across the year. This is likely due to direct morning solar radiation penetrating the space when
ambient temperatures are already elevated, creating rapid indoor heat gain. North-facing
bedrooms receive less direct solar exposure, resulting in lower discomfort frequencies. This
aligns with prior research linking solar orientation to heat load differentials in tropical
climates.

2. Floor Level Influence

Across both orientations, third-floor bedrooms consistently exhibit higher PMV values than
their first-floor equivalents. Elevated positions experience greater solar exposure, reduced
shading from adjacent structures, and potentially less thermal buffering from the ground.
These factors combine to intensify heat accumulation on upper floors, especially during the
hot season.

3. Seasonality and Climate Response

Peak discomfort months (April–June) align closely with Chennai’s hottest period. This direct
correspondence confirms that external climate conditions exert a strong influence on indoor
thermal environments in naturally ventilated dwellings. It also points to a seasonal targeting
opportunity, design and operational interventions can be prioritized for the months of
greatest stress.

5.2 Design Implications

The above findings translate into clear design recommendations for new and existing
residential developments in hot-humid climates:

• Optimal Placement of Bedrooms: Where possible, bedrooms should be oriented toward the
north to minimize direct solar gain.

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• Vertical Zoning: Occupied spaces most sensitive to heat should be located on lower floors,
where shading from neighbouring buildings and ground-level cooling effects can help reduce
indoor heat load.

• Mitigation for Unfavourable Orientations/Floors: In cases where east-facing or upper-floor

bedrooms are unavoidable, targeted interventions—such as external shading devices,
reflective glazing, improved insulation, and optimized window-to-wall ratios—are essential
to improve comfort.

5.3 Targeted Seasonal Strategies

Identifying the months and room types with the highest discomfort enables more precise
deployment of adaptive measures. For instance, supplemental cooling, enhanced
ventilation schedules, and temporary shading installations can be implemented specifically
during April–June to maximize effectiveness while minimizing energy use. This targeted
approach avoids over-engineering for months that naturally fall within acceptable comfort
limits.

5.4 Effectiveness of Adaptive Measures

The adaptive retrofit scenario modelled in this study represents a low-energy, high-impact
approach to improving indoor comfort without reliance on mechanical cooling. The primary
measures tested included:

1. Enhanced Cross Ventilation: Increasing air movement within rooms to improve convective
and evaporative cooling potential.

2. Addition of Shading Devices: Limiting direct solar penetration through windows, particularly
for east-facing orientations.

3. Increased Window Overhang Depth: Extending overhangs from 450 mm to 600 mm to further
block high-angle sunlight during the hottest parts of the day.

Across all combinations of orientation and floor level, these interventions reduced thermal
discomfort, with the greatest improvements recorded during Chennai’s hottest months.
Notably, east-facing third-floor bedrooms, previously the most thermally stressed, showed
substantial reductions in both the magnitude and duration of discomfort hours.

5.5 Persistent Challenges and Mitigation Potential

While east-facing and upper-floor bedrooms remain inherently more challenging to cool
passively, the adaptive measures significantly narrow the comfort gap. This underscores the
practical value of straightforward, cost-effective retrofits in making existing housing stock
more resilient to high-heat events. Such measures can be implemented without structural
overhauls, making them accessible options for homeowners, housing cooperatives, and
public housing authorities.

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 5.6 Psychrometric Insights
The psychrometric charts offer a visual confirmation of the improvements achieved through
the adaptive scenario:

• Shift into the Comfort Zone: Under baseline conditions, indoor temperature–humidity
points are widely scattered, with a substantial proportion lying outside the comfort boundary.
After adaptation, the cluster of points shifts toward, and more often within, the comfort
polygon. This shift indicates that more occupied hours now fall within conditions that are
physiologically and perceptually comfortable.

• Practical Significance: The observed reduction in discomfort hours means occupants are
more likely to enjoy conditions conducive to rest, productivity, and overall well-being, without
relying on energy-intensive air conditioning.

• Implications for Retrofitting Policy: These results make a compelling case for prioritizing
passive adaptive strategies in the retrofit of Chennai’s existing apartments. Simple
architectural modifications and ventilation enhancements can deliver measurable gains in
thermal comfort, thereby extending the functional lifespan and liveability of current housing
stock in a warming climate.

5.7 Broader Context and Applicability

The evidence from this study aligns with broader adaptive comfort research, confirming that:

• Climate-specific modelling is essential, strategies effective in hot-humid climates may differ

substantially from those needed in semi-arid regions.

• Passive interventions remain the most sustainable first line of defence against overheating,
especially in regions where cooling energy demand is rising.

• Retrofit-first strategies offer significant benefits for housing resilience, given that much of the
building stock for the next several decades is already in place.

While this analysis focused on Chennai, the underlying principles such as humidity sensitivity, solar
orientation, floor-level effects, and adaptive shading/ventilation, are applicable to other warm-
climate cities facing similar thermal comfort challenges.

Taken together, these findings demonstrate that small-scale, targeted interventions can have an
outsized impact on thermal comfort in hot-humid residential buildings. By addressing both climatic
drivers and building-specific vulnerabilities, designers and policymakers can craft retrofit programs
that improve quality of life while avoiding the financial and environmental costs of mechanical
cooling dependence.

This evidence-based approach provides a clear roadmap for bridging the gap between the current
performance of existing housing stock and the comfort expectations of occupants, making homes in
climates like Chennai not only more liveable but also more sustainable in the long term.

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6. Conclusion
This dissertation illuminates the multifaceted nature of thermal comfort in India’s free-running
buildings, affirming the critical need for adaptive models that reflect the realities of climate,
architecture, and occupant behaviour. Through a careful mixed-methods approach such as
blending data analysis, psychometric modelling, building simulation, and expansive literature
review, the research highlights how global standards like ASHRAE 55 and PMV often fall short
when confronted with India’s climatic diversity and socio-economic context. The investigation
reveals that static prescription of comfort temperatures neglects key variables such as humidity
and air movement, leading to misjudged comfort predictions, especially in hot-humid zones like
Chennai.

Adaptive comfort models, particularly the context-specific equations using locally derived
Griffiths’ constants, emerge as robust alternatives, capturing the wider tolerance and behavioural
adaptation of Indian occupants. The findings demonstrate that actual comfort ranges in naturally
ventilated dwellings surpass static standards, with field studies and database analysis confirming
that Indian occupants consistently tolerate, and sometimes prefer, higher temperatures when
supported by increased air movement and effective passive strategies.

Crucially, comparative analysis between office and residential buildings reveal the influence of
building typology, occupant autonomy, and climatic exposure on comfort attainment. East-facing
and upper-floor bedrooms in Chennai are identified as thermal hotspots, with targeted retrofits
and adaptive measures like enhanced cross-ventilation, shading, reflective roofs, proven to
significantly reduce discomfort. Psychrometric visualization validates that these interventions
shift the thermal sensation towards physiological and perceptual comfort, validating the practical
impact of passive design and behavioural adaptation.

Despite these advances, the research acknowledges persistent challenges: the incomplete
integration of humidity and airflow in most adaptive models; limitations in generalizing findings
due to narrow geographical or typological coverage; and the assumption of unrestricted occupant
control, which may not hold in lower-income or older housing. Addressing these gaps requires
further region-specific empirical research, adaptive strategy refinement, and inclusive policy
frameworks.

Ultimately, this dissertation advocates an evidence-driven, occupant-centric, and climate-

responsive model for thermal comfort modelling and building design. By merging quantitative
performance analysis with qualitative occupant insights, the study offers actionable
recommendations for designers, policymakers, and stakeholders aiming to enhance comfort and
sustainability in India’s rapidly evolving built environment. The work highlights that thermal
comfort is not a static condition to be prescribed, but a dynamic process shaped by informed
interventions and empowered occupants, a foundation for resilient, healthful, and energy-
efficient architecture in the face of climatic and socio-economic challenges.

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7. References:

ASHRAE (2020) ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2020: Thermal Environmental Conditions for

Human Occupancy. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2005) ISO 7730: Ergonomics of the
thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort
using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. Geneva:
ISO.

Fanger, P.O. (1970) Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Applications in Environmental

Engineering. Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press.

Nicol, F., Humphreys, M. and Roaf, S. (2012) Adaptive Thermal Comfort: Principles and
Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

de Dear, R.J. and Brager, G.S. (1998) ‘Developing an adaptive model of thermal comfort
and preference’, ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1a), pp. 145–167.

Humphreys, M.A. and Nicol, J.F. (2002) ‘The validity of ISO-PMV for predicting comfort
votes in everyday thermal environments’, Energy and Buildings, 34(6), pp. 667–684.

Brager, G.S. and de Dear, R.J. (2000) ‘A standard for natural ventilation’, ASHRAE Journal,
42(10), pp. 21–28.

Mishra, A.K. and Ramgopal, M. (2015) ‘Adaptive comfort models for the tropical regions
of India’, Building and Environment, 84, pp. 227–237.

Kumar, S., Mathur, J., Garg, V., Shukla, Y. and Kumar, A. (2016) ‘Thermal comfort in air-
conditioned and naturally ventilated buildings in composite climate of India’, Building
and Environment, 99, pp. 149–158.

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Malik, J. and Bardhan, R. (2022) ‘Thermal comfort perceptions in low-income naturally
ventilated housing in Mumbai, India: Evidence and implications’, Building Research &
Information, 50(1), pp. 42–60.

Manu, S., Shukla, Y., Rawal, R., Thomas, L.E. and de Dear, R.J. (2016) ‘Field studies of
thermal comfort across multiple climate zones for the subcontinent: India Model for
Adaptive Comfort (IMAC)’, Building and Environment, 98, pp. 55–70.

Indraganti, M. (2010) ‘Thermal comfort in naturally ventilated apartments in summer:

Findings from a field study in Hyderabad, India’, Applied Energy, 87(3), pp. 866–883.

Indraganti, M., Ooka, R. and Rijal, H.B. (2014) ‘Field study on adaptive thermal comfort in
offices in Hyderabad, India’, Building and Environment, 69, pp. 258–269.

Mukhopadhyay, S., Subhagata, C. and Kumar, A. (2024) ‘Behavioural adaptations for

improved thermal comfort in residential buildings in hot and humid climates: Case study
from Kharagpur, India’, Energy and Buildings, 310, pp. 112–125.

PADMANABHAN NAYAR, P., 2012. Improving thermal comfort in residential spaces in the
wet tropical climate zones of India using passive cooling techniques: A study using
computational design methods, University of Southern California.

Rawal, R. and Shukla, Y. (2014) ‘Residential buildings in India: Energy use projections and
savings potentials’, In: Proceedings of the ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in
Buildings. Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.

Givoni, B. (1998) Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.

Szokolay, S.V. (2008) Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of Sustainable

Design. Oxford: Architectural Press.

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 Thapa, T. and Pernigotto, G. (2025) ‘Comparative assessment of adaptive thermal comfort
in Himalayan India and temperate European climates’, Journal of Building Performance,
13(2), pp. 94–109.

Nicol, F. and Humphreys, M. (2002) ‘Adaptive thermal comfort and sustainable thermal
standards for buildings’, Energy and Buildings, 34, pp. 563–572.

Nicol, F., 2004. Adaptive thermal comfort standards in the hot–humid tropics. Energy and
Buildings, 36(7), pp.628–637.

Humphreys, M.A., Nicol, J.F. and Raja, I.A. (2007) ‘Field studies of indoor thermal comfort
and the progress of the adaptive approach’, Advances in Building Energy Research, 1(1),
pp. 55–72.

8. List of Figures
Figure 1: PMV and PPD Curve. Adapted from Nicol, F., Humphreys, M. & Roaf, S. (2012). Adaptive
Thermal Comfort: Principles and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

Figure 2: Acceptable operative temperature ranges for free-running spaces. Adapted from Nicol,
F., Humphreys, M. & Roaf, S. (2012). Adaptive Thermal Comfort: Principles and Practice.
Abingdon: Routledge.

Figure 3 to 28: Authors own

9. List of tables
Table 1: Authors own

Table 2: Authors own

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